Middle-Income Countries

TABLE 1.1 Data Points on Female Labor in the Apparel Industry of Sample MiddleIncome Countries

Country Year of peak apparel export share Peak share of apparel in total exports (%) Share of apparel in total exports, 2018 (%)

Apparel share of all female labor (%)a Female share of all apparel employment (%)a

FLFP rate, 1995–2015 (%) Bangladesh 2018 88 88 8 (2016) 46 (2017) 26–32 Cambodia 2003 84 66 17 (2014) 79 (2017) 77–74 Egypt, Arab Rep. 1998 13 7 2 (2015) 31 (2017) 21–22 Pakistan 2017 39 37 9 (2015) 46 (2018) 13–24 Sri Lanka 2000 55 47 12 (2015) 72 (2017) 36–36 Turkey 1992 30 15 5 (2013) 50 (2017) 31–31 vietnam 2003 19 11 6 (2015) 80 (2017) 72–73 Avg. all countries 2002 9 4 3 (2017) 57 (2017) 51–48

Sources: united Nations Comtrade database, representing Standard Industrial Trade Classification (SITC) 1-digit code 84 (articles of apparel and clothing accessories); International Labour Organization ILOSTAT data (1990–2030). Note: FLFP = female labor force participation. a. Data year is indicated within parentheses.

mining); manufacturing/industry; and services. This report uses “industry” to refer to a given 2-digit ISIC code.

We also define jobs and careers by occupational code using the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO), comprising 10 major groups. The ISCO system associates occupational groups with skill levels, which are associated with education levels (table 1.2). ISCO skill levels traditionally have been based on typical educational attainment, but they now also emphasize the nature of the work performed—for example, the tools and machinery used and the amount of in-job training or experience needed for competent performance.

For our purposes, we focus on formal education at each skill level and occupation because of data availability. HSOs require more education, imply longer-term commitment to the labor market, and provide advancement opportunities; therefore, we often equate them with careers. However, we also recognize that career paths include longterm labor participation associated with in-job experience and permanence in the labor market. HSOs fall within ISCO codes 1–3, which include managerial, professional, and technician occupations. The occupations most likely to be associated with careers require workers to have upper-secondary and tertiary education.