What Accounts for its Cities’ Resilience and What can Other Global Cities Learn from their Example
JAMES K. STICKLEY Principal, WRT
As part of my four-month, four-region research sabbatical on urban resilience in the fall of 2022 and spring of 2023, I visited the central west Indian cities of Mumbai, Pune and Ahmedabad. My base of operations in Mumbai was the India Institute of Technology (IIT) where I interacted with faculty and grad students and conducted a two-day workshop on a Resilient Campus Plan for IIT. I also attended a full day of graduate studio reviews at KRVIA University and presented in a seminar on urban resilience attended by faculty and grad students. In Pune, my base of operations was a small architecture and urbanism practice called Local Ground. I participated in a two-day forum on urban resilience at the Bandakar Institute and attended a full day of studio reviews and a seminar on urban resilience at PVP University outside of Pune. In Ahmedabad I was based at CEPT University where I participated in grad studio reviews, group discussions with faculty, and a seminar on urban resilience.
Alongside these formal activities, I toured all three cities extensively, visited local design and urban planning practices, toured urban districts, informal settlement neighborhoods and places of cultural significance, and tried to learn as much as I could about how these unique urban environments are positioning themselves to be more resilient to climate change.
The whole experience was at once fascinating and enlightening.
Mumbai, Pune, and Ahmedabad are all faced with enormous challenges as they grapple with the effects of growth and climate change – challenges of housing and infrastructure, challenges of pollution, increasing heat and stormwater intensity. While strategic responses to certain critical challenges are in motion, many are not fully addressed. In this way, these three cities – and by extension, India in general – are very much a work in progress from which much can be learned. I observed an extraordinary level of resilience in these cities that I think can be attributed to a combination of factors: the ability to house a rapidly growing population in dense, socially-supportive informal settlements; a complex and highly functional social and commerce eco-system; and an increasing attention to resilience initiatives at the national and local levels.
Underlying all of it is something best described in the Indian word “Jugaad”, an indomitable spirit of adaptation, resourcefulness and innovation that is baked in to this ancient culture.
Three cities of focus, Mumbai, Pune & Ahmedabad
YOU CAN’T UNPACK INDIA!
First, I want to dispense with my tagline, “Unpacking India”. You can’t unpack India. It’s far too complex –culturally, historically, socio-economically and environmentally. Presuming to attempt this in a short essay would be foolish. Instead, I’ll focus on a few common threads I observed in my research that I feel contribute to the resilience of these three cities.
A RICH CULTURE WITH IMMENSE MODERN-DAY CHALLENGES:
India is a rich culture influenced by a diversity of peoples, religions, and traditions dating back literally thousands of years from the early dynasties of the Indus Valley civilization (2500-1900 BCE) in the northeast, the Vedic People (1500-500 BCE), and Nanda Empire (4th Cen. BCE) of northern India, whose traditions all gave rise to Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism; and the later dynasties of the Deccan Sultanates (1200-1500 CE) and Mughal Empire (1500-1800s CE) before European colonization came, beginning with the Portuguese in the 1500s followed by the Dutch in the 1700s and finally the British in the 16001900s, first with the establishment of the East India Trading Company followed by the British Raj, before modern-day India finally gained its independence in 1947.
This rich history is evident throughout India and certainly in the culture and urban fabric of Mumbai, Pune, and Ahmedabad. Culturally, India’s history influences daily life in a myriad of ways from religious practices to commerce eco-systems to simple patterns and rituals in the daily life of ordinary citizens. The abundance of heritage sites and districts has a significant influence on the experience of the urban landscape but also poses immense challenges as city, state, and national government agencies struggle to meet the financial demands of historic restoration and preservation for innumerable heritage sites.
1 By Avantiputra7 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=33202416By
2 Avantiputra7 - Own work by Avantiputra7; see references section for used material, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia. org/w/index.php?curid=33202411
Indus Valley Civilization, Mature Phase (2600-1900 BCE)1
Indus Valley Civilization, Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE)2
MUMBAI:
Mumbai is a relative late-comer in terms of its formation as a major city. Prior to the Portuguese colonization, the area of present-day Old Mumbai (the southern peninsula) consisted of seven islands inhabited by small fishing villages in the rich Ulhas River delta. The arrival of the Portuguese brought an ambitious period of urban planning heavily reliant on reclaiming land and joining together the seven original islands into one contiguous peninsula. The challenges of urban flooding being experienced in modern-day Mumbai as the sea level rises and storm events intensify with climate change, can in part be attributed to the low-lying lands of this reclamation.
Mumbai’s urban landscape is strongly influenced by colonial Portuguese and British Raj periods in its urban planning and architecture – most evident in the heritage district in the southern peninsula. From the original Portuguese Fort to the curved arcades of Horniman Circle, the Victorian Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus Train Station, and the gracious Mumbai University Campus, these heritage sites create a unique urban environment that serves as a counterpoint to the modern high-rise – and more ubiquitous –
3 British Library / Mechanical Curator Collection
Mumbai historic map from 18433 showing original seven islands (left) compared with current day Mumbai (center) and areas of flood vulnerability (right). (Mapping credit: Tanushri Dalmiya)
Mumbai taking shape throughout other parts of the peninsula. Mumbai’s challenge is balancing these two worlds and keeping up with the infrastructure needed to support it. Two commuter train spines running the length of each side of the peninsula are heavily used, setting the stage for the daily rhythms of modern life.
PUNE:
Located east of Mumbai in the higher elevations of the foothills of the Western Ghat range, Pune is the cool, green counterpoint to Mumbai’s coastal urban intensity. This gracious, tree-lined city was once the center of the Maratha Empire which reached its height in the 1600 and 1700s until it was displaced by British rule in the early 1800s.
Maratha heritage still influences the city’s urban fabric with the Shaniwar Wada fortified compound (circa 1732) at its center and the historic neighborhoods immediately surrounding it, and further afield, the Camp District, the original military cantonment built during the early period of British occupation. These districts have maintained their scale and historic character with the latter primarily due to the continued military ownership of land, preventing sale of property and associated appreciation of land value and development pressures. Outside of these districts, newer, higher density development is evident throughout the larger metro area. Similar to Mumbai, Pune is grappling with rapid growth pressures and the development of transportation and utilities infrastructure to support it.
7 Resilient Willoughby Strategy & Action Plan, October 2021
8 Campbelltown City Council – Toward a Thriving City, AECOM, Sept, 2022
(Left to right) Victorian Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus Train Station, Horniman Circle, Mumbai University campus
AHMEDABAD:
In contrast to Mumbai and Pune, Ahmedabad is an ancient city dating back to the late Middle Ages when the city was founded as the capital of the Gujarat Sultanate in the early 1400s. This history is strongly evident today as the medieval core is largely intact as a functional central district of the larger city. Being much farther north, Ahmedabad is much hotter and drier than Mumbai and Pune and set in an arid landscape. It is also an important center of education and design with several prominent Universities and campuses designed by Louis Kahn and the late, great Indian modernist architect, B.V. Doshi.
Like its southern counterparts, Ahmedabad is struggling with growth and the development of infrastructure to help fortify it against increasingly intense urban heat island and seasonal flooding.
Pune’s camp district
Pune’s gracious tree-lined streets
Ahmedabad’s medieval core
CEPT University (BV Doshi Design)
While all three cities are unique in their own right – true to their cultural heritage and geography – there are significant challenges common to them all. All three are experiencing rapid growth due to rural to urban migration prompted by the economic opportunity presented by these large, thriving urban centers. As a result, they are all grappling with acute housing shortages. All three cities have a sort of transportation conundrum: with growth comes increased congestion of all modes of mobility and as each city tries to build new transit and roadway infrastructure, those construction projects exacerbate the congestion. Related to this is a chronic increase in air pollution evident everywhere as street corridors dominated by combustion-driven transportation are increasingly choked with exhaust. All three cities are experiencing an increased incidence and intensity of storm-induced urban flooding. More often than not, this increase leads to an inequity of vulnerability as disadvantaged neighborhoods are typically located in low-lying areas. The cities’ increased alienation from natural features tends to exacerbate these vulnerabilities as the cities lose their absorptive capacity. All three cities are experiencing rising temperatures and increased intensity of urban heat island making more urgent the need for response through architecture, green infrastructure and public space design. And finally, over-taxed infrastructure networks – storm and sanitary sewer, energy, telecommunications, and water supply – many long outdated – struggle to keep up with the exploding increase in demand. But there is reason for optimism – as an army of government and NGO visionaries, talented and technically-savvy city planners, engineers and designers launch a myriad of innovative initiatives to tackle these issues, creating a living laboratory of urban resilience experimentation and innovation. Many of these initiatives are yielding impressive results. A few are discussed in greater depth below.
INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS VS. PUBLIC HOUSING
Housing shortages are perhaps the biggest challenge of each city: how can they meet the demands of this growth through the development of new housing or by harnessing the tide of informal settlement growth? Both are happening in all three cities.
Government-sponsored low-income housing is being built on a massive scale but in many instances, this housing represents a failed social experiment akin to the American public housing projects of the 1960s. In many cases, these housing projects are instigated by major infrastructure projects which displace existing established low-income neighborhoods. Replacement housing is financed as an obligation of these infrastructure projects but are often poorly designed and cheaply constructed. Worse yet, their configuration as mid-rise apartment slabs are not conducive to building community social structure and they become isolated ghettos plagued with a variety of social problems.
Public housing block in Mumbai
By contrast another model of low-income housing is growing exponentially in Indian cities. Informal settlements are ubiquitous to India’s large metro areas as they are increasingly throughout the global south from South America to Africa to the Middle East to other parts of South Asia.
Different versions of these informal communities can be seen throughout Mumbai, Pune, and Ahmedabad as they can in other large Indian cities. They are essentially ad hoc groupings of small, simple shelters that start informally (ie; outside the normal bounds of owned property and municipal codes and formal construction practices) and organically, usually taking root in marginal lands that are not otherwise suited to formal development, and eventually growing into large neighborhoods. Often these are edge areas of other more formal neighborhoods, river borders or along and under highways. Sometimes, they are simply low-rise historic neighborhoods of modest socio-economic strata that have continued to grow organically.
The striking aspect of these neighborhoods is the high degree of social function – they are highly functional, connected, supportive communities. Residents have access to shopping for fresh food and a wide variety of products and services for daily needs. More importantly, there is a strong, supportive social structure where residents are close to family, know their neighbors and can support each other in a wide variety of ways.
Also, very impressive to me, were the established network of social support organizations that are deeply involved with raising standards of living in these informal neighborhoods. From senior support services 4, to housing improvement support5 to teen centers and jobs training6, these non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are making a huge social impact in some of the neighborhoods I visited.
4 Deep Griha Family Welfare Centre, Pune Deep Griha Society, Pune – Independent Charitable Organisation
5 Shelter Associates, Pune Shelter Associates | ENHANCING LIVES OF THE URBAN POOR (shelter-associates.org)
6 Lighthouse Centres, Pune Lighthouse – PCC (punecityconnect.org)
Tadiwalla Rd residential alley (left), corner vendor (center), author with his host, Khushru Irani of Local Ground and Benazir Patil, Executive Director, Vriddha Mitra, an elderly support services NGO (right)
Traditionally, these settlements have not been sanctioned or supported by state and local government. Quite the contrary; they were discouraged, demolished, displaced and not supported with basic infrastructure. More recently, municipal and state governments have adopted a more supportive stance, providing infrastructure and support services and in some cases even granting property ownership to established residents for the small plots their homes occupy. With this level of support, residents can put down roots and invest in their properties as they get more established in the local economy and more financially secure. This investment leads to improved plumbing and electrical and adding rooms by building up to a second or third level. Construction methods also improve with continued investment, contributing to the permanency of the neighborhood.
Case study: Mumbai’s Informal Economy Saves CBD from Flooding Damage
Mumbai’s Bandra-Kurla Complex (BKC) was one of the areas most affected by the devastating floods of 2005. This district houses the city’s new CBD and is home to many multi-national company headquarters that want a prominent presence in India’s financial and business epi-center. Built on reclaimed lands (see description of Mumbai’s reclamation history pg 4), the BKC is adjacent to some of Mumbai’s most established informal settlements. This juxtaposition meant that the floods posed challenges to both populations but also ended up being a great benefit to the CBD in their recovery efforts7
After the floods, there was a complete breakdown of formal response and supply chain through normal business management processes as well as through Mumbai’s Metropolitan Authority. It was the informal economy surrounding the district, largely located in the informal settlements of Dharavi and Kalina, that come to the rescue and helped the CBD through its relief and recovery efforts. Through resilience, adaptiveness and
7 Informality and Disaster Resilience; D Parthasarthy; c. Pacific Affairs: Volume 88, No. 3 September 2015
The structure and function of informal settlements are carefully studied in the graduate program at PVP University
ingenuity, the informal economy was able to step in where institutional and private sector systems failed. Their access to complex supply networks including gleaners, used parts and scrap merchants and recyclers who supplied spare parts, and skilled service providers including plumbers, masons, electricians and carpenters, made it possible to repair, restore and refurbish damaged infrastructure (including damaged computers, printers, faxes and copy machines) and amenities in a remarkably short timeframe and for a fraction of the cost it would have taken through formal channels.8
So not only were the informal settlements of Dharavi and Kalina dealing with the recovery of their own neighborhoods from flood damage, they were simultaneously helping Mumbai’s formal finance and business sector get back in its feet.
The Universities I interacted with in all three cities were vitally involved in studying and developing strategies for improvement of informal settlements. Prasanna Desai, an accomplished practitioner and professor at PVP University, won a Cooper Hewitt award for his work on in-situ rebuilding of informal settlement housing.9 Mr. Desai’s impressive work focuses on maintaining the scale and fabric of the original neighborhood and demonstrates the importance of low-rise housing (up to three stories) and the inherent relationships between residents and people on the street level – vendors, children playing, neighbors talking, etc. Above three stories, according to Desai, these connections are broken and the community social structure is weakened. Bhawna Jaimini, an architect, researcher and Director of Community Design Agency in Mumbai has come to similar conclusions having worked extensively in rebuilding social structure in both government-sponsored apartment block housing and low-rise informal settlements. She concludes that three levels – G + 2 – is the ideal scale for social cohesion; coincidentally, “the height of trees”! 10
Similar work is central to the CEPT University design program in Ahmedabad where graduate studios analyze the structure and pattern of informal neighborhoods, improving social function and community cohesion through design – building on these traditional relationships.
8 Informality and Disaster Resilience; D Parthasarthy; c. Pacific Affairs: Volume 88, No. 3 September 2015
10 Bhawna Jaimini, Presentation at The Loft Forum, Pune, Nov, 2022
Urban design studies of informal settlements at CEPT University graduate program
THE RESILIENCE OF COMPLEXITY: THE MICRO-COMMERCE ECO-SYSTEM
Commerce is very accessible in India. This was evident everywhere I went in my three cities of focus. Street vendors are everywhere, arcades are filled with market stalls, markets are ubiquitous throughout – whether they be formalized central markets or informal street markets.
The result is a highly complex, highly functional commerce eco-system that is accessible to a broad socio-economic spectrum. As extensive as the commerce itself is the supply chain that feeds it. Fresh fruits, vegetables, grains and meats are constantly in motion – finding their way to a variety of points of sale – from market stalls to carts to small neighborhood shops to modern supermarkets.
The spectrum of scale and type was also evident with large central markets to small neighborhood markets and street stalls. And from traditional brick and mortar and contemporary big box formats to tiny micro-retail pods. Pune’s Central market is a classic example of a very efficient wholesale market organized in radial spokes around a central hub. Each of the eight spokes is a large covered warehouse space specializing in one produce type – potato wing, onion wing, etc.
Pune’s produce supply chain is highly developed as the region – with its desirable temperatures, soils and precipitation – is know for its fruits (bananas, grapes, mangoes, pomegranate and guavas), vegetables (sweet potatoes, winter radish, carrots and okra) as well as grains & beans (sorghum, millet, rice, guar and flat beans). This produce is constantly changing through the seasons, supplying Pune’s complex network of markets and vendors and influencing seasonal cuisine.
Throughout the three Cities, services are equally accessible, from bike repair to barbers, from umbrella repair to tailors – all within easy walking distance or a short bike ride away and all equally supported by a materials supply chain – from textiles to metals and other raw materials.
One of the more fascinating aspects of this commerce eco-system to me was the ubiquity of micro-retail. Thriving businesses that are operating in very small spaces from stalls to carts to literally cabinets set on the street edge. One umbrella repairman I saw worked in a one square meter space on the side of the street. A tailor in Mumbai worked out of a cabinet on the edge of the street that was just wide enough for his sewing machine and for him to sit in, with a little extra space for his materials.
The complexity of this retail eco-system represents a high level of resiliency where any kind of disruption in one part of the system is quickly compensated for in other parts. The degree of efficiency and adaptability is remarkable.
Pune’s Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Mandai central market has a central hub with radiating spokes for individual produce categories
Case Study: Dabbawala System in Mumbai
Another famous example of Mumbai’s established micro-commerce eco-system is the Mumbai Dabbawala system. This 125-year old business produces home-cooked lunches for Mumbai’s office workers and delivers them through an army of 5,000 bicycle-riding Dabbawalas.11 Their name derives from the word for lunch boxes, “dabbas” and “walas”, the carrier, so, dabbawalas, “the ones who carry the box”.12
“Each dabbawala has a single collection and delivery area. At mid-morning they tour their neighbourhood on foot or by bicycle collecting an average of 30 dabbas. These are sorted at a local office or railway station and each dabbawala gets on a train with the dabbas heading for their delivery area. On arrival, dabbas coming from all over the city are sorted again before being loaded onto bicycles and handcarts for the final leg. This complex series of exchanges relies on an esoteric alphanumeric code scrawled on each lunchbox – indecipherable to the uninitiated but designed to be easily understood by all dabbawalas.
A 2010 study by the Harvard Business School graded the Dabbawala System “Six Sigma”, which means the dabbawalas make fewer than 3.4 mistakes per million transactions. With deliveries to and from roughly 200,000 customers each day, that translates to little more than 400 delayed or missing dabbas in a year.”13
As mentioned above, all three cities I visited have a sort of transportation conundrum: with growth comes increased congestion of all modes of mobility and as each city tries to build new transit and roadway infrastructure, those construction projects exacerbate the congestion, oftentimes leading to gridlock. Add a monsoon storm, and things quickly become untenable. This was particularly evident in Mumbai and Pune with major transit projects under construction. The hope is that once complete, there will be a notable relief as people frustrated with automobile congestion, transition to the new transit networks.
Mumbai in particular has a strong predisposition to transit as the Central & Western local lines have been in operation since the mid1800s – originally a product of the British East India Company. Both of these lines are being upgraded as part of Mumbai’s current transit infrastructure projects. Heavily used for commuting, these passenger trains are an important part of Mumbai’s daily rhythms and social fabric. My colleague, Poonam Narkar, an urban designer who grew up in Mumbai, often waxes poetically about the intricate social structures that exist amongst habitual train commuters.
In the midst of Mumbai’s chaotic infrastructure construction projects, I observed a bright spot in the form of “One Green Mile”, a mobility and social infrastructure project designed by the prominent Mumbai firms Studio Pod and MVRDV. This project balances transit with vehicular and active mobility and also integrates a robust program of social spaces and green infrastructure. In addition to maintaining balanced flows of people, it has become a shady, cool, welcoming, social respite for the neighborhood in Mumbai’s Parel district.
Mumbai Metro construction (Source: Mumbai Free Press Journal)
Mumbai Suburban Rail Network
INTANGIBLE HERITAGE
During my visit to KRVIA University in Mumbai, the subject of cultural heritage was discussed during graduate project reviews and in a seminar. The graduate studio there was studying the proposed Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor and specifically the Jalna to Aurangabad segment. This state initiative is being promoted to induce industrial growth in India’s interior to counter-balance the burgeoning growth of coastal metro areas.14
The students were looking very thoughtfully at how these industrial interventions could be integrated into these ancient communities without overwhelming traditional cultural, agricultural and natural systems. These northern India cultures have deeply imbedded Hindu, Jain & Buddhist traditions and have thrived for centuries living in balance with the land that supports them mainly through an agriculture-based economy. Heritage sites are also an important part of the cultural landscape. The discussion with this graduate studio became very focused on how the planning of these communities could establish a strong framework of natural, agricultural and cultural networks in which the new industrial land uses would subordinate to these established networks protecting and positioning them as viable contributors to the resilient future of the region.
One Green Mile; A shady respite in the midst of Mumbai’s Parel District
Beyond the physical constructs of this exchange, the students were also very interested in understanding “intangible heritage” and its influence on future planning. Intangible heritage consists of nonphysical intellectual wealth, such as folklore, customs, beliefs, traditions, knowledge, and language.15 Stated another way, knowledge & practices concerning human relationships with the land, nature and the universe.16 Essentially, the combination of ingredients that have sustained these communities for centuries. Tapping into this knowledge could certainly give us insights into how to sustain these communities into the future as they grapple with the increasing challenges of climate change.
Case Study: Mumbai CAP/ Governance & Capacity-building
Assessment of Climate-Induced Risks in Mumbai
One of the more impressive initiatives I learned about during my stay in Mumbai was the Mumbai Climate Action Plan (MCAP). Sponsored by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) and completed in 2022 by World Resource Institute’s (WRI) talented Urban Development and Climate Teams, the plan lays out in stark terms the challenges Metro Mumbai faces, starting with a quote from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
Urban Heat
Mumbai presents a warming trend over a period of 47 years (1973-2020), with an increase of 0.25°C per decade observed between 1973 and 2020.
An increase in frequency of warmer years has been observed with three out of the last five years
“It is indisputable that human activities are causing climate change, making extreme climate events, including heat waves, heavy rainfall, and droughts, more frequent and severe.” – IPCC, AR6, The Physical Science Basis, 2021.
Indicating a departure of more than 1°C from the baseline average air temperature (1973-2020)
Between 1973 and 2020, 10 heatwave and 2 extreme heatwave events were observed.
“Mumbai city, home to over 12 million people and thriving on a diverse economy, is increasingly at risk of the impacts of climate change. Increasing temperatures, depleting natural green cover, routine bouts of extreme rainfall events resulting in severe flood conditions incur severe losses to the city’s economy and its people. Recent increase in tropical cyclones along the coast and future risks from sea level rise projected over the next 3 decades pose critical challenges to Mumbai’s future.
Since the mid-’90s, a transition from caution5 to extreme caution events has been observed, with over 200 days annually classified as extreme caution events.
Normal Air Temperature: 27.3°C (1981 - 2010 Baseline)
Cooler Than Mean Warmer Than Mean
Annual air temperature anomalies between 1973 and 2020 – source:
Figure 3: Annual air temperature anomalies between 1973 and 2020 (Source: Meteorological data from IMD Santacruz station (1973 - 2020))
15 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage; https://ich.unesco.org/en/home
Land Surface Temperature (LST) data was analyzed to identify the heat islands in the city, where increased heat exposure is caused by certain land use types (such as industrial and commercial), poor vegetation cover, or high exposure to heat-conductive or reflective building materials, such as metal roofs, glass and steel structures. Mumbai airport recorded a temperature of over 35°C owing to the nature of land use, a large footprint, extensive use of concrete and asphalt and
very low vegetation cover. On the contrary, the areas adjacent to the mangroves and Sanjay Gandhi National Park recorded temperatures in the 25-30°C range due to the large area and density of vegetation cover that helps reduce the surface temperature. LST indicates a negative relationship with green cover (NDVI), with higher temperatures observed in areas with lower green cover. Higher LSTs result in increased UHIs in the city, resulting in areas that are more exposed to heat than others.
16 Vrdoljak, Ana Filipa (6 December 2017), “Indigenous peoples, intangible cultural heritage and participation in the United Nations”, Intellectual Property, Cultural Property and Intangible Cultural Heritage, Routledge, pp. 50–66, doi:10.4324/97813157142883, ISBN 978-1-315-71428-8
Mindful of these consequences that climate change presents to future generations living in Mumbai and its region, the MCAP recognizes that actions must be taken on priority across six strategic areas - Sustainable waste management, Urban greening & biodiversity, Urban flooding & water resource management, Energy & buildings, Air quality and Sustainable mobility.
Mumbai is among the cities most vulnerable to climate change induced hazards, such as sea level rise, storm surge and urban flooding. The 2005 floods, which resulted in 410 deaths and displaced thousands, particularly in the low-income areas, is a case in point of the risks and vulnerabilities the city faces. Mumbai is a C40 member city. 17 In 2020, Mumbai signed C40’s Deadline 2020 commitment – aligned with the Paris Agreement – to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 50% by 2030, support the Government of India (GoI) in achieving its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and become net zero by 2050.” 18
Action Plan:
As sobering as the challenges laid out in the plan are, the strategic actions to address them are surprisingly clear and achievable. The plan systematically tackles all of the critical areas of impact in a way that is logical and practical:
“The main objective of the plan is to create a comprehensive strategy to tackle the challenges of climate change in the city of Mumbai by adopting inclusive and robust mitigation and adaptation strategies. Mitigation strategies will be adopted for the sectors that have the potential to significantly reduce emissions by adopting cleaner, greener technologies, building materials and land use planning approaches. Adaptation strategies will focus on the sectors that can enhance the city’s capacities to manage and recover from growing climate risks and extreme weather events by protecting the city’s green and blue systems, keeping the air clean and allowing its natural systems to thrive.” 19
The plan goes into a high level of detail about how each of these actions plays out, by whom and how they are funded. It lays out a clear agenda for an army of experts to contribute in a wide array of fields including government administration, engineering, renewable energy technology, architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning & design and waste management & recycling. Channeling Kate Raworth in her book, Doughnut Economics 20, this work could start to build the foundation for a new economy – one that is grounded in low-carbon construction and operations and decreasingly reliant on fossil fuel-based functions as the economic driver.
(The plans actions are summarized on the following pages)
17 https://www.c40.org/about-c40/
18 Mumbai Climate Action Plan 2022, Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation and WRI India
19 Mumbai Climate Action Plan 2022, Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation and WRI India
20 Doughnut Economics – 7 Ways to Think Like a 21st Century Economist; Raworth, Kate; Chelsea Green Publishing; c. 2017
Energy & Buildings
Energy & Buildings
Sectoral Action Track
Sectorial Action Track
Rationale
Decarbonizing Mumbai’s electricity generation mix
Decarbonizing Mumbai’s electricity generation mix
The city’s electricity mix presents the biggest mitigation opportunity through phasing out fossil fuel-based power and tapping into the decentralized renewable energy (RE) potential, while simultaneously reducing transmission losses.
Transition to clean fuels and resource efficiency in buildings
Transition to clean fuels and resource efficiency in buildings
Low carbon buildings
Low carbon buildings
The city’s electricity mix presents the biggest mitigation opportunity through phasing out fossil fuel-based power and tapping into the decentralized renewable energy (RE) potential, while simultaneously reducing transmission losses.
Reducing energy demand through energy efficiency improvements is the most time- and cost-effective way to reduce emissions. Electrification of cooking coupled with a clean grid will reduce emissions from buildings and avoid carbon lock-in.
Reducing energy demand through energy efficiency improvements is the most time- and cost-effective way to reduce emissions. Electrification of cooking coupled with a clean grid will reduce emissions from buildings and avoid carbon lock-in.
Decarbonizing buildings is a smart and sustainable way of promoting urban development by mitigating emissions, avoiding future carbon lock-in of inefficient infastructure and reducing urban heat island effect.
Decarbonizing buildings is a smart and sustainable way of promoting urban development by mitigating emissions, avoiding future carbon lock-in of inefficient infastructure and reducing urban heat island effect.
Passive design strategies to improve resilience in buildings
Passive design strategies to improve resilience in buildings
Integrated Mobility
Better ventilation and cooling in different building typologies, coupled with low carbon and heat-resistant material in construction is essential to mitigate increasing heat risk, especially in low-income communities with limited access to cooling equipment.
Integrated Mobility
Integrated Mobility
Sectoral Action Track
Sectorial
Improve public transport ridership
Improve public transport ridership
Improve public transport ridership
Access to non-motorized transport (NMT) and infrastructure
Access to non-motorized transport (NMT) and infrastructure
Better ventilation and cooling in different building typologies, coupled with low carbon and heat-resistant material in construction is essential to mitigate increasing heat risk, especially in low-income communities with limited access to cooling equipment.
Rationale
Improving reliability, interconnectivity, accessibility, safety and information delivery of public transport services would reduce private vehicle usage, thereby reducing congestion, road fatalities, air pollution and GHG emissions. It will also help increase safety and accessibility for all, especially women, children and the elderly.
Improving reliability, interconnectivity, accessibility, safety and information delivery of public transport services would reduce private vehicle usage, thereby reducing congestion, road fatalities, air pollution and GHG emissions. It will also help increase safety and accessibility for all, especially women, children and the elderly.
Improving reliability, interconnectivity, accessibility, safety and information delivery of public transport services would reduce private vehicle usage, thereby reducing congestion, road fatalities, air pollution and GHG emissions. It will also help increase safety and accessibility for all, especially women, children and the elderly.
Currently, only 22% of the roads in Mumbai are walkable. Increasing pedestrian and NMT infrastructure will increase walkability, enable modal shift and reduce GHG emissions, air pollution and congestion. It will also lead to improved health benefits due to physical activity.
Access to non-motorized transport (NMT) and infrastructure
Currently, only 22% of the roads in Mumbai are walkable. Increasing pedestrian and NMT infrastructure will increase walkability, enable modal shift and reduce GHG emissions, air pollution and congestion. It will also lead to improved health benefits due to physical activity.
Currently, only 22% of the roads in Mumbai are walkable. Increasing pedestrian and NMT infrastructure will increase walkability, enable modal shift and reduce GHG emissions, air pollution and congestion. It will also lead to improved health benefits due to physical activity.
100% municipal and private zero emission vehicles by 2050
100% municipal and private zero emission vehicles by 2050
Increasing the share of alternative fuels and improving fuel efficiency, along with an increase in the share of renewable energy in the grid through increased access to finance, policy enablers and incentives, will reduce GHG emissions and air pollution.
100% municipal and private zero emission vehicles by 2050
Increasing the share of alternative fuels and improving fuel efficiency, along with an increase in the share of renewable energy in the grid through increased access to finance, policy enablers and incentives, will reduce GHG emissions and air pollution.
Increasing the share of alternative fuels and improving fuel efficiency, along with an increase in the share of renewable energy in the grid through increased access to finance, policy enablers and incentives, will reduce GHG emissions and air pollution.
Zero emission freight
There is an urgent need to decarbonize freight through policies, route management and incentives as logistics contributes to about 7% of total emissions in India. Also, the current Comprehensive Mobility Plan lacks any freight-related strategies, governance mechanisms, data and targets.
There is an urgent need to decarbonize freight through policies, route management and incentives as logistics contributes to about 7% of total emissions in India. Also, the current Comprehensive Mobility Plan lacks any freight-related strategies, governance mechanisms, data and targets.
There is an urgent need to decarbonize freight through policies, route management and incentives as logistics contributes to about 7% of total emissions in India. Also, the current Comprehensive Mobility Plan lacks any freight-related strategies, governance mechanisms, data and targets.
Sustainable Waste Management
Sustainable Waste Management
Sustainable Waste Management
Sectorial Action Track Rationale
Reducing landfilled waste
Reducing landfilled waste
Reducing landfilled waste
Decentralized waste management
Decentralized waste management
At source reduction and reuse is the most preferred way of managing waste through waste minimization, sustainable use/multi use of products and awareness, thereby reducing overall emissions.
At source reduction and reuse is the most preferred way of managing waste through waste minimization, sustainable use/multi use of products and awareness, thereby reducing overall emissions.
At source reduction and reuse is the most preferred way of managing waste through waste minimization, sustainable use/multi use of products and awareness, thereby reducing overall emissions.
Setting up decentralized infrastructure helps reduce costs and emissions related to collection and transportation and facilitates the overall uptake of recycling and composting.
Setting up decentralized infrastructure helps reduce costs and emissions related to collection and transportation and facilitates the overall uptake of recycling and composting.
Decentralized waste management Setting up decentralized infrastructure helps reduce costs and emissions related to collection and transportation and facilitates the overall uptake of recycling and composting.
Remediation and scientific management of landfills
Remediation and scientific management of landfills
Remediation and scientific management of landfills
Landfilling is the least preferred mode of managing solid waste as it generates the least amount of value. Remediation of legacy sites and scientific management of existing landfills is crucial to reduce GHG emissions, pollution and health risks due to unscientific solid waste management (SWM).
Landfilling is the least preferred mode of managing solid waste as it generates the least amount of value. Remediation of legacy sites and scientific management of existing landfills is crucial to reduce GHG emissions, pollution and health risks due to unscientific solid waste management (SWM).
Landfilling is the least preferred mode of managing solid waste as it generates the least amount of value. Remediation of legacy sites and scientific management of existing landfills is crucial to reduce GHG emissions, pollution and health risks due to unscientific solid waste management (SWM).
Mumbai Climate Action Plan 2022
Table 1: Sector-wise action tracks and rationale
Sectoral Action Track
Zero emission freight
Sectoral Action Track
Rationale
Urban Greening & Biodiversity
Urban Greening & Biodiversity
Urban Greening & Biodiversity
Sectoral Action Track
Sectorial Action Track
Increase vegetation cover and permeable surface
Increase vegetation cover and permeable surface
Rationale
Rationale
Increasing vegetation cover and applying scientific knowledge in tree planting and maintenance will help reduce heat and flood risk, increase permeable surfaces in the city and secure other co-benefits in terms of health and air quality
Increase vegetation cover and permeable surface
Reduce urban heat island effect
Reduce urban heat island effect
Reduce urban heat island effect
Equitable access to green open spaces
Equitable access to green open spaces
Increasing vegetation cover and applying scientific knowledge in tree planting and maintenance will help reduce heat and flood risk, increase permeable surfaces in the city and secure other co-benefits in terms of health and air quality
Increasing vegetation cover and applying scientific knowledge in tree planting and maintenance will help reduce heat and flood risk, increase permeable surfaces in the city and secure other co-benefits in terms of health and air quality.
Reducing urban heat island effect and increasing permeable surfaces along the city streetscape to manage vulnerability to heat and floods through tree banking system, streetside landscape guidelines and usage of permeable/cooling materials.
Reducing urban heat island effect and increasing permeable surfaces along the city streetscape to manage vulnerability to heat and floods through tree banking system, streetside landscape guidelines and usage of permeable/cooling materials.
Reducing urban heat island effect and increasing permeable surfaces along the city streetscape to manage vulnerability to heat and floods through tree banking system, streetside landscape guidelines and usage of permeable/cooling materials.
Equitable access to green open spaces
There is a gap in demand for and available open spaces, and BMC aims to increase per capita open space from 1.8 square meters to 6 square metres. This will increase flood and heat resilience, make space available for physical activity and improve public health as co-benefits. Increased green spaces will also increase the city’s carbon sequestration potential.
There is a gap in demand for and available open spaces, and BMC aims to increase per capita open space from 1.8 square meters to 6 square metres. This will increase flood and heat resilience, make space available for physical activity and improve public health as co-benefits. Increased green spaces will also increase the city’s carbon sequestration potential.
There is a gap in demand for and available open spaces, and BMC aims to increase per capita open space from 1.8 square meters to 6 square metres. This will increase flood and heat resilience, make space available for physical activity and improve public health as cobenefits. Increased green spaces will also increase the city’s carbon sequestration potential.
Restore and enhance biodiversity in the city
Restore and enhance biodiversity in the city
Restore and enhance biodiversity in the city
Protecting, restoring and enhancing Mumbai’s diverse natural habitats is essential for maintaining and preserving hotspots for biodiversity. This will enhance urban resilience, improve public health, build healthier ecosystems and increase carbon sequestration in line with Mumbai’s commitments to the C40 Urban Nature Declaration and the Cities4Forests partnership.
Protecting, restoring and enhancing Mumbai’s diverse natural habitats is essential for maintaining and preserving hotspots for biodiversity. This will enhance urban resilience, improve public health, build healthier ecosystems and increase carbon sequestration in line with Mumbai’s commitments to the C40 Urban Nature Declaration and the Cities4Forests partnership.
Protecting, restoring and enhancing Mumbai’s diverse natural habitats is essential for maintaining and preserving hotspots for biodiversity. This will enhance urban resilience, improve public health, build healthier ecosystems and increase carbon sequestration in line with Mumbai’s commitments to the C40 Urban Nature Declaration and the Cities4Forests partnership.
Air Quality
Air Quality
Air Quality
Sectorial Action Track
Sectoral Action Track
Curb the pollution concentration level by 20-30% by 2030
Curb the pollution concentration level by 20-30% by 2030
Curb the pollution concentration level by 2030% by 2030
Increase information availability through monitoring
Rationale
Rationale
Mumbai has higher concentrations of PM2.5, PM10 and NO2 than the CPCB permissible limit (Refer Table 1 of Chapter 2), and the concentration of these air pollutants in the city is extremely localized. Improving air quality by curbing pollution levels will help reduce health risks.
Mumbai has higher concentrations of PM2.5, PM10 and NO2 than the CPCB permissible limit (Refer Table 1 of Chapter 2), and the concentration of these air pollutants in the city is extremely localized. Improving air quality by curbing pollution levels will help reduce health risks.
Mumbai has higher concentrations of PM2.5, PM10 and NO2 than the CPCB permissible limit (Refer Table 1 of Chapter 2), and the concentration of these air pollutants in the city is extremely localized. Improving air quality by curbing pollution levels will help reduce health risks.
Increase information availability through monitoring
Increase information availability through monitoring
Community health resilience through decentralized planning and awareness
Improving stationary and dynamic monitoring systems to increase information access, lending to accurate trend and hotspots analyses and forecasting mechanisms will help issue timely warnings in local areas, or by times of day, where/when people are more at risk, and help reduce personal exposure.
Improving stationary and dynamic monitoring systems to increase information access, lending to accurate trend and hotspots analyses and forecasting mechanisms will help issue timely warnings in local areas, or by times of day, where/when people are more at risk, and help reduce personal exposure.
Improving stationary and dynamic monitoring systems to increase information access, lending to accurate trend and hotspots analyses and forecasting mechanisms will help issue timely warnings in local areas, or by times of day, where/when people are more at risk, and help reduce personal exposure.
Community health resilience through decentralized planning and awareness
Community health resilience through decentralized planning and awareness
Ward-wise analysis of the city reveals that certain wards are very critical in terms of concentrations of NO2, SO2, CO, PM2.5, and PM10 and have become gas chambers from toxic emissions and fires at landfill site. This action track will help tackle acute health issues and respiratory risks among people living in these areas.
Ward-wise analysis of the city reveals that certain wards are very critical in terms of concentrations of NO2, SO2, CO, PM2.5, and PM10 and have become gas chambers from toxic emissions and fires at landfill site. This action track will help tackle acute health issues and respiratory risks among people living in these areas.
Ward-wise analysis of the city reveals that certain wards are very critical in terms of concentrations of NO2, SO2, CO, PM2.5, and PM10 and have become gas chambers from toxic emissions and fires at landfill site. This action track will help tackle acute health issues and respiratory risks among people living in these areas.
Urban Flooding & Water Resource Management
Urban Flooding & Water Resource Management
Sectorial
Build flood resilient systems and infrastructure
Build flood resilient system and infrastructure
The existing Storm Water Drainage (SWD) network is due to concretization of open spaces in discharging the surface flow. Thus, large-scale nature-based solutions would go a long way in reducing annual instances of waterlogging and flooding.
The existing Storm Water Drainage (SWD) network is due to concretization of open spaces in discharging the surface flow. Thus, large-scale nature-based solutions would go a long way in reducing annual instances of waterlogging and flooding.
Localized water conservation and efficiency
Localized water conservation and efficiency
Reducing pollution and restoring aquatic ecosystems
Ensuring that up to 50% of the city’s water demand is met through localized water conservation and efficient use initiatives will help increase water security for all, meet the city’s daily water demand and reduce the extreme dependency on catchments and lakes located far from the city.
Ensuring that up to 50% of the city’s water demand is met through localized water conservation and efficient use initiatives will help increase water security for all, meet the city’s daily water demand and reduce the extreme dependency on catchments and lakes located far from the city.
Reducing pollution by improving sanitation through strict enforcement and introducing nature-based solutions will help reduce pollution and waste disposal at the outfalls and maintain and restore riparian zones and green cover.
32 Mumbai Climate Action Plan 2022
Sectoral Action Track
Rationale
Sectoral Action Track
Rationale
Reducing pollution and restoring aquatic ecosystems
Safe and affordable drinking water
Clean, safe and accessible toilets
Disaster risk and impact reduction
Reducing pollution by improving sanitation through strict enforcement and introducing nature-based solutions will help reduce pollution and waste disposal at the outfalls and maintain and restore riparian zones and green cover.
Improving availability and accessibility to water will lead to health and socioeconomic benefits for all and reduce the risk of contamination while sourcing water from informal sources. Understanding the energy consumption in water supply and treatment will help make these systems energy efficient and reduce GHG emissions.
Sanitation has been recognized as a human right and, hence, all citizens must be provided with toilet facilities. Real-time monitoring and GIS systems in sewage disposal coupled with sanitation data generation and management systems can be developed and utilized to expand sewage network in the underserved areas.
Ensuring disaster risk and impact reduction by strengthening early warning systems, data monitoring and integration, and community engagement would make the city better prepared and reduce human, financial, infrastructural losses.
This high level summary lays out the actions and strategies that are detailed later in the MCAP.
Governance:
As comprehensive as this plan is, perhaps the most critical component of the plan is its attention governance. The Plan recognizes that without the proper people and management systems in place, this enormous undertaking has little chance of accomplishing its ambitious goals. First, the plan recommends the augmentation of the existing Department of Environment to create the Department of Environment & Climate Change. The department will be staffed with the proper balance of urban planning and scientific expertise and empowered to mediate and coordinate across other relevant government agencies. Second, the plan identifies the critical functions needed for the new department to be effective and recommends a staffing plan for each function. Those functions are: Environmental Protection & Pollution Control, Sustainable Urban Landscapes; Climate Resilient Buildings, Integrated Mobility, Vulnerable Communities, Innovations and Green Finance, and Knowledge Management.
Cities across the globe are experiencing the effects of climate change – certainly recent events in the US illustrate the point close to home as we grapple with the consequences of tropical storms and extreme heat and wildfire. Because of its particular geography, – its climate, its low-lying topography and its concentration of density – Mumbai’s challenges are more pronounced, and it is forced to respond to these challenges with more urgency than many other cities. Other cities can therefore benefit from Mumbai’s example as a view into the future and inspiration for how they can pre-empt the adverse effects that may lie ahead.
My experience in these three cities was certainly a lot to take in. But if I had to say what left the strongest impressions, it was perhaps the striking inequity of vulnerability experienced by different segments of Indian society and how that vulnerability was exacerbated by these growing cities’ alienation from natural features. Increased heat island and increased flooding are making more urgent the need for greener, more absorbent cities as well as the imperative to decarbonize in every sector of the economy. And the challenge of housing for all – how can we develop humane models for housing all segments of society in community structures that are supportive and inclusive and provide a stable foundation for everyone to participate in a growing economy?
