KENNEDY TO KENT STATE IMAGES OF A GENERATION

KENNEDY TO KENT STATE IMAGES OF A GENERATION

WORCESTER ART MUSEUM

WWW.WORCESTERAR TMUSEUM.ORG

Š Harry Benson Harry Benson Beatles Pillow Fight, George V Hotel, Paris, 1963 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.10

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Kennedy to Kent State IMAGES OF A GENERATION AT THE WORCESTER ART MUSEUM THE GIFT OF DAVID DAVIS

W O R C E S T E R A R T M U S E U M 2012

EDITED BY

DAVID ACTON

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KENNEDY TO KENT STATE: IMAGES OF A GENERATION, PUBLISHED IN CONJUNCTION WITH AN EXHIBITION ORGANIZED BY THE WORCESTER ART MUSEUM, WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS

SEPTEMBER 29, 2012 – FEBRUARY 3, 2013

FIRST EDITION

COPYRIGHT © 2012 WORCESTER ART MUSEUM 55 SALISBURY STREET WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS 10609

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED, STORED IN A RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM, OR BY OTHER MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR OTHERWISE, WITHOUT THE PRIOR WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE PUBLISHER.

ISBN 978-0-615-67983

CONTENTS

FOREWORD THOUGHTS FROM THE COLLECTOR I COULDN’T BEAR TO LOOK A CROSSROADS OF PHOTOJOURNALISM FILM, PHOTOGRAPHY, TELEVISION AND THE NEWS

7 DAVID DAVIS

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LARRY R. COLLINS

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DAVID ACTON

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NANCY KATHRYN BURNS

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CHECKLIST TIMELINE

18 NANCY KATHRYN BURNS

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1 George Tames “The Loneliest Job in the World�

President Kennedy in the Oval Office 1961 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.10

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FOREWORD

The Worcester Art Museum was among the very first to exhibit photographs as works of fine art, in a series of juried shows beginning in 1904. Similar, innovative projects continued sporadically through World War II. In 1961, the Museum established a curatorial department of photography and began building a permanent collection. These holdings now represent a survey of the history of photography in the United States in its fascinating variety. Thus, it was enormously gratifying when in 2011, Howard G. Davis, III— known to all as David Davis—chose the Worcester Art Museum as the permanent repository for his remarkable collection of American photographs from the 1960s. This gift broadens the Museum’s already strong representation of that period’s creative photographs with its best remembered and most influential images of photojournalism. Davis’ generous gift also responds to Worcester’s long and innovative activities as an educational institution as, via our museum, he wanted to make the photographs available to present and future students of the Rivers School in Weston, Massachusetts, his alma mater. It is his wish to provide these young people with a window into the dynamic cultural era during his years there as a student. Davis’s impulse in building the collection was not only one of nostalgia, but of reflection upon a formative time in his own life.

Working closely with his colleague, Larry R. Collins, David Davis thoughtfully compiled this collection of over 100 photographs during a twelve year period. In the first decade of this century, when the newspaper industry shifted to digital photography and data storage, Davis and Collins found access to press files created in the production of news stories and documenting many of the most important events of the era. Aside from their powerful imagery, these photographs reflect notes, crop-marks, and retouching, and record their previous uses. They are powerful documents of the repeated use and broad dissemination of these images. In their insightful essays, Davis and Collins reflect on the value of this documentation, which, as time progresses, becomes more revealing to photographic and cultural historians alike. We are grateful not only for their considered persistence in compiling the collection, but for sharing the process of their adventure in these essays.

This volume also includes contextual essays by David Acton, Curator of Prints, Drawings, and Photographs at the Worcester Art Museum, and his assistant Nancy Burns. They organized the exhibition and its catalogue, combining the knowledge of photographic and cultural history with a sensibility for the period. We are grateful to Patrick Brown for his organization of the stunning exhibition installation, to Kim Noonan for her design of this handsome, informative book, and to their colleagues throughout the institution whose countless efforts made this project another milestone in photography studies for the Worcester Art Museum.

Matthias Waschek Director

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John Brook, David Davis, Boston, 1969

Thoughts from the Collector DAVID DAVIS

When I started on this journey I had no idea how far I would travel. I had no idea of what I would learn about a troubled, yet exciting period of this country’s past, and also about myself. I had no intention of collecting over 120 photographs, posters, and ephemera; I never considered a museum gift, and certainly not an exhibition.

Nor did I imagine the effect that the collection would have on my life, and indeed how its power and scope would change my life in many ways. I certainly did not expect to revisit my own past through the lenses of so many great photographers.

In 2000, I owned the Schoolhouse Center for Art and Design in Provincetown, Massachusetts. Since my passion is photography, I had devoted nearly half of the gallery space to both vintage and modern photography in the Driskel Gallery. At the time it was something of a risk in the seasonal, tourist-based Cape Cod economy. “I could have taken that,” was often whispered, as I expected, but it was not my goal to convert the disbelievers. Instead, I wanted to find the audience for photography I knew existed. Over time we did find it and the gallery had a very successful run.

It was there that this collection began quite by accident. Larry Collins, the gallery director for the Driskel Gallery, organized an exhibition with a war theme that included vintage prints of Eddie Adams’s famous Brigadier General Nguyen Ngoc Loan Executing the Viet Cong Guerilla Nguen Van Lem (Fig.7, Cat.49), and Nick Ut’s Children Fleeing a Napalm Attack on their Village of Trảng Bàng, (Fig.8, Cat.81). I reacted so strongly to seeing these images again that I felt compelled to buy the prints. After all, the heart-wrenching and soul-searching images were part of my visual memory. Larry and I talked about the impact of such photographs not only on our lives, but those of so many others, and we debated their aesthetic merit. Thus, the seed of this collection had been planted that Friday evening on Commercial Street in Provincetown.

At first I envisioned a small, personal collection of the photographs that I remembered from the turbulent sixties. From time to time Larry and I talked about what they might be, and we put together a modest list. At first we were able to secure many of the photographs, but over time some of our choices proved challenging to locate. Large magazine and newspaper publishers had already digitized their file photographs, and had either discarded or given the originals away.

Luckily, I was able to secure a few cornerstones for the collection early on, file prints that have extraordinary history and provenance. The records of numerous places and dates of publication are stamped and scribbled on their backs. Several had been reproduced so often that there was not enough space for even one more stamp. These prints represented the ideal, but became increasingly hard to find, and more and more expensive.

Over the twelve years it took to gather what I consider a meaningful and comprehensive portrait of those years, my viewpoint became more specific and my focus shifted. Rather than a personal collection I decided to share the photos in the form of a larger group. I wanted the potential viewer to glimpse the period of my teenage and college years, a difficult and confusing time of anyone's life. It was my coming of age, and my experience of adolescence took place amidst the mayhem of a rapidly changing society. Beginning with the optimistic election of John F. Kennedy as president, his subsequent assassination and ending with disturbing events like the Watergate Scandal and Kent State Massacre, we lived those years in a pressure cooker of tragedy and triumph, horror and honor, shock and shock value, cynicism and celebration. I believe that during those years the whole country came of age. Before then we were not innocent, but we had not yet become cynical. Until Vietnam, Americans had united enthusiastically behind every war effort. We believed that our government always told the truth, and that evil was something that existed on distant shores, but certainly not here. Then, on that November day in 1963 when President Kennedy was assassinated at Dealey Plaza in Dallas, our collective consciousness was shaken awake from a beautiful dream.

We looked around and saw something very different happening around us.

Many have debated the reasons for the social upheaval of the sixties, and others predicted its long-term effects. I don’t pretend to be as knowledgeable or presume to be as wise as those sociologists and historians. Instead, I wish to do something that I have not seen before, to present a kind of storyboard of the years from 1963 to 1974. During that period, from the time I entered my teen years until that of my college graduation, there were assassinations, an unpopular war, a trip to the moon and the rise of the protest movement and counterculture. The enormous shifts in popular culture shared a symbiotic relationship with the proliferation of previously unimagined open drug use and anti-war clashes in the streets. Suddenly parents and their teenage children were no longer negotiating about smoking cigarettes or borrowing the car. They argued over the length of hair and dilated pupils, as a pungent, organic odor drifted from their bedrooms. Surprising and bizarre events appeared in news reports, encompassing everything from an unlikely heiress to mass murder at the Olympic games. It was a confusing, unsettling, exciting, and “far out” time to grow up.

I present these photographs not to comment but rather to share my experience of the time. I am not a historian, but I was there. If you were there too you will recall the impact and power of these photographs. If you are too young to have lived through that time, I hope you can take away something that you have never felt before.

This collection is a story, the story of coming of age.

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2 Attributed to Stanley Sterns The Kennedy Family Watching the President’s Casket Loaded on the Caisson 1963 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.20

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3 Abraham Zapruder The Assassination of John F. Kennedy 1963 Gelatin silver print from 8mm film E.25.12.8

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David Brady, PFC Larry Collins, Vietnam, 1968

I Couldn’t Bear to Look LARRY R. COLLINS

“You can’t show that depressing stuff here in Provincetown in the summertime,” a good friend said to me when I told him I was going to curate a show of war photographs. “People don’t want to see war photographs here in a beach town,” he said, “and they’re not art.” I headed for New York anyway determined to continue bringing some of the world’s greatest photography to Provincetown, beach or no beach. I believe that great war photographs are without peer, art or not. On the way to New York I kept recalling the art historian Kenneth Clark’s struggle to decide whether Francisco Goya’s masterpiece of war in the Prado, The Third of May 1808, was art or not. It is a shocking painting showing the execution of civilians. Clark concluded finally that one did not think of Goya the artist at all when viewing the painting, but only of the event.

The show at the Driskel Gallery of the Schoolhouse Center simply titled “War,” featured vintage prints of famed photographs by such masters as Robert Capa and W. Eugene Smith, as well as Pulitzer Prize awarded photographs by Eddie Adams, Nick Ut, and David Kennerly. The show was perhaps the most talked about exhibit of that summer season, viewed respectfully, and without complaints as far as I know.

On one particular day I saw David Davis looking at Eddie Adams’s photograph of South Vietnam’s national police chief executing a suspected Viet Cong (Fig.7, Cat.49). It won a Pulitzer Prize, and more than any other picture it turned public opinion against the war in Vietnam. Adams said that people misunderstood the photograph and the realities of war, and was troubled by these misinterpretations for the rest of his life. Davis turned to look at Nick Ut’s Napalm Attack (Fig.8, Cat.81) another Pulitzer Prize photograph. “I should have these,” he said to me quietly. I knew his taste tended towards dramatic design, and he did not shy from edgy subject matter, so I was not surprised by his interest in these two powerful images.

Later that week we were having lunch, and I told David about some of my own experiences in the Vietnam War in 1968-69. I had been drafted into the army in 1967 right after art school and sent to Vietnam as a combat infantryman. After [several] weeks in the field with my squad I was ordered back to our base camp to become the combat illustrator for my division, the First Air Cavalry Division. I used photographs from the picture file of the division press office as source material for my illustrations, I did not see the influential images by Eddie Adams, Larry Burrows, and Ronald Haeberle until I returned home to the States. We soldiers did hear, however, of the assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Robert Kennedy, and of the riots in the streets. The news from the States sounded to us as if America had gone mad.

Before the end of the meal David asked me to help him create a collection of documentary photographs. We would concentrate on works from the 1960s and just beyond, a time period particularly important in both our lives, and one of critical cultural revolutions in this country. We would acquire vintage prints, of good quality and condition, and those from press files would have as much history as possible stamped, glued, and inscribed on the reverse of the photographs. Since the Adams and Ut photographs had not been sold in the exhibition, David purchased them from the consignor and thus began the collection.

The two of us drew up a list of possible photographs and I headed for New York City again to see what I could find. I found that some of the more desirable items at that time were available and owners didn’t really know what to charge. After conferring with David I would make offers for certain pieces, and most often they were accepted. Eventually we realized that some of our previous qualifications were

unrealistic. Some signed high quality exhibition fiber prints were available, but most were from photo archives made with thinner resin-coated paper, and with condition issues. A shift was made from viewing the photographs primarily as having artistic or exhibition value to viewing the photographs as artifacts, with the stickers, stamps and notations on the verso assuming more importance. This meant, for example, that a sharper and clearer print with a blank back might have been passed over for one with more information on the reverse detailing where and when the image was used.

A vintage wirephoto with its typically hazy wavy look, but with an urgent date stamp documenting the same day of the event might be the preferred print. In each case, together we weighed the pros and cons of what was available.

We estimated the collection might take a couple of years to build, but only now, twelve years later, is David comfortable with saying that it is essentially complete.

As time went by and he bought more pieces, prices increased dramatically, ten times the earlier prices paid in some cases. One collector’s purchases can have a significant impact on pricing among several dealers. Access to certain archives dried up and dealers were unable to locate many images we sought. One way we located work was to track down the photographers themselves and purchase prints directly from them, vintage ones if available, and signed modern prints if not. The desire was to collect the best–known images, not variants of these, which were rejected on many occasions. Only after it seemed all possibilities had been exhausted of finding a particular photograph did David settle for a variant of that image. With a few exceptions, the parameters of the collection eventually came to rest within a time frame between the 1960 presidential campaign of John F. Kennedy (Cat.3) and the tragedy at Kent State University on May 4, 1970, when four students were killed when Ohio National Guardsmen fired into the crowd (Fig.36, Cat.72).

The most celebrated photojournalistic images are very often scenes of war and violence. Their disturbing impact is balanced by images of a positive nature in the collection, almost one for one, though it was not planned that way. More than once our discussions revealed our different sensibilities: my intense and sometimes desiccating way of assessing a picture's qualities, and David's more broad, ebullient approach to beauty. These differences only served to sharpen the curatorial knife, and more often than not our instincts coincided. The more uplifting photographs in the collection tend to be images of domestic cultural events, celebrities, and artists, such as Barbra Streisand's portrait by Richard Avedon (Cat.29), Gordon Parks's powerful image of Muhammad Ali (Cat.70), and the famous blue silhouette of Bob Dylan by Rowland Scherman (Fig.26, Cat.43), which won a Grammy for best album cover of 1968. They are creative images rather than visual documents and are purposefully beautiful.

Not long ago I came across my college newspaper from the day after President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. Like countless other Americans I saved my paper. I was a freshman at the University of Oklahoma and had just left my English class when I heard someone say that the President had been shot. Under the headline is a picture of Jack and Jackie Kennedy riding in the car waving to the crowd in Dallas, moments before the shots were fired. I didn’t watch any of the television coverage of the aftermath, nor did I see Oswald killed on a live TV broadcast. I didn’t watch the funeral. There were televisions everywhere on campus, but I didn’t want to watch. I told myself then that I was too cool for all that, but in truth, I couldn’t bear to look. I never imagined then the extraordinary images I was destined to see over the next few years as my life was changed and my country changed forever.

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A Crossroads of Photojournalism DAVID ACTON

Like our own time, the era of the 1960s was one of rapid change in the American way of life. Pivotal events and shifting sensibilities of the day were witnessed and reported by news media that were themselves abruptly transforming. Then, as now, pictures were the medium by which most people experienced the wider world. Published for domestic and international audiences at the same time, photographs created a common experience, plotting a historical arc of embracing familiarity. Kennedy to Kent State presents a selection of these photographs, providing a glimpse of that turbulent time. Many of the images transcend reportage. In their provocative momentary imagery, refined compositions, and humanity, they attain the stature of true works of art. The photographs also reveal the activities of news gathering and publishing in the 1960s, revealing that in many ways the period was a crossroads for photojournalism.

After World War II, when government restrictions were relaxed for the American press, domestic issues returned to the forefront of media attention. Wartime strictures on radio and television manufacture and broadcast loosened. Radio maintained its enormous popularity, as television emerged gradually. By 1951 its networks stretched from coast to coast, but there were few receiver sets and little programming. Over the course of the 1960s the television audience grew exponentially, though most Americans still encountered pictorial imagery in newspapers and magazines.

At that time newspapers printed both images and text by a kind of photoetching, developed a century before. Rotogravure was an intaglio printing process evolved from the collotype technique. A zinc plate prepared with a layer of photosensitive gelatin was exposed with photographic images through a halftone screen. Like a sieve of light, this transparent sheet of glass scored with a fine grid of black lines separated an image into thousands of tiny squares. Once exposed, the gelatin hardened into a microscopic grid pattern that protected the printing plate when it was etched in a bath of acid. In this way, an image of continuous tone became one of microscopic spots, varied in size and depth, that were bitten in the surface of the printing plate. Experience taught the photographers that rotogravure illustrations were most successful when derived from simple pictorial compositions, with massed tonal passages and minimal detail, and they adjusted their practice accordingly.

Photographic images appeared in hundreds of local and regional newspapers across the United States, distributed to newsstands and front porches twice a day. Though the publications were numerous, they often contained the very same pictures of national interest.

Most papers had photographers on staff working locally, capturing images on film with view and reflex cameras. The latter were small, hand-held instruments with speedy lenses, but film had to be advanced manually, and they required careful focusing. The greatest photojournalists became consummate masters of their equipment, with instinctive talent for framing a shot and an ineffable sense of anticipation. Most news photographers turned in their exposed, undeveloped film to a processing department, that made negatives or contact prints to pass along to news and picture editors. They reviewed and selected specific images and ordered working prints for further editing, retouching, page layout, and platemaking. After serving these functions, the press prints were kept in company - 12 -

files for later use. Surviving editorial prints often reveal the work of the newsroom in touchups and cropping that took place before images were transferred to the printing plates.

Frank Powolny’s publicity photograph of Marilyn Monroe (Fig.11) for example, or Bob Jackson’s original print of Jack Ruby Shoots Lee Harvey Oswald (Fig.17, Cat.18), reveal grease pencil crop-marks, air-brush spotting and notes for layout.

The American newspaper business flourished after World War II. Having aided in the defeat of Fascism, the country enjoyed heady feelings of strength and confidence, and a period of booming productivity. In January 1961, enthusiasm surged with the election of John F. Kennedy as president. Charismatic and sophisticated, the young president exuded style and optimism. His eminent family had enjoyed the limelight of society and politics for decades. They understood the power of the media and its visual imagery, and strove to control it. In 1958 Life magazine photographer Mark Shaw visited Senator Kennedy and his family at Hyannis Port on Cape Cod. Kennedy’s own favorite among the selection of photographs that appeared in the magazine represents him walking alone in the seaside dunes (Fig.9, Cat.1). Rather than talent or privilege, it suggests a sensitive, introspective man. The Senator’s wife Jacqueline had worked in magazine publishing, and appreciated Shaw’s work, particularly his skill for capturing the humanity of his subjects.

Several other photojournalists, including Robert Knudsen, Jacques Lowe, Paul Schuster, Hugh Sidey, and George Tames covered the Kennedy presidential campaign in 1960, and his activities in the White House. With their help the administration expressed its foreign policy of strength during the Cold War. In domestic matters the administration directly confronted endemic problems like poverty, social inequality, and racial discrimination. It was Cecil W. Stoughton whose photographs most made the Kennedy White House famous around the world. He was a captain in the Army Signal Corps when he was chosen to be official photographer for the newly-elected President. A buzzer connected Stoughton’s desk in the West Wing of the White House directly to the president’s secretary. In effect, he was on call to photograph the president and visiting dignitaries, or the first family. Stoughton’s favorite pictures from this period are an endearing sequence taken in the oval office in October 1962, on a day when the first lady was out of town. He photographed the Kennedy’s two young children playing around his desk, and his delighted response to their games. Such images created nationwide empathy for the family.

These delightful, personal photographs contrasted with those of unanticipated horror that document the assassination of John F. Kennedy in Dallas on November 22, 1963. On that day Stoughton rode in another open car in the motorcade but because Dealey Plaza, the site of the shooting, was inconsequential on the parade route, no professional photographers were paying attention. The most poignant images of the event—and those latterly most useful as evidence—were taken by amateur photographers. Since the unforseen events lasted only seconds, they were captured by motion pictures. Immediately after the assassination the Secret Service and FBI began searching for photographic evidence, and eventually found it in the films of three amateur observers.

4 W. Eugene Smith Tomoko Uemura in Her Bath, Minamata 1971 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.3

On that morning, Orville Nix, an air-conditioning engineer who worked on the south side of Dealey Plaza, took his Keystone K-810, 8mm movie camera to the northwest corner of Main Street at Houston. His film captured the president in the final moments of the attack, and in the background a grassy knoll later suggested as a sniper’s nest. Marie Mobley Muchmore also worked nearby as a dressmaker, and carried her Keystone movie camera to the same intersection. Like Nix, she stopped filming and moved as the motorcade passed the corner. As the limousine drove down Elm Street, she captured the fatal bullet’s impact from a distance of less than 150 feet (Fig.15, Cat.13). The longest and most revealing amateur film of Kennedy’s assassination was taken by Abraham Zapruder, a Dallas clothing manufacturer. With his 8mm Bell & Howell Zoomatic movie camera he situated himself atop a concrete ledge on Elm Street, and began filming as the limousine came into the plaza. Over the next 26.6 seconds Zapruder exposed 486 frames, the most vivid record of the event. Later in the day the Secret Service requested his film, which was immediately processed, duplicated, and sent to Washington. Zapruder sold reproduction rights to Life magazine which published an extended account of the assassination, with a spread of film stills in their original color. Later, the federal Warren Commission, when formally investigating the assassination, employed the films by Nix, Muchmore, and Zapruder—printed in more legible black and white—to calculate the position of the presidential limousine and the gunman in a forensic recreation of the crime (Fig.3, Cat.12).

Thus some inferior photographs of amateur interest and equipment became some of the most examined and remembered images of the period.

Professionals took different, equally moving photographs later on that fateful day. One of the most famous was done by Cecil Stoughton, who stayed with the first lady when the president’s body was taken to the hospital. They returned together to the Dallas airport and to the presidential airliner Air Force One, where vice president Lyndon Baines Johnson prepared to assume the office of head of state. He understood that the nation needed visual evidence of the continuity of government. Johnson also realized how important it was to appear to have the Kennedys’ approbation. Stoughton stood precariously on an airplane seat and shot nineteen frames on two cameras, as Johnson placed his hand on his predecessor’s personal Bible to take the oath, with Mrs. Kennedy on one side and Mrs. Johnson on the other (Fig.5, Cat.15).

An equally captivating photograph from those days in Texas was the work of Bob Jackson, a savvy staff photographer for the Dallas Times-Herald. Two days after Kennedy’s assassination, when the accused murderer, Lee Harvey Oswald, was transferred from one local jail to another, a crowd gathered in the basement garage to catch a glimpse of him.

Suddenly Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner, stepped forward and shot Oswald on live television and before Jackson’s poised camera. The remarkable photograph (Fig.17, Cat.18) captures the moment of the bullet’s impact and the victim wincing in pain. Jackson won a Pulitzer Prize for this shot, and later proved to be a key witness to the assassination and its aftermath.

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5 Cecil W. Stoughton Lyndon Baines Johnson Sworn-In as President Aboard Air Force One 1963 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.19

In retrospect, these unforgettable images were similar to those of photojournalists who documented the Civil Rights movement, revealing public and private acts of discrimination and cruelty to broader national audiences. In 1958 Charles Moore, a staff photographer for the Montgomery, Alabama newspapers, photographed a confrontation between Martin Luther King, Jr. and two policemen. The provocative images were nationally distributed by the Associated Press, and published in Life. Afterwards, Moore decided to travel in the South documenting the Civil Rights movement. Perhaps his best known sequence of photographs were those taken in Birmingham, Alabama in 1963, when police confronted demonstrators with dogs and high-pressure fire hoses, under orders from Sheriff Eugene “Bull” Connor (Fig.22, Cat.9). Civil Rights leaders understood the power of photography, and employed their own documentarians. Dan Budnik persuaded Life editors to endorse an extended photoessay project on the march from Selma to Montgomery in 1963, a demonstration also covered by James Karales. The magazine also assigned Gordon Parks, one of its most prestigious staff photographers, to explore the lives and personalities of Malcolm X, Muhammad Ali (Cat.70), and other celebrities on a personal level.

It was chance that Joseph Louw made one of the most chilling photographs of the period.

A South African television producer at work on a documentary about the American movement, on April 4, 1968, he was staying at the Lorraine Hotel in Memphis, a few doors away from Martin Luther King Jr. Louw heard an echoing crack and picked up his camera as he rushed to the balcony. He saw Dr. King collapse and his startled aides pointing toward the source of the shot (Fig.23, Cat.53). News of King’s assassination sparked riots in Memphis and over a hundred other cities across the country. The nation mourned once again as King was laid to rest, and Moneta Sleet, Jr. captured its anguish and implications in his photograph of the leader’s widow and young daughter (Fig.24, Cat.53), a touching image that won the first Pulitzer Prize awarded to an African American.

The sheer scale of the newspaper and magazine industry in the 1960s prompted editors to acquire images from many different sources, including news and photography agencies—a worldwide phenomenon of the period—when organizations like United Press International (UPI), Reuters, Agence France-Presse, and Deutsche Presse-Agentur broadly distributed the work of freelance photojournalists. The later twentieth century was the heyday of the Associated Press (AP), the leading American news agency. Founded in 1845 among five New York City newspapers to share the costs of reporting the Mexican-American War, the AP grew into a national cooperative for sharing stories and images. The organization was first to use the telegraph to gather and distribute news, and later introduced the teletype—or telegraphic-typewriter—to transmit directly into newsrooms. At its height, the AP operated nearly 250 bureaus all over the world, and maintained a photograph library with over ten million images.

News agencies like the AP contracted photojournalists on retainer, paying regular income for which they relinquished ownership and copyright of their exposed film. For a century no records were kept of authorship, and a large segment of agency images still remain unattributed. By 1960, however, the best photojournalists had begun to gain their own reputations. Disagreements over salary, recognition, and reproduction rights prompted many photographers to leave newspaper and magazine jobs to work as freelancers. They sold their images through professional cooperatives like Magnum, Black Star, Rapho, and others.

To offset this defection, AP, UPI, and other news agencies began gradually to credit individual photographers, while still retaining copyright to all images done on contract.

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Many news agency images were swiftly distributed to newspapers and magazines telephonically as “wirephotos” during the 1960s. Invented in the 1890s, the technology progressively improved over the decades, but it was on New Year’s day in 1935 that the AP finally transmitted the first commercial photographic image over standard phone lines.

Working with Eastman Kodak, the company had developed a system that they named the “wirephoto,” a term that soon became generic for the process. In the late 1950s portable transmitters used standard long distance telephone lines, and in 1962 the launch of the Telstar 1 satellite made it possible to transmit telephonic voice, analog pictorial images, and television signals across the Atlantic with unprecedented speed and precision.

By this time wirephotos were universal, and married with the old archival practice of enlarging—or in this case scanning—both the image and a typewritten caption pasted along one border. For example, the image of actress and peace activist Jane Fonda Visiting Enemy Troops in North Vietnam (Fig.47, Cat.80), was taken by a Japanese photojournalist and circulated from Tokyo around the world by the Nihon Denpa News Agency.

An integral photographic negative was transmitted to a local publisher, who printed it as a gelatin silver positive, that was often further touched or cropped for platemaking while in the newsroom the caption was edited and set as text. Wire transmission often diminished resolution of an image and introduced flaws, so it was common in the period for these images to be retouched again and again. Fonda’s image bears evidence of extensive tonal and linear retouching before it reached the office of the San Francisco Examiner, where the present print was published, stamped, and filed. This print was hastily processed for immediate publication, and improper developing left the gelatin silver print susceptible to discoloration. The leading technology of the day, wirephotos remain primary historical documents. After transmitting or receiving them, picture librarians often retained and filed the prints, meticulously cross-referenced for future access, and stamped or inscribed with details of subsequent use (Fig.30A, Cat.59). These archivists had no inkling that in the 1990s publishers would digitize their visual files, and many thousands of press photographs would be destroyed or released to the commercial market.

Topical immediacy was essential in newspaper photojournalism but not as important to pictorial news magazines, the other chief outlets for photography in the 1960s. Journals like Life, Look, and Saturday Evening Post which had established broad audiences decades before, had become large format picture magazines by mid-century. Published weekly, biweekly, or monthly, they reached every corner of the country by mail. They were vehicles for photographs with deeper aesthetic or narrative content. American exponents of a worldwide genre, in their manner of production and content they were parallel to European publications like Paris Match in France, Stern in Germany, or Ogonyek in the Soviet Union.

Since the 1930s pictorial news magazines were printed by offset lithography, a specialized technology that provided broader tonal range for large images, along with greater speed and economy. Like rotogravure, this method printed text and images simultaneously, using halftone separations derived from photographically-processed metal plates. However, rather than an intaglio printing matrix, lithography prints from an unbroken plane that is chemically treated to accept or repel ink. Modern offset lithographs are done on a multiple-roller web press, and that differs from its limestone-slab predecessors in the use of many subsidiary rollers to regulate the ink while reversing images to their original orientation.

American picture magazines were celebrated for their photostories. In 1936 publisher Henry Luce launched Life magazine, striving to employ the best photographers available.

Their work was influenced by current painting styles of Social Realism and Regionalism, affected through the work of the Farm Security Administration, a Depression-era government agency that documented American life in photographs. Among those in this exhibition recognized as accomplished photoessayists were Gordon Parks, Larry Burrows, Bill Eppridge, and W. Eugene Smith. After joining Life in 1939, Smith became acknowledged as master of the form. His enduring commitment to storytelling, and his personal creative vision are apparent in Tomoko Uemura in Her Bath (Fig.4, Cat.77). In 1971 the photographer moved to Minamata, Japan, specifically to explore the lives of local families who had been devastated by the genetic effects of pollution upon their children. Smith took hundreds of photographs but also set himself the goal of distilling his story into a single image, influenced by the elegant simplicity of the Japanese aesthetic. The photographer created the image of one child, whose deformed body signals her helplessness, and the plight of her mother who cradles the child in her arms. First published in Life on June 2, 1972 in a short photoessay on Minamata, the image powerfully captured and concentrated the attention of sympathetic readers.

Audiences had become used to such intensity by images of the Vietnam War. As this conflict developed in the mid-1960s reporters and photographers enjoyed freer access to the advisors and troops than ever before. Journalistic goals shifted, and advancing technology helped broaden coverage of the war. Americans were startled in 1963 by Malcolm Browne’s photograph of a Buddhist monk immolating himself on the streets of Saigon to protest the corrupt regime. Such images galvanized the incessant, controlled news reports of a faraway conflict. It has often been observed that great photographs like Eddie Adams’s image of the execution of Bay Lop (Fig.7, Cat.49), and the disturbing images of the bombing of the village of Trâng Báng by Nick Ut (Fig.8, Cat.81), helped to turn domestic opinion against the war.

In the late 1960s, technical advancements in both color photography and offset lithographic printing increased the use of color reproductions. Previously, technical complexity and expense had restricted color in magazines to covers or deluxe journals. Now, photographers like Don McCullin, Larry Burrows, David Douglas Duncan and Philip Jones Griffiths, began to submit extraordinary color photographs from Vietnam alongside their work in black and white. The British-born Burrows focused on the personal experience of his subjects, casting the war itself as a protagonist. His heart-wrenching Vietnamese Woman Mourning Her Dead Husband (Fig.6, Cat.64) exposes the lonely agony of a grieving widow. She fled for her life when her country hamlet was destroyed by a North Vietnamese attack during the Tet Offensive; later she returned to find her husband’s remains, recovered from a mass grave. Burrows used an evocative composition, and a dusty, washed-out palette to accentuate the complete dessication of her experience.

When Hendrix was headliner at the Woodstock Music and Art Fair in upstate New York in August 1969, he provided a countercultural anthem in his performance of the “StarSpangled Banner.” For many of its generation Woodstock remains the defining event of the 1960s. The three-day festival, with performances from top bands was irresistible to fans within a day’s drive, including those in greater New York City. The concert took place on Max Yasgur’s dairy farm near the Adirondack town of Bethel, New York. The audience grew to over 400,000, overwhelming local law enforcement and any sort of venue restriction. Rains muddied fields and roads, and food and sanitation facilities were insufficient, but the festival took place without significant problems for public safety. The seasoned photojournalist John Dominis attended Woodstock for its importance as a news story.

His images reveal absurd excess at the festival, and maintain an anthropologist’s distance from concert-goers. One of the best-known is a photograph of young people huddling under a sheet of cardboard in the rain (Fig.37, Cat.66), that appeared in Life magazine on August 29, 1969.

Ironic images of utopian failure were common in the established press at the close of the decade, a time clouded by the perils of drug use, an unending war, a corrupt government and the crimes of Watergate. Their affliction crystallized symbolically in John Filo’s unforgettable photograph of the massacre at Kent State (Fig.36, Cat.72). On May 4, 1970, a phalanx of National Guardsmen had been called to the campus of Kent State University in Ohio to control protests of the American invasion of Cambodia. They fired sixty seven rounds into the unarmed crowd, killing four students and wounding nine others. A student photographer, Filo captured the moment of agony when fourteen-year-old Mary Ann Vecchio realized that her friend Jeffrey Miller had been killed. The photograph was distributed by the AP, and came to symbolize the vehemence of American cultural conflict.

In some ways, Filo’s stunning image exemplifies the shock that so deeply affected many Americans in the 1960s. Confidence and hope alternated with grief and frustration as cultural values came into question. Then, photojournalists exerted a peculiar social influence. Their aggregated work provided the medium by which Americans experienced the era, and have remembered it thereafter. However this was a moment of transformation for their profession. The best of them were increasingly recognized as creative individuals, and their long-established relationships with the press began to shift. Other changes came to the news industry through the growth of television, and continually improving technologies of photography and mass-printing. Yet compared to the immediacy and universality of twenty-first century digital media, their processes seem so cumbersome, and their organizations so restrictive.

This was a challenging time to be an adolescent, when the war, the government, and the power of authority prompted feelings of disgust and dread. It was natural for young people to identify with like-minded peers in a growing counterculture. In a movement without organization, young people pursued the ideals of tolerance, unconventional relationships and communal living, personal empowerment, alternative religious traditions, and heightened experiences often enhanced by psychoactive drugs. Timothy Leary (Fig.41, Cat.41) became a shamanic figure for this community. He was a Harvard psychology professor studying the effects of psychochemistry, who advocated their possible benefits at a time when substances like psilocybin and LSD were legal. Dismissed from university, he was embraced by the counterculture. In January 1967 Leary lectured at the “Human Be-In” at San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park, a festival to oppose the California law banning LSD. The celebration featured art exhibitions, poetry readings by Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder, concerts by the Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead, and lectures by social activist Jerry Rubin, and Leary whose proclamation “Turn On, Tune In, Drop Out” defined the enterprise of dissent.

The festival was a prelude to the “Summer of Love,” when young people from across the country traveled to the West Coast. Many gathered in mid-June for the Monterey Pop Festival, which demonstrated how music had become the unifying force for a diverse generation. Rock and roll captured the anxiety of youth, its pent-up fury and awakening sexuality, in a language that adults could not understand. The most memorable image of Monterey is that of Jimi Hendrix, the electric guitar virtuoso who combined rhythm and blues with psychedelic vividness. The climax of his performance was to set his wailing guitar ablaze, demonstrating the internalized fears and frustrations of his audience (Fig.25, Cat.47). The best-known photographs of this event are by the music photojournalist Jim Marshall. With his visual reporter’s skill, he helped to build a specialized genre of rock and roll photography, and a mode of photojournalism for a new generation.

6 Larry Burrows

A Woman Mourning Her Dead Husband 1969 Chromogenic print 2011.138

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7 Eddie Adams Brigadier General Nguyen Ngoc Loan Executing the Viet Cong Guerilla, Bay Loop 1968 Gelatin silver print 2011.125 7A (verso)

Film, Photography, Television and the News NANCY KATHRYN BURNS

During the Vietnam War network television crews and newspaper photojournalists enjoyed considerable freedom in their reportage and travel. United States government officials and the “American propaganda machine” relied on a public relations campaign to promote the merits of the Vietnam War rather than implement tightly controlled censorship of the news media. In 1997, historian Caroline Brothers noted in War and Photography: A Cultural History, over 600 media representatives operated in Vietnam.

Despite continued regulation over graphic material like dismemberment or nudity, both traditional photojournalism and televised news reports presented the Vietnam hostilities unlike any wars preceding it.

Marshall McLuhan, a scholar who analyzed the relationship between technology and popular culture, is credited with coining the now ubiquitous term “global village.”

Renowned for his 1964 theoretical tract, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, he claimed technology, from hand tools to automobiles, were an extension of human beings. Further, with every extension, McLuhan also saw attenuation. For example, the typewriter effectively extends the hand, but lessens the craft of penmanship. Operating from this position, the perceived immediacy of televised film footage and its simultaneous audio and moving image capability should lessen the authority of still photography as a primary news source. If this were the case, coverage of the Vietnam War should serve as a unique moment of extension wherein various media overlapped and shifted.

McLuhan specifically discussed television’s role during the Vietnam War. He said in a 1975 interview with the Montreal Gazette, “Television brought the brutality of war into the comfort of the living room.” “Vietnam was lost in the living rooms of America—not on the battlefields of Vietnam.” “The Living Room War” became a snappy coinage emphasizing television’s dominant role as intermediary between the American public and soldiers fighting half-a-world away. Today, an excess of commentaries on Vietnam maintain that the relentless display of wartime battles on television became a—if not the—formative reason for the removal of American troops from Vietnam.

Scholars are right to affirm the watershed of television in adjusting American attitudes toward Vietnam and toward journalism as a whole. Because television was in its infancy during the Korean War, Vietnam became the first war experienced nationwide through audio-visual material as opposed to written material. Vietnam television coverage introduced the notion of the “war correspondent” whose commentary echoed the authoritative rhetoric of documentaries and the perceived trustworthiness of news anchors like Walter Cronkite. Finally, television quite successfully bridged a seemingly incomprehensible distance between the United States and a then obscure nation 8,500 miles away. McLuhan was astute to recognize that Americans encountered the war in their own homes, but presuming that filmed battles transformed American sentiment needs to be reconsidered.

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Rather, several contemporary historians point out that claims of daily news coverage littered with incendiary film footage are a gross exaggeration. Lawrence Litchy’s article in Vietnam as History (1996) points out that of the 2,300 televised Vietnam news reports, only seventy-six stories presented notable violence or any visual evidence of Americans dead or badly wounded. In his 1998 article "Television's Impact on Decision Making in the USA," David Culbert affirms Lichy’s claim: Network stories show long shots of helicopters landing and taking off, not violent images of death and destruction. Fighting is mostly discussed in voice-overs accompanying stories with pictures of jungle grass . . . . From a visual perspective, America’s first ‘living-room war’ was not horrifying or particularly upsetting.

Instead, the relationship between television and photography may be far more intertwined than assumed. Many of the lasting impressions of Vietnam during the adolescent years of television journalism are from still photographs, not film footage. However, television served as an indispensable vehicle for the propagation of traditional photography. Two of the most famous photographs from the Vietnam era are Eddie Adams’ snapshot of Brigadier General Loan Executing North Vietnamese Guerilla, Bay Lop (Fig.7, Cat.49) and Nick Ut’s photograph Children Fleeing Napalm Attack on their Village of Trảng Bàng (Fig.8, Cat.81). These eminent photographs are unique in that both won Pulitzer Prizes, both were taken while American television crews were present, and both debuted on television, not in newspapers.

The Loan footage shot by NBC cameraman Vo Suu is generally regarded as the most important televised film segment of the Vietnam War, just as Adams’ 1968 photograph is often credited as the image that turned the tide of the war. However, because of the limitations of exporting film, in addition to the power of Adams forever-freezing a man’s death, the photograph upended the weight and lasting influence of the film footage.

James Robbins observed in This Time We Win: Revisiting the Tet Offensive (2010) that the first photographs, including the famous execution shot, were available to American news outlets within eleven hours of the incident. Horst Faas, the Associated Press Photo Editor, was able to transmit four of the twenty photographs on Adams’ film roll as wirephotos. NBC News premiered the Adams photographs on February 1, with a voice-over by news anchor John Chancellor. A full day later the Vo Suu film reel was sent on a medi-vac flight to Tokyo, one of the only color film-processing labs in the region. Once developed, the film left on the next available flight to New York, where a Grand Prix motorcycle racer couriered the film from the airport. The raw execution footage was edited to three minutes fifty-five seconds and further reduced by the NBC studio. General Loan walking up to Bay Lop, shooting him, and Lop’s body gushing blood on the pavement totaled twenty-three seconds. It was

8 Nick Ut Children Fleeing Napalm Attack on their Village of Trang Bàng 1972 Gelatin silver print 2011.176

considered too brutal for public consumption, so only six, and later four seconds of film were televised in the first days following the shooting. NBC showed the footage of the gunshot, then cut to black when the body fell to the ground. Television film coverage of the execution premiered forty-six hours after the initial event.

By contrast, on the morning of February 2, the Adams photograph appeared on the front page of newspapers worldwide. The film footage, appearing a full day after the Adams image premiered, symbolically fixed the authority of the photograph, not the other way around. However, the fact that both the Adams and Ut photographs are embedded in the American consciousness was certainly reinforced by the broad audience television offered.

Had both photographs debuted in print, it is likely that neither image would have achieved the prominent status they enjoy today.

Children Fleeing Napalm Attack on their Village of Trảng Bàng, presents further elision between television and photography, in this case how television shaped photography. As with the Adams photograph, Napalm Attack first appeared on NBC News. On June 8, 1972, NBC used it as the backdrop for a report on the “deadly accident” in Trảng Bàng— during which responsibility was swiftly assigned to the South Vietnamese. However, unlike the Adams photo, the Associated Press and NBC significantly edited what we now associate with the Ut photograph.

Due to concerns involving privacy and propriety, nudity—particularly full-frontal nudity—was not permitted in American news coverage. It was chance that Horst Faas rescued the Napalm Attack negative after the Associated Press’ deputy photo editor cut it, assuming it too graphic to survive censors. Faas, recognizing the journalistic merits of the photograph, disregarded existing decency regulations and decided to wire the photograph to New York. That Ut’s photograph ever left Saigon is interesting on its own, but the fact that it became widely published is even more surprising.

The original photograph taken by Ut (Fig.8A) shows the five running children, six soldiers, and one South Vietnamese Army photographer. The Associated Press was the first to “cleanse” the image. A shadow from Kim Phuc’s pubic bone was removed. In 2011, Guy Westwall compellingly wrote in “Accidental Napalm Attack and Hegemonic Visions of America’s War in Vietnam,” the potential to misread the shadow as pubic hair, and thus the child as an adolescent, necessitated a need to emphasize the central figure as a young girl. Showing a naked child was far less transgressive than showing a naked adult.

Later, when NBC first aired the photograph, it was significantly cropped on the right side, removing nearly a third of the original photograph. The removal of the three soldiers lessened associations with the broader war, particularly reminders of American participation in it. Most significant was the removal of the photographer, whose midground presence distracted from the distraught children. Further, the obvious presence of another photographer detracted from the uniqueness of Ut’s position. Finally, the compositional

8A

strength and emotional resonance of the photograph is significantly enhanced by centering Kim Phuc, who appears to run directly toward the viewer as she screams for help. The next day The New York Times published a cropped photograph nearly identical to that of NBC’s. Ultimately, the televised version of Napalm Attack became the Pulitzer Prizewinning photograph remembered today.

When NBC broadcast Napalm Attack, it was shown alongside a thirty-second film segment of the same event taken by NBC cameraman Dinh Phuc Le. It is not exactly clear why the photograph proved so impressive compared to the simultaneous live footage. It may be that the terror on the faces of Kim Phuc and her cousin in Ut’s photograph are oddly undermined by the seemingly calm and disoriented demeanor of the children on the film. Perhaps, after so many of the innocuous newsreels noted by Culbert, the (sanitized) horror of war was what the American public really craved.

Regarding the Vietnam War, television as the central arbiter of the news is not in question.

However, solely associating film footage with television news coverage ultimately proves insufficient when attempting to understand the roles of various media in the 1960s and 70s.

At least in the case of Adams and Ut, photojournalists elided the gap between print and television. Marshall McLuhan, having first referred to Vietnam as the living room war, also famously mused that “the medium is the message.” In some ways, the photograph offered the illusion of a singular, digestible narrative that film coverage at the time lacked. Within the framework of a diffuse and confusing war, static photographs offered the illusion of a singular, clear narrative; but it was primarily vis-à-vis television, as it disseminated to the broadest audience.

Entering into the 1970s, television’s ability to deliver the news with greater alacrity than print media clearly impinged on photography-driven general-interest magazines. The bi-weekly magazine Look ceased publication October 19, 1971. Between 1972 and 1978, Life, which ran for decades as a weekly, instead only produced “special issues.” The extension of filmed news segments finally began to eclipse those of still photography.

Today, war coverage is often generated by television, then co-opted and re-presented via the internet. The internet empowers individuals to participate in news creation, unlike the lack of control viewers have over television content. The perception of television as a news manufacturing machine has resulted in a skeptical and often jaded reception of network and cable news. Blogs, YouTube, Facebook, and various other social media networks, feature video and photographs as “visualbites” that are analyzed and reappropriated by an emerging class of amateur laptop reporters. Gone is a reliance on war correspondents to relay facts; rather the new lay-journalist interprets an ongoing influx of media for herself. Now the empowerment offered by the internet, and thus the extension of the individual, attenuates the detached and external voice of television.

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Kennedy to Kent State Images of a Generation CHECKLIST 1 Mark Shaw, American, 1922-1969, John F. Kennedy Walking in the Dunes at Hyannis Port, 1959, Gelatin silver print, 2011.166 2 Eve Arnold, American, 1912-2012, Joan Crawford in a Studio Fitting for The Best of Everything, 1959, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.6 3 Paul Schutzer, American, 1930-1967, The Kennedy-Nixon Television Debates, 1960, Gelatin silver print, 2011.172 4 Paul Schutzer, American, 1930-1967, On the Presidential Dais at the Inauguration of John F. Kennedy, 1961, Gelatin silver print, 2011.168 5 George Tames, American, 1919-1994, “The Loneliest Job in the World,” President Kennedy in the Oval Office, 1961, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.1 6 Bill Taub, American, 1923-2010, John Glenn at Cape Canaveral, 1962, Gelatin silver print, E.21.12.6 7 Bill Ray, American, born 1936, Marilyn Monroe Sings “Happy Birthday Mr. President” at Madison Square Garden, 1962, Gelatin silver print, E.36.12.4 8 Bert Stern, American, born 1929, Marilyn, 1962, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.4

28 John Loengard, American, born 1934, The Beatles, Miami Beach, 1964, Gelatin silver print, 2011.147 29 Roy Schatt, American, 1919-2002, Portrait of Malcolm X, 1964, Gelatin silver print, 2011.158 30 Richard Avedon, American, 1923-2004, Barbra Streisand, 1965, Gelatin silver print, E.37.12.1 31 Rowland Scherman, American, born 1937, The Beatles, Washington D.C., 1964, Chromogenic print, 2011.160 32 Larry Burrows, British, 1926-1971, Jim Farley, U.S. Marine after a Mission, March 31,1965, Gelatin silver print, 2011.137 33 Larry Burrows, British, 1926-1971, Reaching Out (First Aid Station, Below the DMZ), October 5, 1966, Chromogenic print, 2011.136 34 Jim Marshall, American, 1936-2010, The Beatles at Candlestick Park, San Francisco, August 29, 1966, Gelatin silver print, 2011.149 35 Gene Anthony, American, born 1931, Ken Kesey’s Magic Bus at the San Francisco State Acid Test, 1966, Chromogenic print, 2011.127

9 Charles Moore, American, 1931-2010, Birmingham Riots, 1963, Gelatin silver print, 2011.151

36 Rowland Scherman, American, born 1937, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Speaking at Howard University, 1966, Chromogenic print, E.30.12

10 Rowland Scherman, American, born 1937, Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, with Peter, Paul, and Mary, at the Newport Folk Festival, 1963, Gelatin silver print, 2011.161

37 Gene Anthony, American, born 1931, ‘Mothers Against the War’ Protest, Oakland, California, February 24, 1966, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.23

11 Marina Oswald Porter, American, born in Russia, 1941, Lee Harvey Oswald, 1963, Gelatin silver prints, E.25.12.17

38 Gene Anthony, American, born 1931, Lenny Bruce at the Fillmore Auditorium, San Francisco, June 24, 1966, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.22

12 Abraham Zapruder, American, born in Ukraine, 1905-1970, The Assassination of John F. Kennedy, November 22, 1963, Gelatin silver prints from 8mm film, E.25.12.8 13 Marie Mobley Muchmore, American, 1909-1990, The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy, November 22, 1963, Gelatin silver print from 8mm film, 2011.189 14 Orville Nix, American, 1911-1972, The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy, November 22, 1963, Gelatin silver prints from 8mm film, E.25.12.21 15 Cecil W. Stoughton, American, 1920-2008, Lyndon Baines Johnson Sworn-In as President Aboard Air Force One, November 22, 1963, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.19 16 Wally McNamee, American, born 1932, Jacqueline and Robert F. Kennedy Accompany the President’s Body to Andrews Air Force Base, November 22, 1963, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.16 17 Dan McCoy, American, active 1960s, JFK SHOT, in the New York Post, 1963, Gelatin silver print, 2011.197 18 Robert H. Jackson, American, born 1934, Jack Ruby Shoots Lee Harvey Oswald, November 24, 1963, Gelatin silver print, 2011.146 19 Carl Purcell, American, born 1944, Jacqueline Kennedy and her Children in the Capitol Rotunda, 1963, Gelatin silver print, 2011.201 20 Attributed to Stan Wayman, American, 1927-1973, International Dignitaries at the Funeral of John F. Kennedy, 1963, Gelatin silver print, 2011.195 21 Attributed to Stan Wayman, American, 1927-1973, The Body of President John F. Kennedy Lies in State in the Capitol Rotunda, 1963, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.11 22 Attributed to Stanley Sterns, American, born 1935, John F. Kennedy, Jr., Saluting his Father’s Casket, November 25, 1963, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.20 23 Eddie Adams, American, 1933-2004, Jacqueline Kennedy Receives the Flag from Cardinal Cushing, 1963, Chromogenic print, E.29.12 24 Unknown photographer, American, Twentieth-century, The Family Walks in John F. Kennedy’s Funeral, 1963, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.13 25 John T. Stringer, Jr., American, born 1918, Suit Worn by President John F. Kennedy at the Time of his Assassination, 1963, Gelatin silver print, 2011.154 26 Eddie Adams, American, 1933-2004, The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show, February 9, 1964, Gelatin silver print, 2011.187 27 Harry Benson, British, born 1929, Beatles Pillow Fight, George V Hotel, Paris, January 1964, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.10

39 Kyōichi Sawada, Japanese, 1936-1970, Dusty Death, February 24, 1966, Gelatin silver print, 2011.157 40 Bernie Boston, American, 1933-2008, Flower Power, 1967, Gelatin silver print, 2011.135 41 Gene Anthony, American, born 1931, Timothy Leary in Candlelight, 1966, Chromogenic print, 2011.128 42 Gene Anthony, American, born 1931, Timothy Leary and Allen Ginsberg at the Human Be-In, San Francisco, January, 14, 1967, Chromogenic print, 2011.129 43 Gene Anthony, American, born 1931, Haight and Ashbury Streets, San Francisco, 1967, Chromogenic print, 2011.126

58 William Anders, American, born 1933, Earthrise, December 24, 1968, Chromogenic print, E.33.12.1 59 Bill Eppridge, American, born in Argentina, 1938, The Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy, June 5, 1968, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.12 60 Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, American, born 1930, Neil Armstrong Plants the Flag on the Moon, July 20, 1969, Chromogenic print, E.33.12.2 61 Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, American, born 1930, Neil Armstrong, July 20, 1969, Chromogenic print, E.33.12.3 62 Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, American, born 1930, First Footprint on the Moon, July 20, 1969, Chromogenic print, E.33.12.4 63 Attributed to Vernon Merritt, III, American, 1941-2000, Charles Manson, 1969, Gelatin silver print, 2011.155 64 Larry Burrows, British, 1926-1971, A Woman Mourning Her Dead Husband, April 1969, Chromogenic print, 2011.138 65 Arnold Skolnick, American, born 1937, Woodstock Music & Art Fair Presents an Aquarian Exposition, 1969, Offset lithograph, 2011.182 66 John Dominis, American, born 1921, Woodstock, 1969, Chromogenic print, E.28.12.1 67 Rowland Scherman, American, born 1937, Janis Joplin with Big Brother and the Holding Company at Woodstock, 1969, Chromogenic print, 2011.163 68 Baron Wolman, American, born 1937, Bathers: Woodstock Music and Art Fair, 1969, Gelatin silver print, 2011.180 69 Baron Wolman, American, born 1937, 300,000 Strong: Woodstock Music and Art Fair, 1969, Gelatin silver print, 2011.181 70 Gordon Parks, American, 1912-2006, Portrait of Muhammad Ali, 1970, Gelatin silver print, 2011.153 71 Gordon Parks, American, 1912-2007, Eldridge Cleaver and Wife, Kathleen, with a Portrait of Huey Newton, Algiers, 1970, Gelatin silver print, E.21.12.7 72 John Paul Filo, American, born 1948, Kent State, May 4, 1970, Gelatin silver print, 2011.140 73 Donald Roese, American, active 1970s, Violent Spring, Kent State, May 4, 1970, Gelatin silver print, 2011.133

44 Rowland Scherman, American, born 1937, Bob Dylan, Washington D.C. Coliseum, 1967, Chromogenic print, 2011.159

74 Howard Ruffner, American, about 1951, The National Guard Takes Defensive Positions, Kent State, May 4, 1970, Gelatin silver print, 2011.134

45 Gene Anthony, American, born 1931, Jerry Rubin, with Gary Snyder and Alan Cohen at the Human Be-In, San Francisco, January 14, 1967, Chromogenic print, E.25.12.25

75 Doug Moore, American, 1924-1987, “Campus First Aid,” Kent State, May 4, 1970, Gelatin silver print, 2011.132

46 Terry O’Neill, British, born 1938, Twiggy, London, 1967, Gelatin silver print, E.36.12.2 47 Jim Marshall, American, 1936-2010, Jimi Hendrix at the Monterey Pop Festival, June 18, 1967, Chromogenic print, 2011.150 48 Gene Anthony, American, born 1931, Robert F. Kennedy Campaigning, San Francisco, 1968, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.26 49 Eddie Adams, American, 1933-2004, Brigadier General Nguyen Ngoc Loan Executing the Viet Cong Guerilla, Bay Lop, 1968, Gelatin silver print, 2011.125 50 Walter Fischer, Austrian, active 1960s, Richard Nixon, 1968, Gelatin silver print, 2011.141 51 Rowland Scherman, American, born 1937, Jim Morrison, about 1968, Chromogenic print, 2011.164 52 Ronald Haeberle, American, born about 1941, Massacre at My Lai, March 16, 1968, Gelatin silver print, 2011.143 53 Joseph Louw, South African, about 1945-2004, The Death of Martin Luther King, Jr., Lorraine Hotel, Memphis, April 4, 1968, Gelatin silver print, 2011.148 54 Moneta J. Sleet, American, 1926-1996, Coretta Scott King and Daughter Bernice at the Funeral of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., April 9, 1968, Gelatin silver print, 2011.169 55 Baron Wolman, American, born 1937, Mick Jagger in Performance, 1968, Gelatin silver print, 2011.178 56 Terry O’Neill, British, born 1938, Brigitte Bardot on the Set of Shalako, 1968, Gelatin silver print, E.36.12.1

All works in collection of the Worcester Art Museum, the gift of David Davis.

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57 John Dominis, American, born 1921, Black Power Salute, Mexico City Olympics, October 16, 1968, Gelatin silver print, E.28.12.2

76 Yousuf Karsh, American, 1908-2002, Fidel Castro, 1971, Gelatin silver print, E.37.12.2 77 W. Eugene Smith, American, 1918-1978, Tomoko Uemura in Her Bath, Minamata, 1971, Gelatin silver print, E.25.12.3 78 David Hume Kennerly, American, born 1947, Lone Soldier, A Shau Valley, April 27, 1971, Gelatin silver print, 2011.185 79 Raymond Depardon, French, born 1942, Munich Massacre, 1972, Gelatin silver print, E.21.12.2 80 Nihon Denpa News Agency, Japanese, Twentieth-century, Jane Fonda “Alone” in Vietnam, 1972, Gelatin silver print, 2011.156 81 Nick Ut (Út Công Huynh), Vietnamese, born 1951, Children Fleeing Napalm Attack on Their Village of Trảng Bàng, June 8, 1972, Gelatin silver print, 2011.176 82 Slava (Sal) Veder, American, born 1926, Burst of Joy (Vietnam P.O.W. Lieutenant Colonel Robert L. Stirm, Reunited with his Family), March 17, 1973, Gelatin silver print, 2011.177 83 Hibernia National Bank, San Francisco, American, Twentieth-century, Patty Hearst Holding a Rifle, April 15, 1974, Gelatin silver print, 2011.144 84 David Hume Kennerly, American, born 1947, Nixon Leaving the White House, August 9, 1974, Gelatin silver print, 2011.190 85 Hubert (Hugh) van Es, Dutch, 1941-2009, The Last Helicopter Out of Saigon, April 29, 1975, Gelatin silver print, 2011.188

9 Mark Shaw John F. Kennedy Walking in the Dunes at Hyannis Port 1959 Gelatin silver print 2011.166

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10 Eddie Adams The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show 1964 Gelatin silver print 2011.187 11 Attributed to Frank Powolny Publicity Still of Marilyn Monroe about 1959 Gelatin silver print 2011.191 12 Bill Ray Marilyn Monroe Sings “Happy Birthday Mr. President� at Madison Square Garden 1962 Gelatin silver print E.36.12.4

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13 Rowland Scherman Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, with Peter, Paul and Mary, at the Newport Folk Festival 1963 Gelatin silver print 2011.161

14 Paul Schutzer On the Presidential Dais at the Inauguration of John F. Kennedy 1961 Gelatin silver print 2011.168

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15 Marie Muchmore The Assassination of John F. Kennedy 1963 Gelatin silver print from 8mm film 2011.189 16 Wally McNamee Jaqueline and Robert F. Kennedy Accompany the President’s Body to Andrews Airforce Base 1963 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.16

17 Robert H. Jackson Jack Ruby Shoots Lee Harvey Oswald 1963 Gelatin silver print 2011.146

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18 Attributed to Stan Wayman The Body of President John F. Kennedy Lies in State in the Capitol Rotunda 1963 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.11

19 Unknown Photographer The Kennedys Walk in John F. Kennedy’s Funeral 1963 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.13

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20 Roy Schatt Portrait of Malcolm X 1964 Gelatin silver print 2011.158

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21 Rowland Scherman Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Speaking at Howard University 1966 Chromogenic print E.30.12

22 Charles Moore Birmingham Riots 1963 Gelatin silver print 2011.151 23 Joseph Louw The Death of Martin Luther King, Jr., Lorraine Hotel, Memphis 1968 Gelatin silver print 2011.148 24 Moneta J. Sleet Coretta Scott King and Daughter Bernice at the Funeral of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. 1968 Gelatin silver print 2011.169

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25 Jim Marshall Jimi Hendrix at the Monterey Pop Festival 1967 Chromogenic print 2011.150

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26 Rowland Scherman Bob Dylan, Washington D.C. Coliseum 1967 Chromogenic print 2011.159

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27 Baron Wolman Mick Jagger in Performance 1968 Gelatin silver print 2011.178 28 Gene Anthony Robert F. Kennedy Campaigning, San Francisco 1968 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.26 29 Terry O’Neill Twiggy, London 1967 Gelatin silver print E.36.12.2

verso 30 Bill Eppridge The Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy 1968 Gelatin silver print E.25.12.12

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31 Larry Burrows Jim Farley, US Marine after a Mission 1965 Gelatin silver print 2011.137 32 Larry Burrows Reaching Out (First Aid Station, Below the DMZ) 1966 Chromogenic print 2011.136 33 Ronald Haeberle Massacre at My Lai 1968 Gelatin silver print 2011.143

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34 David Hume Kennerly Lone Solider, A Shau Valley 1971 Gelatin silver print 2011.185

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35 Bernie Boston Flower Power 1967 Gelatin silver print 2011.135

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36 John Paul Filo Kent State 1970 Gelatin silver print 2011.140

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37 John Dominis Woodstock 1969 Chromogenic print E.28.12.1 38 Arnold Skolnick Woodstock Music & Art Fair presents an Aquarian Exposition 1969 Offset lithograph 2011.182

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39 Rowland Scherman Janis Joplin with Big Brother and the Holding Company at Woodstock 1969 Chromogenic print 2011.163 40 Gene Anthony Haight and Ashbury Streets 1967 Chromogenic print 2011.126 41 Gene Anthony Timothy Leary in Candlelight November 1, 1966 Chromogenic print 2011.128

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42 Bill Taub John Glenn at Cape Canaveral 1962 Gelatin silver print E.21.12.6 43 Buzz Aldrin Neil Armstrong Plants the Flag on the Moon 1969 Chromogenic Print E.25.12.00

44 Buzz Aldrin First Bootprint on the Moon 1969 Chromogenic print E.25.12.00

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45 Buzz Aldrin Neil Armstrong on the Moon 1969 Chromogenic print E.33.12.3

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46 Raymond Depardon Munich Massacre 1972 Gelatin silver print E.21.12.2

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47 Nihon Denpa News Agency Jane Fonda “Alone� in Vietnam 1972 Gelatin silver print 2011.156

48 Sal Veder Burst of Joy (Vietnam P.O.W. Lieutenant Colonel Robert L. Stirm Reunited with his Family) 1973 Gelatin silver print 2011.177

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49 David Hume Kennerly Nixon Leaving the White House 1974 Gelatin silver print 2011.190

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50 Hugh van Es The Last Helicopter Out of Saigon 1975 Gelatin silver print 2011.188 51 Hibernia National Bank Patty Hearst Holding a Rifle 1974 Gelatin silver print 2011.144

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Timeline NANCY BURNS 1959 JANUARY 13 S. Ernest Vandiver, Jr. takes office as governor of Georgia on the campaign slogan “No, not one,” meaning not one black child in a white school.

MARCH 2 Trumpeter Miles Davis begins recording his jazz masterpiece Kind of Blue.

MARCH 17 The Chinese occupy Tibet, causing the Dalai Lama to seek asylum in India.

MAY 20 Japanese-Americans regain their citizenship following World War II. JULY 17 Dr. Mary Leakey finds a hominid fossil skull approximately 1,750,000 years old.

1962

SEPTEMBER 22 The first telephone cable links the United States with Europe.

SEPTEMBER 28 American satellite Explorer VI takes the first video pictures of earth.

FEBRUARY 14 First lady Jacqueline Kennedy conducts a televised tour of the White House.

NOVEMBER 2 Charles Van Doren admits to a House subcommittee that he had the questions and answers in advance of his appearances on the television game show Twenty-One.

FEBRUARY 17 The Beach Boys introduce a new musical style with their hit “Surfin’ USA.”

WINTER Al Haber organizes the “Students for a Democratic Society,” which holds its first organizational meeting at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

MARCH 31 Cesar Chavez organizes the United Farm Workers union on his birthday.

JULY 9 The Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles opens Andy Warhol’s first solo exhibition, showcasing thirty-two paintings of Campbell’s soup cans.

JULY 11 The Telstar I satellite carries the first transatlantic television transmission, picking up broadcast signals from France and bouncing them to an antenna in Maine.

AUGUST 4 Nelson Mandela is captured by South African police.

1960 MAY 9 US Food and Drug Administration approves the pill Enovid as safe for birth control use.

AUGUST 5 Actress Marilyn Monroe is found dead in her Los Angeles, California home. It is deemed a probable suicide from an overdose of sleeping pills.

JULY 11 Harper Lee publishes the novel To Kill a Mockingbird, which is awarded a Pulitzer Prize, and is made into a film in 1962.

AUGUST 17 The drug Thalidomide, promoted to treat prenatal morning sickness, is proven to cause birth defects and withdrawn from the market after crippling thousands of babies.

AUGUST 6 Singer Chubby Checker introduces the song and dance “The Twist” on The Dick Clark Saturday Night Show.

SEPTEMBER 17 The first federal suit to end public school segregation is filed by the Justice Department.

AUGUST 25 At the Seventeenth Summer Olympics in Rome, Wilma Rudolph becomes the first African-American to win three gold medals in a single games.

SEPTEMBER 21 Dr. Albert Starr performs the first successful heart valve replacement on a human.

SEPTEMBER 26 The first televised presidential debate between candidates Vice President Richard M. Nixon and Senator John F. Kennedy take place in Chicago, Illinois.

SEPTEMBER 30 The ABC network premieres The Flintstones, the first animated program in prime time television.

OCTOBER 19 Martin Luther King, Jr. is arrested during a sit-in at a whites only restaurant in Atlanta, Georgia. Later arrested for violating probation by driving with an out-of-state license, King is jailed. Secretary of State Robert F. Kennedy convinces the judge to release King on bail.

OCTOBER 25 The first electronic wrist watch goes on sale in New York City.

NOVEMBER 8 John F. Kennedy is elected thirty-fifth president of the United States by 118,550 popular votes.

OCTOBER 16–29 The Cuban Missile Crisis begins when President Kennedy is informed that reconnaissance photographs reveal the presence of Soviet missile bases in Cuba. Kennedy persuades Nikita Khrushchev to remove the missiles.

1963 JANUARY 11 The first discotheque, Whiskey-á-Go-Go, opens in Los Angeles.

FEBRUARY 19 Betty Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique is published, sparking the onset of second-wave feminism in the United States.

MAY 3 In Birmingham, Alabama, Police Commissioner Eugene “Bull” Connor unleashes dogs and high-powered fire hoses on boycott-bound school children.

MAY 6 Psychology professors Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert are fired from Harvard University for promoting experiments with psychedelic drugs.

MAY 8 The first James Bond film, Dr. No premieres in the United States.

1961 JANUARY 3 The United States severs diplomatic relations with communist Cuba under Fidel Castro.

APRIL 12 Russian cosmonaut Yuri Alexeyevich Gagarin becomes the first person in space, orbiting the Earth once and landing safely.

APRIL 17 A brigade of CIA-trained Cuban exiles invade the Bay of Pigs in Cuba, in a failed attempt to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro.

MAY 11 President Kennedy authorizes American advisors to aid South Vietnam in opposition to communist forces in North Vietnam.

MAY 20 A white mob attacks a busload of “Freedom Riders” in Montgomery, Alabama, prompting the federal government to send in marshals to restore order.

JULY 2 Novelist Ernest Hemingway commits suicide at his home in Ketchum, Idaho.

AUGUST 13 East Germany closes the Brandenburg Gate, sealing the border between the city’s eastern and western sectors. Two days later, work begins on the Berlin Wall.

AUGUST 17 Dr. Albert Sabin’s oral vaccine against polio is approved. It will be administered nationwide to school children.

SEPTEMBER 2 The U.S. Federal minimum wage is set at $1.15 per hour.

OCTOBER 16 Julia Child, Simone Beck, and Louisette Bertholle publish the first volume of Mastering the Art of French Cooking.

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OCTOBER 11 Pope John XXIII convenes the Twenty-First Ecumenical Council, also known as Vatican II.

JUNE 10 President Kennedy signs an equal pay for equal work law for men and women.

AUGUST The Ronettes singing trio releases a top ten hit, “Be My Baby,” written by Ellie Greenwich, Jeff Barry, and Phil Spector, and produced by Spector.

AUGUST 28 The Civil Rights March in Washington D.C. draws over 200,000 demonstrators who assemble before the Lincoln Memorial where Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivers his “I Have a Dream” speech.

SEPTEMBER 2 Alabama Governor George C. Wallace, Jr. encircles Tuskegee High School with state troopers to prevent its integration.

NOVEMBER 22 President John F. Kennedy is killed by an assassin’s bullet in Dallas, Texas. In about two hours, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson is sworn in as the thirty-sixth President of the United States. Police arrest suspect Lee Harvey Oswald.

NOVEMBER 24 Jack Ruby shoots Oswald in front of live television cameras.

1964 JANUARY 17 The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) is founded in Egypt with a charter proclaiming Israel an illegal state and pledging the elimination of Zionism in Palestine.

FEBRUARY 2 The G.I. Joe action figure debuts as a popular American toy.

FEBRUARY 9 The Beatles make their first live American television appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show.

MARCH 15 President Johnson asks Congress to take on the “War on Poverty,” and ensure the universal right to vote. The following day he submits a $1 billion “War on Poverty” program.

1966

MAY 1 The first BASIC program runs on a computer at Dartmouth College.

JANUARY 10 One of eight newly-elected African-Americans to the Georgia House of Representatives, Julian Bond, is denied his seat by a vote of 184-12 for his opposition to the war in Vietnam.

MAY 19 The State Department announces that the United States embassy in Moscow has been electronically bugged.

MARCH 4 Annoyed by the press, John Lennon proclaims “[The Beatles] are bigger than Jesus,” leading to a boycott of The Beatles across the globe.

JUNE 2 The Rolling Stones debut their first American concert tour in Lynn, Massachusetts.

JUNE 6 Civil rights activist James Meredith is shot during his “March Against Fear,” from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi.

JULY 2 President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964, guaranteeing the right of every American citizen to vote and prohibiting racial segregation in public places.

JULY 16 In accepting the Republican presidential nomination in San Francisco, California, Barry M. Goldwater says "extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice," and that "moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue."

AUGUST 5 United States begins bombing North Vietnam.

AUGUST 29 Walt Disney’s film Mary Poppins is released.

OCTOBER 22 Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher and novelist, declines the Nobel Prize for Literature.

JUNE 13 In a landmark decision, The United States Supreme Court overturns the conviction of Ernesto Miranda for rape and kidnapping because of a coerced confession. The high court rules that police must inform criminal suspects of their right to consult with an attorney, and their right against self incrimination.

JUNE 30 Twenty-eight men and women begin the National Organization for Women, electing Betty Friedan as president.

JULY 1 The United States’ federally-funded insurance program, Medicare, goes into effect.

AUGUST 8 Chairman Mao Tse Tung’s “Sixteen Points” are ratified in China, setting the Cultural Revolution in motion. It is dedicated to advancing socialism and eliminating traditional cultural elements from Chinese society.

AUGUST 26 Tom Stoppard’s three-act play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead premieres at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.

1965 JANUARY 4 In his State of the Union address, President Johnson outlines the goals of his “Great Society,” a vast program including health research, elimination of poverty, Civil Rights enforcement, immigration reform, and education support.

FEBRUARY 11 President Johnson orders air strikes against North Vietnamese targets in retaliation for guerrilla attacks on the American military.

FEBRUARY 21 Former Nation of Islam leader Malcolm X (El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz) is shot and killed in New York by assassins identified as Black Muslims.

MARCH 3 The Temptations’ song “My Girl” reaches #1 on the Billboard charts.

APRIL 17 Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) holds its first anti-Vietnam war protest rally in Washington, D.C. JUNE 12 The announcement of new celestial bodies known as blue galaxies supports the Big Bang Universe Creation Theory.

JULY 30 President Johnson signs into law the Medicare bill, which goes into effect the following year.

AUGUST 2 When reporting the destruction of the Vietnamese village of Cam Ne, newsman Morley Safer first suggests that American forces are losing the war.

When the report is broadcast on CBS television, President Johnson demands that Safer be fired, but network president Frank Stanton refuses.

AUGUST 11 Los Angeles, California, police beat a black motorist suspected of drunk driving, sparking the Watts Riots. 20,000 National Guardsmen are called in to quell the unrest. In six days 34 die, 857 are injured, and over 2,200 are arrested.

DECEMBER 9 The annual television special A Charlie Brown Christmas premieres.

SEPTEMBER 8 The television series Star Trek debuts, with its first episode “The Man Trap.”

DECEMBER 13 The United States initiates the first bombings of Hanoi in North Vietnam.

1967 JANUARY 14 Held in San Francisico, California’s Golden Gate Park, the “Human Be-In” is a music and art festival preceding the “Summer of Love.” LSD advocate Timothy Leary proclaims “Turn On, Tune In, Drop Out.” JANUARY 15 Super Bowl I is played in Los Angeles, California, with the Green Bay Packers of the National Football League defeating the Kansas City Chiefs of the American Football League, 35-10.

MARCH 6 President Lyndon Baines Johnson announces his plan to establish a military draft lottery.

APRIL 28 Muhammad Ali refuses induction into the United States Army and is stripped of his heavyweight boxing title.

JUNE 5 The Six Day War erupts in the Middle East when Israel attacks Egyptian forces amassing on its borders. Soon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq enter the conflict, in which Jordan loses the West Bank—an area of 2,270 square miles—to Israel.

JUNE 27 The first automated teller machine (ATM) is installed for business outside a Barclay’s Bank branch in London, England.

OCTOBER 9 Latin American guerilla leader Che Guevara is executed while attempting to instigate revolution in Bolivia.

OCTOBER 29 Navy pilot John McCain—later a United States Senator from Arizona and Republican Presidential nominee—is shot down in his A-4 jet over North Vietnam.

He spends five and a half years as a prisoner of war, two of them in solitary confinement.

NOVEMBER 9 Rolling Stone magazine, co-founded by Jann Wenner and Ralph J. Gleason, begins publication in San Francisco, California.

DECEMBER 3 Surgeons in Cape Town, South Africa, led by Christiaan Barnard, perform the first human heart transplant at the Groote Schuur Hospital. Recipient Louis Washkansky lives eighteen days with the new heart.

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1968 JANUARY 21 Battle of Khe Sanh begins as North Vietnamese forces attack a US Marine base.

Americans hold their position for two and a half months in the longest and bloodiest battle of the war.

FEBRUARY 10 American figure skater Peggy Fleming wins a gold medal at the Winter Olympic Games in Grenoble, France.

1970

FEBRUARY 12 Activist and Black Panther co-founder Eldridge Cleaver publishes Soul on Ice, a book revealing his evolution from convicted rapist to Black Liberation activist.

FEBRUARY 7 Five members of the “The Chicago Seven” are convicted of crossing state lines to incite riots during the 1968 Democratic National Convention.

FEBRUARY 16 America’s first 911 emergency telephone system is inaugurated in Haleyville, Alabama.

FEBRUARY 26 Thirty-two African nations agree to boycott the Olympics, protesting South Africa’s participation and its policy of apartheid.

MARCH 18 President Johnson signs Public Law 90-269 eliminating the requirement that 25% of American currency be backed in gold, freeing $10.4 billion in gold reserves to meet international demands.

APRIL 10 Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers sign a landmark contract with the California grape grower, Lionel Steinberg.

APRIL 13 The Apollo 13 Spacecraft, having traveled nearly to the moon, is crippled by an explosion of a liquid oxygen tank. The three-man crew manages to return safely three days later.

APRIL 22 The first Earth Day is celebrated as millions protest environmental pollution.

APRIL 2 Stanley Kubrick’s science fiction film, 2001: A Space Odyssey, premieres in Washington, D.C. APRIL 4 Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee.

APRIL 24 Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) occupy several buildings on the Columbia University campus in New York, beginning a week-long protest of the university’s affiliation with the Department of Defense.

MAY 1-4 Students at Kent State University in Ohio protest American involvement in Cambodia. National Guardsmen called in to control the demonstration fire into a crowd, killing four students and injuring a dozen others.

MAY 3-17 In France, national conflict over class discrimination and politics sparks student protests.

Ten million workers go on strike in sympathy. In Paris, violence erupts on the Boulevards Saint-Michel and Saint-Germain, and nearly 600 protestors and police are wounded.

MAY 15 African-Americans Phillip Lafayette Gibbs and James Earl Green die when shot by police at a Jackson State University protest in Mississippi.

JUNE 29 United States begins pulling troops out of Cambodia.

JUNE 3 Valerie Solanas shoots Andy Warhol at his New York studio, critically wounding the artist. He survives the attack and she is sentenced to three years in psychiatric detention.

SEPTEMBER 12 Psychologist and LSD proponent, Timothy Leary, escapes from a California jail and flees the country with the help of The Weather Underground, a left-wing terrorist organization.

JUNE 5 At a political rally to celebrate his California primary victory, Sirhan Bishara Sirhan fatally shoots Senator Robert F. Kennedy in the kitchen of the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles.

AUGUST 8 Richard M. Nixon accepts the presidential nomination at the Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida.

AUGUST 28 Outside the Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois, anti-war demonstrators clash with police. A grand jury later charges the “The Chicago Seven” with conspiracy and inciting to riot.

OCTOBER 16 At the Olympic Games in Mexico City, victorious runners Tommie Smith and John Carlos raise black-gloved fists in a Black Power salute while on the awards podium.

OCTOBER 20 Former first lady Jacqueline Kennedy marries Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis on the island of Scorpios.

1969 JANUARY 20 Richard M. Nixon states in his presidential inaugural address “The greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker. This honor now beckons America.”

JANUARY 25 United States-North Vietnamese peace talks begin in Paris, France.

FEBRUARY 4 Al-Fatah leader Yasser Arafat becomes chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).

APRIL 3 American troops in Vietnam peak at 543,000. Over 33,000 Americans have already died.

JUNE 28 Eight police officers raid the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City’s Greenwich Village.

Hundreds of patrons riot over three days in an event considered the birth of the modern day Gay Rights Movement.

JULY 20 Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin land on the moon. As a live television audience watches, Armstrong declares “that’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” The two men walk on the moon for two and half hours.

AUGUST 8 Actress Sharon Tate, the wife of director Roman Polanski, is brutally murdered along with four others by the followers of cult leader Charles Manson.

AUGUST 15 The Woodstock Music & Art Fair opens. An audience of over 400,000 gathers on Max Yasgur’s dairy farm in Bethel, New York. Billed as “three days of love and peace,” it becomes a landmark in popular music history.

SEPTEMBER 2 North Vietnamese president Ho Chi Minh dies.

NOVEMBER 10 The children’s television program Sesame Street premieres on the National Educational Television network.

NOVEMBER 12 Freelance reporter Seymour Hersh reports that on March 16, 1968 at least 341 Vietnamese civilians were massacred at My Lai. The United States Army prosecutes Lieutenant William Calley, who is convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment, but he serves only threeand-a-half years under house arrest.

DECEMBER 1 The United States government initiates the first military draft since World War II. DECEMBER 6 Four concert-goers die at the Altamont Speedway Free Festival in northern California, headlined and organized by The Rolling Stones. Three deaths would be ruled accidental, and one a homicide committed by members of the Hell’s Angels motorcycle gang, serving as concert security officers.

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SEPTEMBER 18 Rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix dies from a drug overdose in London, England at age twenty-seven. Weeks later, singer Janis Joplin dies under similar circumstances in a Hollywood, California, hotel.

DECEMBER 2 President Nixon creates the Environmental Protection Administration.

Its first major legislative initiative will be the Clean Air Act.

1971 JANUARY 2 Tobacco advertising is banned from American television.

FEBRUARY 10 Photojournalists Henry Huet of the AP, Ken Potter of UPI, Larry Burrows of Life magazine, and Keisaburo Shimamoto of Newsweek are killed in a helicopter crash over Laos.

MARCH 1 Radical left-wing terrorists The Weather Underground bomb the United States’ Capitol building to protest American involvement in Laos.

MARCH 21 Two American platoons in Vietnam refuse orders to advance.

APRIL 20 The Supreme Court upholds the use of busing to achieve racial desegregation in public schools.

JUNE 13 The first of nine sets of articles labeled the “The Pentagon Papers” are published in The New York Times. Military analyst Daniel Ellsberg, who leaked classified records of government policy on Vietnam, is later prosecuted for theft and conspiracy.

JULY 1 Congress passes the Twenty-sixth Amendment, lowering the federal voting age from twenty-one to eighteen.

SEPTEMBER 13 Prisoners at the New York Correctional Facility in Attica riot over poor living conditions, and take prison guards as hostages. State troopers and prison guards storm the rebellion, resulting in the deaths of eleven guards and thirty-two prisoners.

OCTOBER 1 Walt Disney Productions opens the “Magic Kingdom” in Orlando, Florida.

OCTOBER 19 Look magazine publishes its final issue.

NOVEMBER 15 Intel Corporation advertises the world’s first microprocessor, the Intel 4004.

DECEMBER 19 Stanley Kubrick’s film A Clockwork Orange, based on Anthony Burgess’ dystopian novella of 1962, premieres in New York City.

DECEMBER 20 Ms. Magazine publishes an insert in New York Magazine. The magazine’s first independent issue appears a month later.

1972 JANUARY 30 In Derry (Londonderry), Northern Ireland, British troops fire on a civil rights march, killing over a dozen protestors. Riots ensue and the British Embassy is destroyed by fire.

FEBRUARY 17 President Nixon begins a ten-day mission to China, becoming the first American president to visit a country not diplomatically recognized by the United States.

MARCH 22 The United States Congress passes the Equal Rights Amendment, which later fails to achieve ratification by the states.

APRIL Polaroid Corporation introduces its SX-70 camera which produces nearly instant photographs with a square, white-bordered format. It sells over 700,000 cameras in its first two years.

JUNE 17 Five agents linked to Nixon’s “Committee to Re-elect the President” are arrested after breaking into the Democratic National Committee offices in the Watergate Hotel in Washington D.C. Afterward, files pertaining to the arrest will be shredded, and President Nixon will conspire to obstruct an FBI investigation of the incident.

JUNE 19 FBI official Mark Felt, known then as “Deep Throat,” secretly informs Washington Post reporter Bob Woodward of a connection between the Watergate burglars and E. Howard Hunt, a former CIA agent linked to the White House.

JUNE 23 President Nixon signs Title IX of the Education Amendment, requiring that federallyassisted schools provide equal funding to men’s and women’s sports.

1974 JANUARY 4 President Nixon refuses to hand over subpoenaed tape recordings and documents to the Senate committee investigating Watergate.

APRIL 5 The World Trade Center opens in New York City, briefly hosting the two tallest buildings in the world at 110 stories.

APRIL 8 Henry “Hank” Aaron of the Atlanta Braves hits his 715th career home run, breaking Babe Ruth’s record.

APRIL 15 Newspaper heiress Patty Hearst—kidnapped on April 4th by the self-styled revolutionary “Symbionese Liberation Army”—participates in her captors’ robbery of a San Francisco, California bank.

JUNE 26 A cashier at the Marsh Supermarket in Troy, Ohio, is the first retail employee to scan a Universal Product Code (UPC) for a commercial purchase.

JULY 8–22 Actress Jane Fonda travels to North Vietnam, and is photographed with North Vietnamese soldiers.

JULY 19 The House of Representatives Judiciary Committee recommends that President Nixon stand trial in the Senate for five impeachment charges filed against him.

SEPTEMBER 1 American chess champion Bobby Fischer wins the international title in Reykjavik, Iceland, defeating Boris Spassky of the Soviet Union.

SEPTEMBER 5 At the Olympic Games in Munich, Germany, Palestinian terrorists take Israeli athletes and coaches as hostages. Eleven Israelis, five guerillas, and a police officer are killed in a twenty-hour seige.

AUGUST 9 Richard M. Nixon officially resigns from office, to be succeeded by Gerald R. Ford, former House minority leader who had become vice president when Spiro T. Agnew resigned the preceding year.

SEPTEMBER 8 President Ford fully and unconditionally pardons Nixon for any crimes committed while he was president.

SEPTEMBER 17 M*A*S*H*, the television series based on Robert Altman’s 1970 film about an American field hospital during the Korean war, premieres on the CBS network.

NOVEMBER 7 President Richard M. Nixon is re-elected in a landslide victory over Democratic Senator George McGovern.

SEPTEMBER 9 In Boston, Massachusetts, Senator Edward Kennedy speaks in favor of busing as a desegregation policy for public schools. The group “Restore Our Alienated Rights” organizes public opposition, beginning three years of protest and violence.

NOVEMBER 30 American troop withdrawal from Vietnam is completed. However, 16,000 Army advisors and administrators remain in the country to assist South Vietnamese military forces, while American bombing continues.

DECEMBER 31 Congress overrides President Ford’s veto of the Freedom of Information Act, strengthening amendments in the Privacy Act of 1974.

1975 JANUARY 6 The television game show Wheel of Fortune premieres on the NBC network.

1973 JANUARY 16 The NBC television network presents the 440th and final broadcast of Bonanza.

JANUARY 22 The Supreme Court legalizes abortion in the case of Roe v. Wade, ruling that a woman’s right to privacy encompasses her decision to terminate a pregnancy.

JANUARY 23 At the Paris, France, peace talks, President Nixon announces an end to the Vietnam war, and a cease-fire begins five days later. 58,167 Americans have been killed, along with over a million North Vietnamese troops and Southern Resistance fighters (Viet Cong), as well as some two million civilians.

FEBRUARY 27 American Indian Movement and Oglala Sioux activists occupy Wounded Knee, South Dakota, protesting local administration and federal failures to honor treaties with Native American nations.

MARCH 17 The first prisoners of war are released from the “Hanoi Hilton,” the notorious North Vietnam prison.

MAY 11 Charges are dismissed against Daniel Ellsberg and Anthony Russo for their roles in the release of the “The Pentagon Papers.”

JUNE 9 For the first time in twenty-five years, thoroughbred racehorse Secretariat wins the Triple Crown title.

AUGUST 28 Cultural revolutionary Abbie Hoffman is arrested for smuggling and selling cocaine. He flees to live underground for seven years as the environmental activist “Barry Freed.”

AUGUST 29 Judge John Sirica orders President Nixon to turn over secret tapes of oval office discussions of the Watergate incident. He refuses and files an appeal.

NOVEMBER 7 The United States Congress passes the War Powers Resolution, requiring the president to obtain the assent of Congress within ninety days of sending American troops abroad.

MARCH Sylvester Stallone authors the screenplay Rocky, and insists on taking the lead role when he sells the script.

MARCH 5 Peace activist Fred Moore founds the Homebrew Computer Club in Menlo Park, California. Its first meeting inspires twenty-one-year-old Steve Wozniak to design and build the first Apple computer.

MARCH 26 The United States ratifies a ban established by the Geneva Protocol, prohibiting the production, storage, and use of chemical and biological waepons.

APRIL 17 The Lon Nol government of Cambodia surrenders to the Khmer Rouge.

APRIL 29-30 United States forces pull out of Vietnam. As Saigon falls, President Ford orders the land and sea evacuation of 7,000 Americans and South Vietnamese.

Unconditional surrender to Communist North Vietnam is signed by the South Vietnamese government.

JUNE 5 Egypt reopens the Suez Canal to international shipping, eight years after The Six Day War with Israel.

JULY 1 Cesar Chavez and sixty supporters of the United Farm Workers embark on a thousand-mile march across California to rally farm workers.

JULY 20 Stephen Spielberg’s film Jaws, based on the novel by Peter Benchley, premieres in wide release.

SEPTEMBER 5 President Ford escapes an assassination attempt by Lynette “Squeeky” Fromme, a disciple of Charles Manson.

OCTOBER 11 Saturday Night Live, a comedy sketch show created and produced by Lorne Michaels, premieres on NBC, with guest host George Carlin.

DECEMBER 6 The United States Congress authorizes an 2.3 billion dollar emergency loan to rescue New York City from bankruptcy.

DECEMBER 28 President Nixon signs the Endangered Species Act into law.

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PHOTO CREDITS

Cover: Bernie Boston Flower Power (detail) 1967 Gelatin silver print 2011.135 Frontispiece: William Anders Earthrise (detail) December 24, 1968 Chromogenic print E.33.12.1 Inside back: Rowland Scherman Jim Morrison about 1968 Chromogenic print 2011.164

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© Courtesy of Harry Benson Black Star Publishing Co., Inc. Courtesy of John Brook Courtesy of David Brady Corbis/Bettmann Getty Images Cecil Stoughton/Getty Images Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images Magnum Photos © Mark Shaw/mptvimages.com George Tames/New York Times/Redux Courtesy of Kinetikon Pictures © Estate of Jim Marshall Courtesy of Terry O’Neill Courtesy of Bill Ray Courtesy of Bob Korn © The Rowland Scherman Project Courtesy Mrs. Elaine Schott Courtesy of Arnold Skolnick © Kevin Eugene Smith © www.wolfgangsvault.com Courtesy of Baron Wolman Zapruder Film © 1967 (Renewed 1995) The Sixth Floor Museum at Dealy Plaza

frontispiece p. 25 p. 7 p. 11 pp. 7, 9, 16, 17, 20, 22, 33, 39, 40, 41 pp. cover, 14, 15, 22, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34 p. 14 p. 25 p. 38 p. 19 p. 6 pp. 1, 36, 37 p. 26 p. 28 p. 20 pp. 21, 25, 27, 35, 46, 47 p. 24 p. 34 p. 13 pp. 28, 35 p. 28 p. 10

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WORCESTER ART MUSEUM

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