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19. To control for some of the differences in samples, stratification, and economic structure when comparing countries in the sample, dummies for sector, firm size, and formality are used to calculate correlations and different cross-country estimates. 20. Cirera et al. (2020) describe the design features implemented to minimize measurement bias and errors. 21. Comin and Mestieri (2018) present the reference year of invention for these technologies: electricity (1882); personal computers (PCs) (1973); cell phones (1973); and the internet (1983). 22. Hallward-Driemeier and Nayyar (2017) provide further discussions on the emergence of Industry 4.0. Although some of these technologies, such as AI, have been available since the 1960s, they have been increasingly available in recent years. 23. While almost all firms use mobile phones, clearly benefiting from an extraordinary process of leapfrogging, only a small share has reported no outages in electricity. There is a large gap in access to generators, particularly for small firms.

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