References

there are four types of households according to the baseline status of the two members. If each type is denoted by a pair dummy whereby the first term is the head’s status and the second term is the nonhead’s status, this gives (NF, NF), (NF, F), (F, NF), and (F, F). A household-level regression of income could then be run whereby the regressors include interactions of time with all four of the dummies. Because the individual regression on employment shows that households with the greatest number of informal members were affected most severely by the crisis, the coefficient on Time X (NF, NF) can be expected to be the most negative, while the coefficient on Time X (F, F) would be the least negative. The other two coefficients are between these two because they are mixed households. In the current specification, the nonhead member of the pair is ignored, and the coefficient on Post X NF is actually a mixture of Time X (NF, NF) and Time X (NF, F). In this sense, the impact of informality might be underestimated if it is claimed that Post X NF is equivalent to Post X (NF, NF). To the extent that there are some mixed households, ignoring the nonhead likely biases downward the estimated differential between formal and informal workers only in the sense that the difference between the two polar cases of NF, NF and F, F are not measured. Estimations with this more elaborate regression are available upon request.

Abraham, Rosa, Amit Basole, and Surbhi Kesar. 2021. “Tracking Employment Trajectories In the Covid-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Indian Panel Data.” CSE Working Paper 35 (January),

Center for Sustainable Employment, Azim Premji University, Bangalore, India. Adams-Prassl, Abi, Teodora Boneva, Marta Golin, and Christopher Rauh. 2020. “Inequality in the

Impact of the Coronavirus Shock: Evidence from Real Time Surveys.” IZA Discussion Paper 13183 (April), Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany. Adhvaryu, Achyuta, A. V. Chari, and Siddharth Sharma. 2013. “Firing Costs and Flexibility:

Evidence from Firms’ Employment Responses to Shocks in India.” Review of Economics and

Statistics 95 (3): 725–40. Afridi, Farzana, Kanika Mahajan, and Nikita Sangwan. 2021. “Employment Guaranteed? Social

Protection during a Pandemic.” IZA Discussion Paper 14099 (February), Institute of Labor

Economics, Bonn, Germany. Alfaro, Laura, Oscar Becerra, and Marcela Eslava. 2020. “EMEs and COVID-19: Shutting Down in a World of Informal and Tiny Firms.” NBER Working Paper 27360 (June), National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Andrews, M. A., Binu Areekal, K. R. Rajesh, Jijith Krishnan, R. Suryakala, Biju Krishnan,

C. P. Muraly, and P. V. Santhosh. 2020. “First Confirmed Case of COVID-19 Infection in

India: A Case Report.” Indian Journal of Medical Research 151 (5): 490–92. https://doi.org /10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_2131_20. Azam, Mehtabul. 2012. “The Impact of Indian Job Guarantee Scheme on Labor Market Outcomes:

Evidence from a Natural Experiment.” IZA Discussion Paper 6548 (May), Institute of Labor

Economics, Bonn, Germany.

Bentolila, Samuel, Pierre Cahuc, Juan J. Dolado, and Thomas Le Barbanchon. 2012. “Two-Tier

Labor Markets in the Great Recession: France Versus Spain.” Economic Journal 122 (562):

F155–F187.

Berg, Erlend, Sambit Bhattacharyya, Rajasekhar Durgam, and Manjula Ramachandra. 2012. “Can

Rural Public Works Affect Agricultural Wages? Evidence from India.” CSAE Working Paper

WPS/2012-05, Centre for the Study of African Economies, Oxford University, Oxford. Bertrand, Marianne, Kaushik Krishnan, and Heather Schofield. 2020. “How Are Indian Households

Coping under the COVID-19 Lockdown? Eight Key Findings.” Rustandy Stories, May 11, 2020,

Rustandy Center for Social Sector Innovation, Chicago Booth, Booth School of Business,

University of Chicago, Chicago. https://www.chicagobooth.edu/research/rustandy/stories /indian-households-coping-with-covid19-lockdown-8-findings. Beyer, Robert C. M., Sebastian Franco-Bedoya, and Virgilio Galdo. 2021. “Examining the Economic

Impact of COVID-19 in India through Daily Electricity Consumption and Nighttime Light

Intensity.” World Development 140 (April), 105287. Bhalotia, Shania, Swati Dhingra, and Fjolla Kondirolli. 2020. “City of Dreams No More?

The Impact of Covid-19 on Urban Workers in India.” CEP Covid-19 Analysis Paper 008 (September), Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political

Science, London. Chaurey, Ritam. 2015. “Labor Regulations and Contract Labor Use: Evidence from Indian Firms.”

Journal of Development Economics 114 (May): 224–32. Deininger, Klaus W., and Yanyan Liu. 2019. “Heterogeneous Welfare Impacts of National Rural

Employment Guarantee Scheme: Evidence from Andhra Pradesh, India.” World Development 117 (May): 98–111. Deshpande, Ashwini. 2020. “The COVID-19 Pandemic and Gendered Division of Paid and

Unpaid Work: Evidence from India.” IZA Discussion Paper 13815 (October), Institute of

Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany. Dhingra, Swati, and Stephen Machin. 2020. “The Crisis and Job Guarantees in Urban India.” IZA

Discussion Paper 13760 (October), Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany. Dingel, Jonathan I., and Brent Neiman. 2020. “How Many Jobs Can Be Done at Home?” NBER

Working Paper 26948 (April), National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Dutta, Puja Vasudeva, Rinku Murgai, Martin Ravallion, and Dominique van de Walle. 2012. “Does

India’s Employment Guarantee Scheme Guarantee Employment?” Economic and Political

Weekly 47 (16): 55–64. Gulyas, Andreas, and Krzysztof Pytka. 2020. “The Consequences of the Covid-19 Job Losses:

Who Will Suffer Most and by How Much?” Discussion Paper CRC TR 224 (September),

Collaborative Research Center Transregio 224, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität

Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Universität Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany. Guven, Cahit, Panagiotis Sotirakopoulos, and Aydogan Ulker. 2020. “Short-Term Labor Market

Effects of COVID-19 and the Associated National Lockdown in Australia: Evidence from

Longitudinal Labor Force Survey.” GLO Discussion Paper 635, Global Labor Organization,

Essen, Germany. Hall, Robert E., Charles I. Jones, and Peter J. Klenow. 2020. “Trading Off Consumption and

COVID-19 Deaths.” NBER Working Paper 27340 (June), National Bureau of Economic

Research, Cambridge, MA.

ILO (International Labour Organization) 2020a. “ILO Monitor: COVID-19 and the World of

Work; Updated Estimates and Analysis, Third Edition.” April 29, ILO, Geneva. ILO (International Labour Organization). 2020b. “Answering Key Questions around Informality in Micro and Small Enterprises during the COVID-19 Crisis.” Policy Brief, September 14, ILO,

Geneva.

Imbert, Clément, and John Papp, 2015. “Labor Market Effects of Social Programs: Evidence from India’s Employment Guarantee.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7 (2): 233–63.

Kikuchi, Shinnosuke, Sagiri Kitao, and Minamo Mikoshiba. 2021. “Who Suffers from the COVID19 Shocks? Labor Market Heterogeneity and Welfare Consequences in Japan.” Journal of the

Japanese and International Economies 59 (March), 101117. Lee, Kenneth, Harshil Sahai, Patrick Baylis, and Michael Greenstone. 2020. “Job Loss and

Behavioral Change: The Unprecedented Effects of the India Lockdown in Delhi.” BFI Working

Paper 2020-65 (May 15), Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics, University of

Chicago, Chicago. Lee, Sang Yoon (Tim), Minsung Park, and Yongseok Shin. 2021. “Hit Harder, Recover Slower?

Unequal Employment Effects of the Covid-19 Shock.” NBER Working Paper 28354 (January),

National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Loayza, Norman V., and Jamele Rigolini. 2011. “Informal Employment: Safety Net or Growth

Engine?” World Development 39 (9): 1503–15. Maloney, William F. 2004. “Informality Revisited.” World Development 32 (7): 1159–78. Mattana, Elena, Valerie Smeets, and Frederic Warzynski. 2020. “Changing Skill Structure and

COVID-19.” COVID Economics 45 (August 28): 1–30. McKenzie, David J. 2003. “How Do Households Cope with Aggregate Shocks? Evidence from the

Mexican Peso Crisis.” World Development 31 (7): 1179–99. Sharma, Siddharth, and Hernán Jorge Winkler. 2018. “The Labor Market Effects of Financial

Crises: The Role of Temporary Contracts in Central and Western Europe.” Economics of

Transition 26 (1): 35–60. Skoufias, Emmanuel. 2003. “Economic Crises and Natural Disasters: Coping Strategies and Policy

Implications.” World Development 31 (7): 1087–1102. Vyas, Mahesh. 2020. “Impact of Lockdown on Labour in India.” Indian Journal of Labour

Economics 63 (1): 73–77. World Bank. 2020. Beaten or Broken: Informality and COVID-19. South Asia Economic Focus (October). Washington, DC: World Bank. Zimmermann, Laura. 2020. “Why Guarantee Employment? Evidence from a Large Indian Public-

Works Program.” GLO Discussion Paper 504, Global Labor Organization, Essen, Germany.