Media Studies
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
Number 030
Media and Audiences -The Effects Debate Introduction As seen in a previous factsheet, audiences are crucial to the producers of media texts. Without an audience a TV programme, newspaper, magazine or film cannot be successful. Media producers think carefully about identifying their target audience and providing a text which will interest and engage them. However, the mass media is such a major part of people’s lives that one of the major debates in media studies is the effect that the media may have on its audience. This issue focuses on the negative effects that may be created by media texts; for example, considering if there might be a link between violent behaviour and representations of violence in the media. The aims of this Factsheet are to: • Identify some theories of the way the media may affect an audience • Support a critical engagement with the theories
Activity Does the media have the power to change peoples’ behaviour, attitudes or promote values and ideologies? 1. Do you play violent video games and/or watch violent films? Are you violent in ‘real life’? 2. Do you ever see a product advertised on TV or on the internet and decide you want to buy it? 3. Have you ever seen a documentary which has drawn your attention to an issue which you now feel strongly about? 1. Whilst some people do act violently, many do not and in today’s culture it is almost impossible to avoid violent representations. This seems to support the view that the media does not directly cause people to act a certain way.
3. Viewing a documentary can provide access to information that may change the way you feel about an issue. It may even make you want to act differently, eat more healthily, join a political group or simply tell your friends about what you have learnt. This seems to support the view that the media does have the potential to influence people.
Manhunt
MacDonalds began offering ‘healthy options’ after concerns raised in this documentary appeared to have impacted on sales.
http://www.slipperybrick.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/06/manhunt2.jpg
2. Advertisers spend millions of pounds promoting their products. The Marks and Spencer’s food adverts have increased the grocery sales for the high street shop and encouraged customers to indulge themselves with the luxury items they sell. Not just food, ‘ but M&S food’
http://stores.homestead.com/unitedindependentmedia/catalog/SuperSize-Me-DVD.jpg
http://img.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2007/04_02/ sexychickenMS2504_468x357.jpg
1
Media Studies
030. Media and Audiences -The Effects Debate
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
The question of media effects is a difficult one and it is impossible to prove either side of the argument. Several theories have been developed which offer specific viewpoints on the effects the media may have. Audience theories regarding the effects of the media on audiences can be divided into these categories: • Direct Effect Theories • Diffusion Theories • Indirect Effect Theories • The Pluralist Approach Natural Born Killers
AQA/WJEC/OCR? All awarding bodies require that you consider audience in all aspects of your work. Audience will be an important concept in the unseen analysis and essay questions at AS for all students. At A2 level the effects debate may well be an important part of the investigative essay for AQA and WJEC and as part of the broader contextualised discussion expected in all A2 examination topics.
http://www.best-horror-movies.com/images/childs-play-movie-poster.jpg http://jimbuie.blogs.com/photos/uncategorized/marilyn_manson_012.jpg http://i59.photobucket.com/albums/g286/hedso737/ NaturalBornKillers2_000.jpg
The Hypodermic Syringe Theory is often used as a method of scapegoating and some types of texts seem to get blamed more than others such as horror films, rock music and video games. Scapegoating is when a simple reason (a media text) is blamed for a specific action or event. It is often easier to scapegoat a media text rather than look at the more complex reasons why something may have happened.
1. Direct Effect Theories These ideas view the media as having a direct effect on the ideas, attitudes and behaviours of the audience. Hypodermic Syringe Theory (Care! Consider the criticisms carefully) This is one of the simplest models used to explain the way the media can have an effect on the audience. It assumes that the audience are passive and that all members of the audience group are the same and respond in similar ways. It states that the media has a direct influence on the audience and it ‘injects’ its beliefs and values directly into the viewers or readers. For example, if someone watches violence, it will make them behave violently or accept violent behaviour.
Activity 1. Which seems more logical? (i) Listening to Marilyn Manson caused teenagers to open fire in a high school killing students and teachers? Or (ii) The Columbine High School shootings occurred due to a complex relationship between:* o The ease of access to firearms and the social acceptance of gun ownership o The alienation felt by teenagers who felt as though they did not fit in o The hopelessness caused by living in an area where unemployment was high and was economically disadvantaged o The general desensitisation caused by access to a range of violent images: film, TV, the news, the internet [* This is the argument offered by Michael Moore in his film Bowling for Columbine]
The Hypodermic Syringe Theory Ideology, Attitude or Value from text Audience belief or behaviour
This theory is largely discredited as it makes simplified judgements about the audience. However, it is still used politically as a criticism of certain media texts. Some texts which have been blamed for specific events: • Child’s Play – The murder of Jamie Bulger • Marilyn Manson – The Columbine High School shootings • Natural Born Killers – a number of murders committed by romantically linked couples. in one case, the director was sued for inciting violence although the court case was later dismissed
2. Which of these ‘reasons’ for this tragedy would be easiest to address and, potentially, solve? Banning Marilyn Manson would seem to quickly put an end to the cause of the tragedy and ensure it didn’t happen again if we accept this as the simpler reason for the event. Addressing the other social and economic issues would be practically impossible and implies that society in general was to blame for what happened.
Three ‘demonised’ media texts:
Child’s Play
The Hypodermic Syringe Theory can offer quick, simple reasons for behaviours with apparently simple solutions but does not take into account that a range of factors may influence audience behaviour. It is an idea that is popular with the tabloid press and politicians who attempt to provide solutions to problems to reassure their audience/constituents. However, there is little to support this theory when it is considered carefully.
Marilyn Manson
2
Media Studies
030. Media and Audiences -The Effects Debate
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
Other audience theories look at more complex relationships between audience members and other people or their environment which consider the way that audiences interact with media texts and how those texts may influence them.
Activity Consider a typical action film you have seen recently. It is likely it contained the following values: · Violence for a ‘good’ reason is acceptable. · Violence for a ‘bad’ reason must be punished.
Exam Hint:- Take care not to oversimplify your assumptions about audiences. In exams, students will often claim a text can have a direct influence on an audience member’s behaviour but this fails to take into account the many different influences that may also have an impact.
(a) Complete the following table giving textual examples of how your text represented these ideas. ‘Good’ Violence
Examples?
Protecting a family member
Cultivation Theory (Gerbner)
Stopping a criminal
This theory considers the way the media affects attitudes rather than behaviour. The media is seen as part of our socialisation process, communicating ‘appropriate’ attitudes and the norms and values of the culture. According to this theory, while any one media text does not have too much effect, repeated exposure to certain ideas and values may make the audience less critical of the ideas presented as they appear ‘normal’.
Killing someone who wants to hurt a weaker person ‘Bad’ Violence
Examples?
For financial gain or fun Threatening weaker people Threatening the state/ government
The key ideas here are that: • Through repetition attitudes, ideas and values may become normalised or naturalised; they are accepted rather than considered • Through repetition the audience may become desensitised towards negative and/or violent representations
(b) Do these values appear in any other action films, other genres or other types of media texts? Things get more complicated when you consider this is all down to perspective. Is it good if a villain kills someone to protect his family? Is it acceptable to act violently if someone threatens a state they think is corrupt? Is it alright to steal from someone who has been violent towards you?
Often more vulnerable groups are a main consideration within this approach. For example, children are often seen to need protection from the cultivation of certain ideas and values. This concern has led to the banning of fast food advertising during children’s TV programming, responding to recent concerns regarding nutrition and childhood obesity. The limiting of media images has removed the representation of a positive attitude towards fast-food from the media. Similarly restrictions are placed on how alcohol can be represented in advertising.
The repetition of the simple values above makes them appear natural and the texts do not always encourage the audience to question the values presented. Essentially violence is supported in action films as a method for the hero to reach his goal. The only difference between him and the villain is that we agree with the hero’s motivations.
Although cultivation theory goes beyond a simple ‘cause and effect’ approach to audience effects, critics see both these direct theories as having an elitist element suggesting a judgement is being made about the mass audience as they are assumed to be easily led and not perceptive or self-aware. The individual nature of the members of the audience is not taken into account. This theory identifies the media as being a negative influence but does not consider forms of ‘high art’ in the same way. Some of Shakespeare’s plays are extremely violent but are not seen to be a problem whereas games and television programmes are open to criticism
Barely visible - but this alcohol advert bears the phrase ‘drink responsibly’ (bottom left). http://www.ciadvertising.org/sa/fall_05/adv380J/twirpo/final/ cuervosm.jpg
3
Media Studies
030. Media and Audiences -The Effects Debate
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
2. Diffusion Theories
Activity
These ideas focus on the influence media may have but concentrate on the personalised way audiences access texts and consider the influence other people may have.
How might different people interpret these texts? · What would a pensioner make of Hollyoaks? · How might a religious person respond to Skins?
Two-Step Theory (Katz and Lagerfield) This theory acknowledges that we often access media texts with others or, if alone, we may well talk about our media experiences with our friends and family later. One argument is that these kinds of conversations have more influence on potential behaviour than the media text itself. A theory that springs from this idea is called the two-step theory which says that, whatever our experience of the media, we are likely to discuss it with others. If we respect their opinion (the theory calls these people opinion leaders), the chances are that we may be affected by the opinion leaders’ responses as well as by the text itself. Opinion leaders can come in the form of reviewers, presenters on television or people from groups we admire such as religious leaders, politicians etc. as well as from our family or social groups.
3. Indirect Effect Theories These theories acknowledge that the media may affect people but focuses on the fact that people respond differently to media texts and images and the environment we are in may be a part of that too.
http://www.bumpershine.com/wp-images/posts/skins_cast.jpg
·
Reception Analysis
Why do many teenagers find Question Time boring?
Reception Analysis is based on the idea that no text has one single meaning. The audience create meanings for themselves based on many individual factors such as: • Gender • Age • Race • Religious beliefs •· Personal values • Upbringing and education • Geographical location • Historical location Exam Hint:- Audiences are made up of a wide variety of different people and you must always try to consider the way others may interact with a text as well as taking into account your own experiences as an audience member. Not all texts are aimed at student age-groups and often something that you may consider ‘boring’ has been specifically constructed to appeal to people with different interest to yourself.
http://img.thesun.co.uk/multimedia/archive/00001/ ed_imgQUESTION-TIME_1575a.jpg
·
How might a woman who has no interest in cars respond to watching Top Gear? Whilst members of the groups identified are likely to enjoy the programmes mentioned they are not the target audience and so may respond differently to them than the group whose interests were being considered when the texts were made.
Some texts from the past seem very strange to us. A very popular sitcom in the 1970s called Love Thy Neighbour appears to many modern viewers, racist and offensive. Times have changed and so have people’s attitudes and values. What was acceptable as the topic for comedy some decades ago, no longer is.
4
Media Studies
030. Media and Audiences -The Effects Debate
www.curriculum-press.co.uk
Hall focuses on the way that texts can be interpreted differently. He identifies that: • The same information can be presented (encoded) in different ways o The Sun and The Guardian may report the same ‘facts’ very differently •
•
Whilst the media may have values that it represents and may have an influence on us, even texts and institutions which have clear ideological perspectives may not be as ‘powerful’ in communicating them to all members of the audience. The Sun’s values are bypassed every time an audience member ignores the reporting and opinion to read the TV guide and the sport pages.
Even when media producers try to ‘close down’ meaning all media texts contain more than one potential reading o Media producers can never guarantee that all audience members will interpret (decode) information in the same way
4. Pluralism The final theoretical position is the pluralist one which sees media institutions as free to present whatever point of view they wish and audiences being equally free to choose from the ideas and representations available. This view sees the audience, not as a manipulated mass, but as individuals who are in a relationship with the media texts they access. The pluralist view sees the media offering a wide selection of viewpoints to various social groups.
External factors influence interpretation o Audience members will have different experiences and opinions and, therefore, interpret media texts differently
Potential readings can, therefore, be: • the dominant reading o an acceptance of the intended meaning •
a negotiated reading o a broad acceptance of the intended meaning but with some personal modification
•
an oppositional reading o an understanding of the intended meaning but a rejection of it in favour of one created by the individual
Whilst the pluralist approach appears to give more credit to the audience members than the Hypodermic Syringe Theory, it is based on a number of unrealistic assumptions: • All social groups are catered for by the mass media
Clearly then, some people may be affected negatively by the media. Someone who is prone to violent behaviour may find that violent images stimulate that side of them and someone who has a weakness for chocolate may be tempted to buy some after watching an advert. This theory acknowledges that media images do not necessarily create these behaviours.
•
Economic restrictions (the need to make a profit) do not lead to bias
•
All members of a society share a number of values which are simply reflected by the media
Conclusion It seems that we are back where we started. There is no simple ‘correct answer’ to the issue of how influential the media may be. Different people have different beliefs and all the theories have logic aspects within them. What is clear is that the relationship between the media and its audience is complex and in your discussions on audience you should consider which ideas seem to be most relevant to the media text(s) you are analysing.
Reception theory tries to bear in mind that audience members are all individuals. This can be seen as a strength of the theory as it attempts to take personal differences into account rather than generalise as to how the media affects us all in the same way. At the same time the theory has a weakness – your response to a text may be influenced by context of everyday life. Reception analysis does not take this into account.
Activity Consider your own activities. • How is watching a television programme alone different to watching it with friends? • What distractions are there at home when you are watching a film? • How does a cinema act to force us to pay close attention to a film? ·• Do you read every word in a newspaper or magazine? Consider these other issues: • Media texts are not standalone experiences in our lives and our understanding of one text may be affected by our knowledge of another. • We don’t always concentrate fully on a media text - we may skim read a magazine or glance at various different channels on television whilst ‘channel surfing’ • The environment we are in alters our reception of a text – horror movies tend to be scarier in the cinema where we are in pitch black and ‘trapped’ in our environment. At home with the lights on and a ‘pause’ button handy, they tend to lose their power. (Unless you’re at home alone watching at night when they become unnerving again)
Acknowledgements: This Media Studies Factsheet was researched and written by Steph Hendry Curriculum Press. Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, TF1 1NU. Media Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136
5