The Three Female Employment Groups

Now that we know which industries and occupations tend to employ more women than others, we can try to organize them in a way that highlights patterns in industries, occupations, education levels, average wages, and shares of workers with formal work arrangements (table 3.2). An in-depth analysis of female employment across the seven sample countries suggests that employment tends to fall into three groups (further described below) that together illustrate the transition from jobs to careers. For this classification, we focus on the technical requirements rather than the labor market permanence and job experience components of careers.

Group 1: Agriculture and informal domestic service industries. Employment in this group can often be considered “jobs,” and these industries and occupations are primarily in low- and lower-middle-income countries. Workers tend to have no formal education or primary education. The group includes agricultural, elementary, or sales and service occupations—corresponding to International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) codes 6, 9, and 5, respectively. Work is almost entirely informal (over 95 percent), and wages are generally below minimum wage and the lowest among all industries (see appendix A, tables A.3 and A.4). Geographically, agricultural employment is in rural areas that do not overlap with employment opportunities in the other groups. Most female employment in Bangladesh and Pakistan falls into Group 1.

Group 2: Light manufacturing and retail and food/beverage services. Employment in this group can be considered in transition between “jobs” and “careers.” Light manufacturing includes apparel, textiles, leather, and food manufacturing, which tend to be the most labor-intensive and female-intensive manufacturing industries globally, with employment demand driven by exports and the domestic market. The primary occupations are craft workers or plant operators (ISCO codes 7 and 8), and workers generally have primary or lower-secondary education. Wages are higher than in Group 1 and near the minimum wage. Informal employment is midrange (generally 60–70 percent). On average, men in light manufacturing industries tend to work about 10 hours more per week than women. Group 1 and 2 industries are more evident in Cambodia and Vietnam. Sri Lanka and Turkey are transitioning between Group 2 and Group 3.

Retail and food/beverage services are mid-skill industries where there is demand from the national market. Employment growth, however, is also driven by foreign tourism. Christian, Evers, and Barrientos (2013) find that 70 percent of workers in tourism are female, which suggests that foreign demand is a driver of female employment. Employment often overlaps geographically with light manufacturing (in urban and industrial areas). The main occupations are sales and service workers (ISCO code 5). Workers generally have primary or lower-secondary education and earn similar wages to production workers. Informal employment accounts for about 90 percent of workers, and women tend to work more hours per week than in light manufacturing, averaging around 48 hours per week.