Types ofParticipation Preconditions and Enabling Factors for Citizen Engagement with

246 Alta Fölscher

accountable and public policies become contestable.In short,participatory budgeting mechanisms operate at the core ofa good governance system, embodying and reinforcing values that,it is argued,could help some regions ofthe world,including the Middle East and North Africa,narrow significant growth and human development gaps.

Types ofParticipation

Very different types and levels ofcitizen engagement with public resource decisions and service delivery are referred to as participatory budgeting.One can differentiate two broad types ofcitizen engagement,distinguished by the degree to which citizens enter the action space ofthe state in planning for, allocating,using,and monitoring the use ofpublic resources.In the first set ofparticipatory budgeting initiatives,citizens do not attempt to take over or partner with the state in the budget process but instead undertake activities in the broader public domain that are aimed primarily at improving the transparency ofgovernments’actions and the accountability ofstate actors. This type ofparticipation is within the boundaries ofboth representative democracy and more autocratic forms ofgovernment (provided that such activities are tolerated).Making public decisions is still the purview ofgovernment agencies and elected officeholders.However,citizens do not take the bureaucratic effectiveness ofthese institutions for granted but undertake activities to bolster transparency and accountability.These activities typically generate information on public policy and services outside ofthe state in order to influence what happens in the state.Activities in this broad category are usually initiated by CSOs.This type ofparticipation relies on the quality ofthe information to persuade decision makers to change development and funding priorities or improve the quality ofservices.

Budget analysis and dissemination by skilled professionals are often aided by garnering the support ofbroad-based movements,by having “people power”behind it,as Paul (2005) argues.He emphasizes the need for coalitions ofdifferent types ofCSOs.These coalitions need to use the media to reach citizens,forge ties with officials and members ofoversight bodies, and be able to translate dry,technical material into information that ordinary people will understand and find relevant.These campaigns are strengthened ifthere is true representative democracy and citizens cast their votes on the basis ofpolicy and service delivery issues.However,the success ofsuch initiatives is not necessarily dependent on a democratic environment.

In the second set ofinitiatives,citizens engage or are engaged in the decision-making processes ofpublic agencies.Examples ofthis participation,