Fluid Power World August 2016

Water glycol fluid and hydraulic seals p.30

Sensors help you understand your system p.38

Right-sized pneumatic cylinders p.46

August 2016

www.fluidpowerworld.com

Pilot systems for mining shovels:

Large motions begin with tiny valves PAGE 52

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Not long ago, I had the opportunity to sit in on a “University of Industrial Distribution in a day” class at the annual NAHAD Convention. UID is held every March in Indianapolis, and includes four full days of intensive courses. NAHAD gives its meeting attendees a taste of UID, and I found the hyper-condensed classes to be extremely educational.

One in particular really captured my attention, having started out in industrial distribution myself, some 20 years ago. Dr. Albert Bates of the Distribution Performance Project discussed what he said were the real profit drivers for a firm in this line of business.

Bates conducted a research project that surveyed 885 distributors across 17 lines of trade. The study was conducted in a typical year for sales growth. He was interested in focusing on what critical profit factors increased both return on assets (ROA) and profits before taxes (PBT).

He found some interesting results. For example, the impact of sales size—is it good or bad to be large? Larger distributors can achieve economies of scale, but they can also become a bureaucracy. But to his dismay, the research showed that it’s hard to be small in distribution these days and still be successful. Even slightly on the small side is a challenge, he said—not an absolute barrier, but a challenge. “You must be incredibly flexible and fast on your feet” if you are a smaller company, Bates said.

Bates showed NAHAD member trends over a period of five recent years: 2007 5.4% average growth 2010 14.5% 2008 1.0% 2011 11.1% 2009 -18.5%

“I have no way to make money in that model,” he said. “I can’t take those trends and make money. It is an up and down model in which there is no reasonable way to make money long term. Can we moderate these swings? I don’t need 14% up, but I can’t take 18% down. I would like to have at least 5% sales growth every year. I also would not like to grow faster than 10%.”

Bates said that there are three big drivers across distribution: Maintaining reasonable level of sales growth, gross margin and expenses. Expenses are “the biggest of the big. Expense control seems to overwhelm almost everything we have in our bag of tricks,” he said.

In addition, the survey showed that size matters, but isn’t controllable in the short run … and inventory turnover and day sales outstanding (DSO) should enjoy benign neglect. The bottom line is that distributors that were able to do better than normal (in the upper 50% amongst their competitive set) on gross margin and operating expenses, are the best performing firms, period.

If I could learn so much in a few hours, imagine what you can absorb in a week. I’d encourage you to check out the UID at univid.org and consider attending next spring’s sessions, to help your company grow the right way.

FPW

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C ontents |

vol 3 no 6

|

fluidpowerworld.com

F E AT U R E S INDUSTRIAL HYDRAULICS

August 2016

How does water glycol fluid affect hydraulic seals?

30

Comprehensive testing of water glycol fluids on common seal materials reveals temperature-related issues.

SENSORS

Using your senses to better understand your system

38

Sensors used in fluid power are available to measure anything from pressure, flow, temperature, position and more. Understanding their differences will help you better maintain an efficient system.

PNEUMATICS

Right-sized cylinders ensure performance and efficiency

30

Image: istockphoto.com

D E PA R T M E N T S

02 Editorial

46

08 Korane’s Outlook 10 Association Watch

Here are some basic tips on specifying air cylinders that economically generate the requisite forces and speeds.

MOBILE HYDRAULICS

Pilot systems for mining shovels Mining equipment showcases the brute force of hydraulics, as well as the precise control.

6

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12 Energy Efficiency 14 Design Notes

52

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20 Safety 22 Training 26 Fundamentals 64 Product World 72 Ad Index

22

A | S |B |P|E

A | S |B |P|E

American Society of Business Publication Editors

American Society of Business Publication Editors

Fostering B2B editorial excellence

ON THE COVER

5 • 2016

52

Large mining shovels require brute forces and precise control—all supplied by components from massive pumps to tiny valves.

Image: shutterstock.com

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Fostering B2B editorial excellence

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DESIGN

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Ko ra n e ’s O u t L o o k Ken Korane • Contributing Editor

Mega trends and fluid power Most of us focus on our latest project or deadline with a “nose-to-the-grindstone” mentality. It’s also worthwhile to occasionally step back and look at the big picture, says Tom Price, president of Price Engineering. In his keynote presentation at Fluid Power World’s recent Technology Conference in Milwaukee, he pondered some mega trends affecting society, and what they mean to the fluidpower industry.

“I’m kind of a high-beam strategy guy, so I always think about what’s happening in the future, and how to position our businesses to be successful down the road,” he said. Likewise, executives and engineers need to monitor the changes in our world, to take advantage of opportunities and avoid the pitfalls.

Consider that we’ll have another billion people on the planet by 2025, noted Price. Where they live and work may cause a sizeable shift in the global economy. Worldwide, 1.5 million people leave the countryside and move to cities every week. That demands massive infrastructure investments, and has consequences for agriculture, energy and transportation. Where does that take us in terms of technology?

Climate change and resource scarcity are also important topics, sometimes highly contentious, he added. “But it’s just common sense that humans on this planet make an impact. We all have to be thinking about what that means and how can we become more sustainable,” Price stressed.

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This creates opportunities for fluid power, he said. Tomorrow’s machines need to be “smarter,” safer, easier to run and, perhaps, a lot more autonomous. The people who grew up on farms operating skid-steers and backhoes are being replaced by people who didn’t.

How does that affect the way we design machinery?

Major OEMs are already implementing strategies to meld machine and digital technology to make equipment more productive, efficient, safe and sustainable. Developments like predictive maintenance can reduce machine downtime and repair costs by up to 30%.

We need to think about the impact of hardware digitization on our businesses, and how to use it to our best advantage, said Price.

There’s still substantial value in fluid power in terms of power density and energy-storage capabilities, and a wave of innovation could be game-changing, he said. For instance, hydraulic pumps with electric drives are extremely precise and highly efficient, valves with embedded intelligence provide unprecedented

accuracy and performance, and hydraulic hoses predict when they will fail.

These are just a few examples of nextgeneration fluid-power technology.

Finally, said Price, we need to think about sustainability—everything from noise levels on machines to using resources wisely and leaving our world in better shape for the next generation.

Areas like manufacturing and transportation have a lot of inefficiencies and unsustainable systems that must be addressed. Politicians aren’t the answer, he said, it’s through science and engineering that we’re going to holistically solve these problems. In particular, Price challenges next-generation engineers to be fearless about tackling these problems. “Let’s be bold in our conviction to make a difference in fluid power and the path that we lead the world to 2025, 2035 and beyond.”

FPW

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Mary Gannon • Managing Editor

ASSOCIATION WATCH

IFPE will be home to the first-ever 3D printed excavator A group of engineering students and researchers is in the process of building key components on the world’s first 3D printed excavator, to be unveiled at CONEXPO-CON/AGG and IFPE 2017. It will be on display at the Las Vegas Convention Center March 7-11, while pieces and parts of a second construction excavator will be printed live throughout the show.

The excavator is a joint collaboration between the Association of Equipment Manufacturers (AEM), National Fluid Power Association (NFPA), Center for Compact and Efficient Fluid Power (CCEFP), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and the National Science Foundation (NSF).

The aim is to manufacture a fully functional boom that can be attached to a working excavator, said Lonnie Love, PhD, Project Coordinator and Group Leader, Automation, Robotics and Manufacturing, Polymer Systems Additive Manufacturing, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL).

John Rozum, Director of Ag Events, IFPE Show Manager, Association of Equipment Manufacturers (AEM), added that the live demonstration will start at the beginning of the show.

“On site, we will be focusing on demonstrating the process and capabilities of additive manufacturing rather than duplicating a complete second excavator,” Rozum said. “You’ll see pieces and parts that went into Project AME as well as other unique items being printed.”

The group is working with research teams from Georgia Tech and The University of Minnesota to convert the current excavator design to one that is conducive to and takes full advantage of 3D manufacturing. Graduate engineering students at Georgia Tech will be creating a boom and bucket featuring integrated hydraulics with the goal of decreasing the weight, materials cost and maintenance, while students 10

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at the University of Minnesota are designing a hydraulic oil reservoir/heat exchanger and cooling system that reduces the size and weight and increases the efficiency of the machine.

A first in additive manufacturing with steel The purpose is to demonstrate two emerging technologies: large-scale composite additive manufacturing and large-scale metal additive manufacturing, said Love. “The large scale composite system produces parts at a rate between 70 and 100 lb per hour. To put this in perspective, we printed the chassis for a bulldozer in a day,” Love said. “The large scale metal system will grow parts between five and 10 lb per hour.”

This project will be the first large-scale use of steel in 3D printing, as its objective is to show both the composite and metal technology, said Love. “The demonstration will show that both have a place in the near future of construction equipment,” he said.

“This was a very ambitious task since large-scale 3D printing in steel has never been accomplished before. Project AME really has two goals—to be the first large-scale use of additive manufacturing of steel and to demonstrate how additive

www.fluidpowerworld.com

8/12/16 3:14 PM

ASSOCIATION WATCH

Envisioning the future of the construction industry

Five University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign students (from left to right) won a contest to design the 3D printed excavator’s cab, including Sharon Tsubaki-Liu, Naomi Audet, Kevin Kim, Andrew Peterman and Luke Meyer (not pictured).

manufacturing can be used to rethink the entire manufacturing process,” Rozum added. “The most exciting aspects of the project from the fluid power standpoint are the design work on integrating the fluid power lines into the structure of the boom, and the creative work on the heat exchanger and cooling system.”

Crowd-sourcing other components Undergraduate engineering students from across the country were also invited to participate in a nationwide contest to design and print a futuristic cab and a humanmachine interface for the excavator that is both aesthetically pleasing and functionally designed.

The winning design was created by a team from the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign (UIUC) and it was comprised of five students Kevin Kim, Sharon TsubakiLiu, Luke Meyer, Naomi Audet and Andrew Peterman. They received a $2,000 cash prize and will have the opportunity to visit the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in

Tennessee to observe the printing of the selected design.

Meyer said that when compared to the industry standard cab, this design is one that has never before been possible.

“Current cabs will typically be constructed out of a strong material such as steel and welded together in many different steps, exhibiting high structural integrity but limiting creativity to a four-post structure.

In comparison to other submissions, our team utilized TopologyOptimization (TO), which is a series of mathematical algorithms used to minimize material based on specified loading conditions within a given cab envelope.

“This process provided inspiration for creating a very organic and treelike cab structure, incorporating many curving features not possible by means of traditional manufacturing,” Meyer concluded. “We were also able to maximize visibility with gridded roofing and reduce both noise and vibration with structural air gaps.”

Love compares this to the IMTS project a couple years ago when a car was 3D printed on the show floor. “Printing the first car with Cincinnati and Local Motors at IMTS showed the art of the possible and triggered an enormous amount of interest in where additive manufacturing was going. I hope to see the same here.”

“One thing we’ve learned is not to assume to be able to predict the future but instead show the art of the possible and let industry figure out the best way to use it,” Love said.

“The technology significantly reduces the cost-of-entry to manufacturing large systems and reduces the time to market,” Love said.

“I’m seeing it evolve in automotive. How will it evolve for the construction industry?”

Rozum added that he can’t wait to see the excavator of the future doing live demonstrations at IFPE. “This is an incredibly exciting project bringing together industry and the research community to re-imagine what an excavator might look like in the future,” he concluded. “Being able to work with additive manufacturing allows us to take those new ideas and designs and make them a reality in a much tighter timeframe than ever before.”

FPW

IFPE ifpe.com

Discuss This and other engineering topics at www.engineeringexchange.com

8 • 2016

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ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Image: istockphoto.com

Ron Marshall • For the Compressed Air Challenge

Compressed air fail: Relying on service technicians An electronics component manufacturer was having trouble with its compressors. Despite having purchased a very expensive and sophisticated control system, they were experiencing problems with their automatic compressor control.

The system is designed to control the four large air compressors in the compressor room by coordinating the pressure set points. If the plant demand increased to where an additional compressor was required, then the controller would automatically start one. If the load dropped off, then the controller shut down a compressor. All of this was done while keeping the plant pressure at a nice, efficient low level.

But problems were occurring after power outages. If a power outage tripped off the compressors, the control system would try to start all the compressors in

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a very short period of time, tripping the main breaker to the compressor room. A main breaker trip is a major event—and the subsequent investigations would cause many hours of production outage, getting the maintenance supervisor in very hot water.

As a result, all the compressors but one spare unit were run in manual control. This control method caused the compressors to run individually with very poor efficiency and inadequate pressure control, but the maintenance supervisor was happy, the plant kept running fine, and there were no breaker trips. Things were left to run this way for many years.

An expert was called in to assess the compressed air system. In a few minutes, the control problem was discovered as an incorrect control setting—the control did not wait long enough before trying to start

the next compressor. The correction was a simple click of a mouse settings change. The technician who initially set up the control system had not been properly trained, and so did not correctly commission the unit. The maintenance supervisor never questioned the settings. As a result, many thousands of dollars of power was wasted.

Learn more about compressor control in our next Compressed Air Challenge seminar in your area. Visit www. compressedairchallenge.org for more information.

FPW

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DESIGN NOTES

Edited by: Mike Santora • Associate Editor

Flexible vacuum gripper for repacking application

TC Series vacuum grippers allow for shorter cycle times and higher acceleration rates. They also enable the automated handling of both individual packages and layers of packages without changing grippers to accommodate additional products.

FIPA, a manufacturer of vacuum technology, gripper systems, air nippers, tube lifters, and End-of-Arm-Tooling (EOAT), recently designed and installed an alternative package handling solution for PCA Roboter- und Verpackungstechnik GmbH, which has specialized in palletizing and packing systems for more than 20 years. FIPA’s design team was challenged with removing filled cardboard boxes weighing up to 44 lb and ranging from 9.5 to 14-in. in length and 8.5 to 9.5-in. in width from crates. The boxes then needed to be placed on a roller conveyor. The FIPA team developed a flexible and energy-efficient vacuum gripping system capable of handling both individual cardboard boxes and whole layers of boxes without changing grippers or wasting vacuum flow.

To tolerate the harsh operational conditions in these plants, cylinder position sensors must be able to withstand elevated levels of heat and continue functioning reliably. They must also be well sealed against liquid ingress across a wide range of temperatures and humidity, since many installations are exposed to seasonal outdoor weather conditions.

Using a customized TC Series vacuum gripper mounted to a Z-axis, FIPA’s custom handling system was able to pick packages from both crates and the roller conveyor despite the absence of an accurately defined position. The custom integrated valves were able to turn off suction openings that don’t come into direct contact with a package. The custom system was able to handle loads weighing up to 66 lb with surface areas up to 9.5 by 13-in.

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FIPA’s TC Series maximum-life, minimummaintenance vacuum grippers use EPDM sealing foam for gentle product contact and vacuum sealing, and integrated valves for closing suction openings and saving energy when not in use. Enabling fast and uniform vacuum distribution, TC Series vacuum grippers allow for shorter cycle times and higher acceleration rates. They also enable the automated handling of both individual packages and layers of packages without changing grippers to accommodate additional products, rigid products, or even those with uneven surfaces. Featuring a vacuum located inside of the vacuum tubing, the optional gripper box reduces gripping time and contains special valves with excellent suction power for fast evacuation or venting, and, for reduced sensitivity to dirt, large valve openings for maximum suction power.

FPW

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DESIGN NOTES

Mary Gannon • Managing Editor

OxiStop tank solution prevents contamination and cavitation Any hydraulic system user must take contamination and cavitation prevention seriously, as these two activities can severely damage components and machinery.

Custom designs are also available.

A kidney loop system continuously runs and provides flow to the system. It features a top-loaded filter that is rated for 2µm.

The pump flow rate is not important for the tank design. In addition, the membrane helps the fluid stay “vacuum packed.” The pump and tank operation prevents settling time. And because you can reduce the air in the system, you can increase the bulk modulus of the oil, Zoller said, which makes it stiffer. This, in turn, increases energy efficiency while reducing costs of fluid required.

Users can choose to equip the OXiStop with an optional return line filter, water/oil cooler as well as with the AquaSensor AS and the ContaminationSensor CS.

The system also increases oil service life, reduces oxygen content by 80% and reduces contamination ingression (solid, liquid, gaseous). An added bonus is reduced noise due to reduced cavitation.

One answer to these problems is HYDAC’s OXiStop LID series, a tank solution for hydraulic systems with an integrated, hydraulically driven degassing and dewatering unit. It is designed to be installed in extremely dusty or humid environments.

It easily removes water and air from a system, said Daniel Zoller, Group Product Manager Filter Systems at HYDAC/Schroeder Industries.

Zoller added that the OxiStop eliminates cavitation. This is because the sealed system prevents dirt and air from being pulled in from the atmosphere. An integrated membrane prevents direct contact with the ambient air.

By reducing the tank size and removing air, it is possible to reduce oil volume by a factor of 10. Fluid flows in and out of the tank as needed.

For example, a 30-liter unit (a tank of approximately 40-45 gal) can replace a 400-gal tank.

Users select the tank for the differential operating volume actually needed, which reduces its size. The tanks are available in three sizes, up to a differential volume of 30, 45 and 70 liters.

FPW

HYDAC hydac.com

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DESIGN NOTES

Edited by: Mike Santora • Associate Editor

Are smart seals going electric?

Equipped with magnetic properties or electric conductivity, seals in the future will be expected to monitor their own wear, measure forces and perform other functions. Seals are mostly made of elastomers, commonly known as rubber. In its pure form, rubber cannot process signals. But in many cases, signal processing could be an advantage, since seals are often found in central locations in machines and are vital for their functioning. For this reason, researchers at Freudenberg Sealing Technologies are investigating materials that make it possible to use seals as sensors or even actuators.

One solution involves integrating a sensor or a microchip into the seal. This makes it possible to equip a seal with intelligence.

But the approach has its limits. An integrated component is a foreign body that cannot be allowed to impair the seal’s function. As a result, Freudenberg engineers have turned their attention to approaches where the intelligence comes from the material itself. For example, by incorporating special fillers in the elastomer that help impart additional properties (such as 18

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magnetism) to the seal, which can even act as a permanent magnet.

Another approach is to integrate conductive filler material into the elastomer mixture. In either case, it is crucial for the filler to combine its magnetic or electrical characteristics with high elasticity, good setting behavior, a high tolerance for temperature fluctuations and good media resistance so it doesn’t impair the actual sealing function.

The advantage of additional functions can quickly outweigh the

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LunchBox SESSIONS

added manufacturing costs if the entire value chain is considered.

A seal could recognize how worn it is, for instance. This selfmonitoring is also known as “condition monitoring.” One example: a rod seal composed of a conductive elastomer and an insulating outer layer. The outer layer is the sealing lip in the seal. When an electrical circuit connects the rod and the housing wall, electricity can become a measurable variable. As the rod seal moves back and forth, the sealing lip abrades. If the conductive base material reaches the surface, the electrical circuit between the rod and the housing closes—a condition that an LED could signal.

Smart seals make it possible to incorporate functions that go far beyond pure self-monitoring. For example, engineers are researching a variety of sealing elements such as diaphragms, which serve as movement or force sensors, as well as intelligent U-rings, which can indicate the absolute position of pistons and cylinders in construction equipment. This is possible with so-called di-electric elastomers. The approach involves constructing a diaphragm like a sandwich. The two outer layers consist of an electrically conductive elastomer, while the inner layer is made of an electrically insulating elastomer. In physical terms, this creates a capacitor. When the diaphragm moves, both the surface and the distance between the capacitor plates change, which results in a change in capacity. This makes it possible to measure the force acting on a diaphragm.

The effect also works in reverse. The elastomer is pressed together if you actively apply a voltage to di-electric elastomers. If a single “sandwich” isn‘t used but rather an entire stack of numerous layers, the elastomer structure could take over the function of a valve. When the electric current is activated, the entire stack is pressed together and the valve opens. When current is no longer applied, the elastomer layers return to a “relaxed” state.

Adjustments to the valve could be made on a continuously variable basis. The energy demands are low because the electric current is only needed during the execution of the function. Even if sealing elements of this type are still far from series production, they demonstrate the potential of the technology.

The areas of application for smart seals are multifaceted. One advantage is that they can be used in any medium because their base material is geared to the particular application. But researchers are not just focusing on modified base materials but intelligent coating systems as well. For example, thermochrome coatings designed for temperature measurements can be used at precisely the point where a seal is thermally stressed, for example, in an engine’s interior. This is particularly an advantage in places where no conventional sensor could ever be used. In this way, the design of the seal and the selection of its material can be even better adapted to particular applications.

FPW

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SAFETY

Paul Heney • Editorial Director

Safety is critical where hose is concerned Debbie Mitchell is the NAHAD Standards Manager for the association’s Hose Safety Institute. We spoke with her about the group at this year’s NAHAD Convention.

“The Hose Safety Institute is an organization within NAHAD that is available for both distributor and manufacturer members of NAHAD to join. It’s focused on the Hose Assembly Guidelines, which is a body of knowledge around the design, specification and fabrication of hose assemblies—the best practices,” she said. “It has been under development since the early 90s, and we’ve been refining them ever since. We ask members to do business in accordance with the Hose Assembly Guidelines. We have a series of tests for people to take, basically testing their knowledge of those guidelines.”

Mitchell said it is not a formal certification, and in fact, the tests are open

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book. They have five separate tests on the handbook, which focus on design and specification of hose assemblies.

“The handbook is actually available to anyone who wants to buy one—it’s a great body of knowledge,” she said. “We also have online fabrication guides, which discuss how distributors actually do the fabrication processes for hose assemblies. Those are available only to Institute members, and we also have a series of five tests on those.

These are also open book tests—we want to just make sure people know where to find the information and how to find it—not memorize all of the stuff.”

The two main focuses of the Institute are to provide employee development and recognition, since the group sends out certificates for employees who take an exam and pass it.

“One of our primary focuses right now is to drive as hard as we can to get recognition in the end user world,” Mitchell said. “We have an advisory council as part of the Institute, which are end users with a vested interest in hose safety within their industry, such as safety managers. We’ve started creating a series of white papers around specific issues in the end user community. Most of these focus on areas where there is significant threat if the hose assembly fails—such as worker injuries or damage to the environment.”

The white papers are downloadable for free at the NAHAD website.

FPW

NAHAD nahad.org Discuss This and other engineering topics at www.engineeringexchange.com

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TRAINING

David Marlowe • Owner/CEO • DMAR Technical Training and DMAR Business Centers USA

When should you use tubing and fittings or flexible hose?

Seamless steel tubing is used heavily in hydraulics.

Here, we see an example of PYPLOK fittings, a weldless, threadless way to join pipe/tube. Image courtesy of Tube-Mac Piping Technologies

Flexible hose is simple to route, withstands vibration and thermal expansion or contraction.

Image: istockphoto.com

Because of the numerous advantages seamless steel tubing possesses

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over other tubing—apart from the added cost—seamless steel tubing is widely used in hydraulic systems. Seamless steel tubing is easier to bend than steel pipe, so it does not require the number of fittings and can be reused. High-volume applications are probably one of the only limited areas to the use of tubing.

Tubing size is measured on the outside diameter of the tube. All sizes are available in a variety of wall thicknesses. The application and use of tubing, (material, diameter and maximum pressure) will determine the wall thickness of the tubing used. Sizes range from 1⁄8 to 2 in. in fractional sizes.

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Image courtesy of Kuriyama of America

are all considerations you must know to help you in material selection. Good quality tubing must be selected to ensure a good seal.

Tubing comes in a variety of materials, including: • Seamless carbon steel, which is the most commonly used. It has a tensile strength to 47,000 psi.

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TRAINING •

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Stainless steel is used when external conditions require noncorrosive materials. It also has a tensile strength to 47,000 psi.

Plastic can be used in low pressure applications.

When selecting a material for your specific application, don’t focus only on the price tag.

The manufacturer’s information is the most reliable and should be used when selecting the material based on allowable stress and working pressures.

Fittings Tubing does not use threaded fittings.

The fitting attachment is accomplished by either a component or another tube. The attachment is made by the following:

•

Flared fittings are used primarily in low to medium pressure applications.

SAE standard J533B covers specifications for both single and double flared (37° and 45° flare) tubing. Double flared tubing is used with thin walled tubing.

• •

SAE 37° angle is the standard angle used for hydraulic system tubing.

SAE 45° angle is used with soft copper tubing for applications such as refrigeration, fuel lines, etc.

The maximum wall thickness recommended by SAE standard should be checked prior to flaring a tube.

•

Flareless Fittings, also commonly known as compression fittings, are used primarily in medium- to highpressure applications.

As system pressures increase, you require a thicker wall thickness. Higher pressures also affect the ability to use a flared type fitting.

Pressure capacity can be calculated using the following formula: Pressure (P) = 2 x S x T / D, Where P – pipe internal pressure in psi T – wall thickness D – O.D. tube S – stress on tube material in psi Flareless type tubing fittings are available in two common styles.

•

Ferrule or Sleeve Type: The ferrule is used to seal against the tapered seat of the fitting and the tube. When tightening the nut a sealing pressure is felt on sealing surfaces causing the tube to deform

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TRAINING

•

O-ring type: Sealing is obtained by the installation of an internally mounted O-ring. The O-ring type uses a split ferrule to clamp the tube.

It is important to remember to never mix from different manufacturers and always refer to the manufacturers specifications (torque recommendations) prior to installation.

•

Welding fittings are used primarily in high pressure, vibration and fixed applications.

Butt and sockets welds are both used to connect the fitting to the tube, so material type wall thickness and welding skills must be considered when using a welding fitting.

Flexible hose As stated previously, pipe and tubing are rigid fluid conductors and therefore not suitable when there is movement of one end of the conductor while the opposite end is fixed.

The benefits of flexible hose over rigid pipe and tubing is that flexible hose is simple to route, withstands vibration and thermal expansion or contraction.

Flexible hose consists of the following: • • •

Inner tube Reinforcement Outer protective cover

The inner tube is made of either oil resistant synthetic rubber or thermoplastic material.

Reinforcement amount and type is determined by the hose’s pressure rating. As the requirement of reinforcement increases from a single fiber/wire braid to multiple fiber/ wire braids, the hose loses its flexibility.

Outer protective cover is manufactured to be oil and weather resistant. Primarily, the outer protective cover is made of a synthetic rubber or thermoplastic material.

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has set standards for hydraulic hose specifications. Most manufactures of hydraulic hose meets or exceeds SAEJ513 requirements.

Final note: Because the hose meets standards it is extremely important to carefully match the end fittings to the hose selected.

FPW

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FUNDAMENTALS

Ken Korane • Contributing Editor

How do you size a vacuum cup?

In April, we talked about how to specify a vacuum cup.

Understanding materials, shape, construction and volume is just part of the equation. Sizing is equally important.

Vacuum cups grip a workpiece by evacuating air from the space inside the cup, creating a partial vacuum at a pressure below ambient. In simple terms one can size a vacuum cup based on the load, available vacuum and cup area. But engineers should consider several other factors when sizing vacuum cups.

Theoretical holding force. Theoretical suction force is the cup force acting perpendicular to the workpiece surface.

Theoretical holding force Ft is simply

Ft = ΔP × A

where ΔP is the difference between ambient and system pressure, and A is the effective area of the suction cup under vacuum. Theoretical holding force of a cup increases with the difference between ambient pressure and cup interior pressure, and with cup footprint.

Actual ambient pressure. Most catalog data on vacuum cups assume ambient air pressure is about 1 bar (actually 1,013.25 mbar). And vacuum-system manufacturers generally recommend vacuum levels of –0.6 to –0.8 bar for handling air-tight surfaces such as clean metal and plastic sheets; and vacuum levels of –0.2 to –0.4 bar for porous materials like cardboard boxes or particle board.

Also keep in mind that ambient pressure depends on elevation. Air pressure tends to drop by about 12.5 mbar per 100 m increase in elevation, which can reduce the attainable ΔP and maximum holding force. Thus, more or larger cups may be needed to compensate for lower ambient pressure.

Coefficient of friction. How well a given suction cup grips and seals against a workpiece surface is another consideration. Friction coefficient µ approximates the relationship between friction force and normal force. Engineers need to take it into consideration when sizing vacuum cups. Typical estimated values for µ from several manufacturers are: • Oily surface = 0.1 • Moist or wet surface = 0.2 to 0.4 • Glass, stone and dry plastic = 0.5 • Rough surfaces = 0.6

Photo courtesy of Schmalz Inc.

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FUNDAMENTALS Note that these are just estimates. Engineers should test samples under actual operating conditions to get a better handle on µ. That’s because a given workpiece surface can be smooth, rough, wet, dry or oily; and suction cups vary by material, hardness, lip contact shape and so on. All these parameters will influence actual friction properties.

Safety factor. As in any engineering design, never neglect a factor of safety. One can calculate theoretical holding forces, but many external influences affect actual performance. Even in mundane applications, calculations should include a safety factor of at least 1.5. Many vacuum-system manufacturers recommend a safety factor of at least 2.0. In high-speed swinging or swiveling operations, a safety of 2.5 or higher might be needed to ensure a tight grip on workpieces and safety of nearby workers.

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FUNDAMENTALS

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Load, orientation and acceleration forces. One can calculate the required diameter and effective gripping area of a vacuum cup. But it’s usually preferred to determine the necessary holding force. From there, users can choose from a range of cups that meet the requirements based on size, shape, material, cost and manufacturer.

First, determine the workpiece mass, m, by multiplying volume by material density.

Then determine holding force based on these common configurations. For more complex motions or orientations, discuss the design with a manufacturer’s application engineer, or rely on sizing software available from several vacuum-system suppliers.

For a horizontal vacuum cup with a vertical lifting force: F = m × (g + a) × S where F = holding force, N; m = mass, kg; g = acceleration of gravity, 9.81 m/sec2; a = system acceleration, m/sec2; and S = safety factor For a horizontal vacuum cup moving a load in a horizontal direction:

PVE12

F = m × (g + a/µ) × S

PVH

For a vertical vacuum cup moving a load in a vertical direction:

TA1919V20

F = (m/µ) × (g + a) × S

MFE PVE19

PVQ40/45

PVB/PVQ

Typically, in such an orientation, the safety factor should be 2.0 or greater.

After calculating holding force, one can find appropriate data for “pull off” or “breakaway” force of different cups from catalogs or manufacturers’ websites. (Note that catalog specs are typically listed for a specific vacuum, say –0.7 bar.) The listed breakaway force should exceed the calculated holding force. Depending on the application a single cup might suffice, or the total holding force may be distributed among several cups.

FPW

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How does water glycol fluid affect hydraulic seals?

Comprehensive testing of water glycol fluids on common seal materials reveals temperature-related issues.

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James Simpson Sales Manager Oil & Gas Europe, Trelleborg Sealing Solutions

Eric Bucci

Segment Manager Oil & Gas Americas, Trelleborg Sealing Solutions

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As the oil and gas industry moves to recover more challenging reserves and enters the development of High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) fields, it is imperative that operators understand the effects of high-temperature exposure of sealing materials within water-based hydraulic fluids. Until now, these two materials have not been thoroughly tested together at high temperatures.

As background, water glycol fluids consist of a solution of water, ethylene, or diethylene glycol, usually a high molecular weight polyglycol and an additive package. The water-to-glycol mixture typically contains 38% to 45% water. These fluids usually contain red, pink, or other colored dye to aid in their identification.

With water in the formulation, evaporation is ongoing, and upper operating temperature limits must be considered. Water loss can cause an imbalance relative to the additives and adversely affect viscosity, pH and lubrication quality. Periodic checks of the water content must be made and water added to the system if required.

Added water must be distilled or soft de-ionized because the calcium and magnesium present in potable water will react with additives, causing them to precipitate out of the fluid and compromise fluid performance. Ideally, operating temperatures should be kept below 65°C to minimize evaporation though in practice they can be significantly higher.

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I N D U S T R I A L

H Y D R A U L I C S

production as a means of protecting people, the environment, and resources.

Low- viscosity versions operate more effectively than oil-based HLP fluids over long distances, and the low compressibility of water gives faster response times.

The International Standards Organization (ISO) classifies fire-resistant, water-based hydraulic fluids into four categories:

Figure 1. Relatively small changes in the properties of Trelleborg’s Turcon PTFE seals were seen when tested with water glycol fluids.

The polyglycol is a water-soluble polymer thickener that can be formulated to cover a wide range of viscosities. The resulting viscosity-temperature properties give water glycols good low-temperature cold-start pump wear protection and minimized cavitation. The additive package imparts corrosion resistance, metal passivation, seal and hose compatibility, oxidation resistance, antimicrobial properties, antifoaming agents and

antiwear properties. Water glycol fluids also have better thermal transfer properties than other fire-resistant fluids.

Why use water-based hydraulic fluids?

Water-based hydraulic fluids are widely used in oil and gas, mining, hot-rolling mills, and similar applications where the potential for fire could cause catastrophic consequences. They are also replacing traditional oil-based HLP fluids in applications where environmental regulations must be observed. As a result, they have become more prevalent in many applications within offshore energy

• HFAE, which includes oil-in-water emulsions, typically with more than 80% water content • HFAS, which are synthetic aqueous fluids, typically containing more than 80% water • HFB, which are water-in-oil emulsions typically containing more than 40% water • HFC (also known as glycol solutions, polyalkylene glycol solutions and water glycols), which include water polymer solutions, typically containing more than 35% water HFC fluids are the most common hydrous, fire-resistant hydraulic fluids because they have the best fire resistance and hydraulic properties. They are also used wherever hydraulic fluid escaping under high pressure can ignite on contact with hot materials. At temperatures above 600°C, these fluids should not ignite or continue to burn. They can be used at ambient temperatures of –20 to 65°C and up to working pressures of 250 bar.

The fire resistant and environmentally friendly qualities of HFC fluids make them suitable for use in offshore installations, whether on surface equipment such as motion compensation cylinders or on subsea equipment when used as a control fluid to operate valves and blow-out preventers. The fire-resistant properties mean greater fire safety, offering more time to initiate fire-fighting measures and bring people to safety in the event of an accident.

Chart 1 – Hardness and volume change of seal materials in Oceanic HW 740 R. 32

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Chart 2 – Tensile strength and elongation change of seal materials in Oceanic HW 740 R. What else should you consider?

As they are mostly made of water, HFC fluids have vastly different lubrication properties as compared to oil-based fluids. In hydraulic fluids, the interrelation between viscosity and temperature is described by the viscosity index (VI).

HFC hydraulic fluids have a better

viscosity temperature behavior than HLP mineral oil. In HFA hydraulic fluids, the dependency of the viscosity on the temperature is negligible. The differing viscosity temperature behavior should be taken into consideration when selecting hydraulic fluid for the required temperature range.

Owing to high vapor pressure, in comparison to a similar HLP mineral oil, the maximum operating temperature when working with fire-resistant, watercontaining hydraulic fluids must be limited. Reservoir temperatures above 50 °C must be prevented in open systems because they can lead to serious water loss and accelerate the aging process in the hydraulic fluid. Furthermore, in HFC hydraulic fluids, water losses that are too high can lead to both an increase in viscosity and a reduction in fire-resistant properties. The minimum operating temperature for HFA hydraulic fluids is 5°C. HFC hydraulic fluids respond very well at low temperatures and have a lower pour point compared to HLP mineral oils.

It’s critical that the hydraulic fluid does not negatively affect the materials used in the components within any system that uses HFC fluids. Compatibility with coatings, seals, hoses, metals and plastics should be observed to prolong the service life and integrity of equipment.

Oil and gas hydraulic applications often involve demanding dynamic movements.

For instance, sealing systems in offshore motion compensation cylinders can be

Chart 3 – Hardness and volume change of seal materials in Oceanic HW 740 R at 135°C.

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8/11/16 10:23 AM

24% more f lexible than most 100R15 hoses

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Eaton’s new EC600 X-FLEX ultra-high-pressure spiral hydraulic hose is designed to meet and exceed SAE 100R15 performance at 50% of the SAE100R15 bend radius. And now you can see its exceptional flexibility for yourself with a free two-foot sample.

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subjected to significant wear due to long strokes. Compared to oil-based HLP media, the water base of HFC fluids typically produces different reactions within the traditional sealing materials used in these applications. The different reactions can range from lower lubricity relative to dynamic sealing elements, to corrosion concerns of supporting metal hardware, to compatibility with sealing polymers.

Testing HFC fluids Trelleborg Sealing Solutions and fluid producer MacDermid partnered to investigate the effect of water glycol fluids on common seal materials. In 2015, they developed a series of tests involving seven seal materials, six fluids, and three temperatures.

The MacDermid fluids tested were: • ERIFON 818 TLP • COMPENOL • OCEANIC HW 525 P • OCEANIC HW 443 • OCEANIC HW 740 R • OCEANIC XT 900 Trelleborg materials tested were: • XploR H9T20 • XploR H9T21 • XploR V9T20 • XploR V9T82 • Turcon T05 • Turcon T46 • XploR J9513

Here are the details on the Trelleborg materials tested: • XploR H9T20: Explosive decompression resistant HNBR • XploR H9T21: Low temperature explosive decompression resistant HNBR • XploR V9T20: Explosive decompression resistant FKM • XploR V9T82: Low temperature explosive decompression resistant FKM • XploR J9513: Explosive decompression resistant FFKM • Turcon T05: Proprietary filled Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) • Turcon T46: Bronze filled PTFE The tests took place over a 90-day period in 2016 in three Trelleborg labs: Stuttgart, Germany; Tewksbury, England; and Fort Wayne, Ind. Each seal and fluid combination was tested for hardness change, tensile strength change, strain change and volume change. Each seal was photographed before and after the test to document all physical changes.

Trelleborg undertook a series of tests on a number of elastomeric and thermoplastic sealing materials to investigate the effect of immersion in HFC fluids at a range of elevated temperatures up to 200°C.

As an example of the test results, the seal material property data for MacDermid Oceanic HW 740 R after a 90-day exposure at 70°C is shown in Chart 1 and 2, and 90 day exposure at 135°C is shown in Chart 3 and 4. Oceanic HW 740 R is a hybrid HFC fluid for use in subsea production control systems. It does not contain polyglycol, as high viscosity adversely affects hydraulic response time.

Test results Relative to elastomer materials, testing highlighted that while HNBR (XploR H9T20 & H9T21) exhibits relatively small changes in hardness, volume and strain with Oceanic HW 740 R (and other HFC fluids) up to 70°C, a more pronounced change exists in these properties when

Chart 4 – Tensile strength and strain change of seal materials in Oceanic HW 740 R at 135°C.

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the test is performed at temperatures of 135°C. The HNBR property change from 70 to 135°C is expected and typical because rubber materials generally lose properties as temperature increases. The test results for HNBR are well within acceptable seal performance and operational limits and suggest the best combination of compatibility and material property retention at temperatures up to 135°C.

In applications where temperatures are above 135°C, industry professionals would typically look to FKM (Fluoropolymer) materials to provide a solution. However, our testing illustrates that waterbased HFC fluids create a significant change to the properties of FKM at both 70 and 135°C. As a result, FKM would not typically be recommended for any applications involving these fluids.

By comparison, we see relatively small changes in the properties of perfluoroelastomer Isolast J9513 and Turcon PTFE materials. At temperatures above 135°C, these materials offer a potential solution when dealing with high temperature applications that involve HFC fluids. More and more deep sea wells are reaching temperatures up to 200°C and additional Trelleborg testing has shown Isolast J9513 and Turcon materials retain a significant portion of their material properties in the high temperature water glycol fluids, such as MacDermid Oceanic XT900.

Testing reveals the importance of fluid type and seal material choice in ensuring optimum seal performance and service life. Traditional sealing materials, such as FKM, often inert in most fluids, exhibit disadvantageous behavior in HFC fluids.

The material compatibilities mentioned here may not automatically result in success. Offshore operators are free to add extra additives—which were not part of the Trelleborg test—to suit their particular application. The extra additives may lead to seal material incompatibilities and could have dramatic adverse effects on sealing materials. Material incompatibilities may lead to an accelerated aging process in the hydraulic fluid and to increased wear and degradation of the sealing components. Each application must be reviewed to optimize the seal materials with the HFC fluid.

It is important that seals are proved in specific applications with specific fluids and under actual operating conditions to ensure seal performance and life.

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Using your senses to better understand your system Sensors used in fluid power are available to measure anything from pressure, flow, temperature, position and more. Understanding their differences will help you better maintain an efficient system.

Josh Cosford |

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Contributing Editor

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Sensor is a rather arbitrary word as it relates to the observation or measurement of fluid power characteristics. Anything that can sense pressure, flow, temperature, position, or any other quality of liquid or air, is a sensor. By that definition, both you and I are sensors. I can put my hand on a pump and tell you if it’s hot or cold. I can look at a cylinder and tell you if it’s fully retracted, more or less.

These small linear transducers from Rota Engineering are designed for position control/ monitoring of mobile hydraulic cylinders. They withstand both physical abuse and exposure to

It goes without saying I would do a poor job just standing around with my hand on a pump, or looking at cylinders to observe their position. Not only would my crushed L4-L5 disc be screaming for mercy after an hour of standing around, my actual capacity to measure temperature is terrible at best. If your resolution was finer than “cold,” “warmish,” and “hot,” then maybe we could talk. Otherwise, there are devices on the market much more accurate, and unless you are looking for something lost or hidden, my descriptions are useless.

To measure something like temperature, you can get actual thermometers to achieve a level of accuracy far beyond any human I know. But besides the odd fact thermometers used in the fluid power industry are called temperature gauges, these gauges are still not what are described as sensors. Let’s just give up on understanding the etymology of the fluid power dictionary, because the confusion doesn’t end there.

Electronic sensors or transducers Sensors are the electronic devices used to measure any quality of liquid or air important to the operation of a fluid power machine. How a temperature gauge isn’t a sensor is beyond me, but unless you’re talking about Cosford’s Law, I didn’t make this stuff up, I just write about it.

It’s important to note these sensors are electronic, meaning they require a source of power to provide their reading or output, with one exception I’ll mention shortly.

dust, water and more.

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This MH-3 mobile working machines pressure transmitter from WIKA Instrument is designed to limit overpressure failures and diagnose problems on the spot.

Linear transducers, such as MTS Sensor’s MH series for mobile applications, accurately sense piston and stroke positions. A magnet is permanently attached to the piston, and a probe is inserted inside the hollow piston/ rod assembly.

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Electronic sensors require a power source so their hardware can detect and measure the quality they’re designed to. Most sensors will require a 12 or 24 Vdc source, or a 120 Vac source (which will be converted to dc internally, anyway). Some sensors will be battery powered, and there are even some that are solar powered. Regardless, most sensors require an input power source because of the nature of their electronic circuits.

Wheatstone bridges, voltage dividers or other electronic circuits are used to convert the input power into a variable signal to be interpreted by another device, such as a display or PLC. I can no more explain the operation of a wheatstone bridge than I can a PLC, because I’m a hydraulics guy, but perhaps one of the editors over at Sensor Tips or Analog IC Tips can provide more clarity. Regardless, this article is about hydraulic and pneumatic sensors and their applications, rather than electronics.

What I can tell you is that sensors are available in various output signals, either analog or digital.

Sensors in the fluid power industry are most often called transducers, which is any device that converts a mechanical property into an analog electrical signal.

The electrical output signal of an analog transducer is usually either a variable output of voltage or amperage.

The transducer will use its input power, and using a wheatstone bridge or other technique, converts the mechanical input into the variable electrical output.

Temperature sensors, like WIKA’s TR33 miniature resistance thermometer, are rated to pressures of 140 bar and temperatures to 250° C.

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How do they work?

The most common outputs used in fluid power are 0-5 or 0-10 V, and 0-20 or 4-20 mA. The choice of output is partially preference to the designer, and also partially related to application. For example, a variable voltage output is more desirable to most PLCs, but can be prone to electromagnetic interference from other machinery, especially over a long distance of cable. The interference can change the voltage of the signal, creating noise or inaccuracy.

However, a variable resistance output such as 4-20 mA is more stable, as it doesn’t rely on voltage. Any interference that influences voltage in the cable running from the transducer to the PLC will not affect the amperage. The downside, of course, is most controllers prefer a variable voltage input. Sometimes an analog transducer will simply plug into a digital display, providing visual indication of the amplitude of the quality you’re measuring.

Regardless if you’re using a PLC, display or other device with your transducer, you will often have to program your measuring range into the controller. For example, a pressure transducer is designed to measure gauge pressure accurately over specified range. The measuring range could be 0 to 100 psi or anywhere up to 10,000 psi or more. Your controller has no idea what the measurement range is, so the parameters must be entered to define this measurement range.

If you have a 0-10 V transducer with a measuring range of 5,000 psi, you must tell the controller that 10 V equals 5,000 psi.

This way, it will know that 5 V output from the transducer is equal

WIKA’s OLS-C20 level sensor is an optoelectronic level switch designed for high pressures.

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Pressure transmitters often need to be rated for hazardous and harsh environments, such as this model 570 pressure transmitter, below, from Viatran. Above, it is being used on an offshore oil rig.

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to 2,500 psi of hydraulic pressure, or any range in between. You may also have a 4-20 mA transducer measuring up to 100 psi. In this case, 4 mA of resistance is set at the zero pressure point, and the controller is programmed to recognize 20 mA as 100 psi. Anything up to the 4 mA dead band is simply read as zero pressure.

It should be noted that should pressure rise above the measurement range, it will not be recognized by the controller. If you have a 0-10 V transducer with a 1,000-psi measurement range, and pressure jumps to 1,200 psi, your controller will be oblivious, for the most part. The transducer will not put out much more than 10 V, so the controller will read 1,000 psi. Some transducers are designed with a maximum overload pressure where it will not damage the device, which can be double the measurement range for reliability. However, burst pressure could be ten times the measurement range, so it’s important to consider what pressure range you actually need to accurately measure.

So why not use a 10,000 psi transducer for your 1,500 psi system, so it’s nearly impossible to blow your sensor apart? It’s because choosing a measurement range pertinent to your application ensures you

have the highest level of resolution and accuracy. With only 0-10 V available as resolution, your transducer would have a usable output range of only 0-1.5 V. The accuracy within 1.5 V is inferior to using the whole 10 V available, where 10 V equals 1,500 psi if you chose the correct sensor to begin with. Truthfully, you would want to choose a transducer slightly higher than your measurement range, say 2,000 psi in this case, just in case of over-pressure situations you want to observe.

A digital transducer differs from analog transducer types because they typically send out a signal conforming to one of the various network CAN bus protocols, such as CANopen, DeviceNet et al. The digital CAN signal can allow nearly limitless devices (or nodes) in the network while using only four wires to connect it all. If your sensor is a node in the CAN network, it has a built in controller that internally converts its own analog range into a digital signal fed over the network.

There are many advantages to a digital network, although their cost is higher than a standard, non-network controller setup. One is the lack of excessive wiring, as already mentioned, but another is the length of distance possible between sensor and controller. For example, your temperature transducer could be set to measure a 0-200° F range, and using fiberoptic cables, can send its signal miles away to a PLC in the network.

The non-electronic exception to the sensor rule is the use of variable resistors. They can be thermistors, for example, which change their resistance based on temperature. Any controller able to measure changes in resistance can interpret the signal and relay temperature through a display digital signal. Cylinder positioning can also be observed using a variable resistor, although this technology is old hat with the popularity of linear transducers used in cylinder applications.

The variable resistor is simply a device spanning the length of measurement,

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with a brush that moves the length of the resistor. The farther the brush moves away from the base point, the higher the resistance, and this resistance can be interpreted by the PLC just as with the thermistor. The advantage of resistors is they require only an in and out connection, and no power source.

Multiple styles for most measurements Sensors are available for every conceivable quality you could wish to measure.

Temperature transducers are available to measure more than 200° F for fluid power systems. Ranges higher than that are available for other markets, but unnecessary for fluid power. If your hydraulic oil is 195°, you have bigger issues than if your transducer is about to run out of measurement range.

Pressure transducers are the most common electronic sensor used in fluid power. They can provide upwards of 0.10% accuracy over their full range, and response time within 0.5 msec. Should you be having issues related to pressure spikes, you can log the pressure data on your machine to see when and where the problem is occurring. Even without data logging, they provide an accurate real-time readout of system pressure, anywhere you wish to mount it along with a display.

If you have a high-performance motion control application, the chances are good you have a linear position sensor on your hydraulic cylinder. These are sometimes called LVDTs or LVTs [Linear Variable (Differential) Transformers], but these linear transducers can accurately sense piston and stroke positions. A magnet is permanently attached to the piston,

and a probe is inserted inside the hollow piston/rod assembly. They can be a simple Hall effect or advanced design like MTS’ Temposonic, which is highly accurate. As the cylinder strokes, the magnetic field is picked up by the transducer, relaying the signal back to the PLC.

For industrial applications, the hardware, which includes the onboard electronics, will often protrude from the cap end of the cylinder. This configuration makes clevis mount cylinders difficult, so switching to a rear trunnion would be a better option. Electronic output can vary vastly, and can literally be any signal usable by today’s controllers; variable amperage, variable voltage, PWM or even any of the many CAN protocols. Mobile applications aren’t so free with cap end space, and are nearly always clevis or swivel rod eye mounts, so the linear transducers are

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M O B I L E compact enough to be integrally mounted in the cylinder, although they are often less sophisticated.

Other measurement possibilities are water saturation level, flow rate, actuator position and velocity, viscosity and contamination level, to name a few. There are so many accurate tools available to monitor the condition of your fluid, there really is no excuse for machine failure and downtime. If you can measure temperature and viscosity, as well as water and particle contamination levels, you can predict 99% of hydraulic failures before they happen, and your PLC can even shut a machine down should any of these sensors read past a critical level.

Just as with consumer electronics, sensors used in the fluid power industry are plummeting in cost, and are quite economical. There really is no good reason

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not to hop on board and take advantage of both electronic measurement and electronic control of your fluid power system. Although the fluid power industry has always been a late adaptor to electronics, the choice of sensors available at low cost make it a no-brainer to jump on board now.

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Right-sized

cylinders

ensure performance and efficiency

Nathan Irvine • AVENTICS Corp.

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Here are some basic tips on specifying air cylinders that economically generate the requisite forces and speeds.

Rightfully, pneumatics is considered extremely simple, flexible and economical. Add to that, air-powered systems are quite durable—they routinely run for years trouble-free with little maintenance. That’s why they’re used in countless applications ranging from food, beverage and packaging operations to metalworking and automotive applications.

To get the most out of pneumatic systems, considering a few basic tips can help engineers save time and optimize system performance. Obviously, the components in a circuit need to be sized to provide the necessary force, speed and precision to do a job. But right-sized components are a prerequisite for low energy consumption, too. Energy costs make up more than half of total cost of ownership of pneumatics today, so not wasting compressed air pays off.

While every part of a pneumatic system plays an important role in proper engineering, arguably a good place to begin a design is where the application demands force and motion—at the cylinder. Here are some basic tips on specifying cylinders for load, speed and energy efficiency and, ultimately, lower purchase and operating costs.

Proper dimensioning

Cylinders come in countless standard and special versions, including compact, mini and short-stroke designs; with round or square profiles; in light-duty “throwaway” units and rugged tie-rod constructions; and in rod-type as well as rodless designs.

Regardless of the specific type, however, sizing an air cylinder for an application is essential. Engineers can rely on “hand” calculations to come up with suitable options, or turn to the latest software tools to generate results. Let’s look at each alternative.

Mounting a valve directly on a cylinder can save energy and shorten response times.

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Rugged pneumatic cylinders provide precise motion control in this sawmill application.

the expected load plus a reasonable safety factor. Depending on the application, experts generally recommend that the cylinder provide an extra 33 to 100% of calculated force to overcome internal friction from seals, bearings, guides and other external forces; pressure losses from clogged filters or restrictions from other components in the circuit; and pressure losses due to leaks that can develop throughout a system over time.

However, the specifics of the application determine the amount of force margin necessary to ensure proper operation.

Be aware that cylinders with larger-thannecessary diameters increase air consumption and cycle time, and larger systems cost more to purchase and operate than properly sized ones. They are also heavier and take up more space, which can be critical when weight or mounting space is at a premium.

It also goes without saying that cylinder stroke should be no more than required.

Longer-than-needed cylinders cost more, waste energy and, again, add to cycle time.

Flow considerations

For manual calculations, start with the load. Knowing the force and stroke requirements, and the available air pressure, engineers can readily determine the minimum piston diameter to get the job done. Consider the math for the venerable double-acting cylinder. Calculate required cylinder force from: F = PA Where P = pressure, psi; and A = cylinder piston area, in.2, noting that the area of the piston rod reduces the working area on the retract stroke.

So calculate extend force: Fe = Pπdc2/4 Where dc = piston diameter, in. And retract force is: Fr = Pπ(dc2 – dr2)/4 Where dr = rod diameter, in.

But never design a cylinder to just barely move the load, always allow a bit of margin. Select cylinder bore sizes to handle 48

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Another factor in sizing a cylinder is air consumption, and how it relates to other parts of the system. This takes into consideration the forces required to move a load at the specified pressure, extend and retract volumes and cycle times, and relating all that to air flow through the cylinder. Many U.S. manufacturers use standard cubic feet per minute (scfm) to size components, and also correlate that to flow coefficient Cv for other components. Calculating cylinder air flow lets engineers determine the correct size tubing, fittings, valves, filters and other components in the system.

First, size the cylinder for motion requirements. A good rule of thumb for attaining the necessary speed is to size the cylinder to handle double the load. (However, if speed is not important, using a force multiplier between 1.25 and 2.0 times the load may result in smaller cylinders and lower air consumption.)

From that, calculate the total volume per cycle. Recognize that in double-acting

cylinders, extend and retract volumes differ due to the volume the rod displaces and must be calculated separately. For a basic cylinder: Extend volume Ve = (πdc2/4)l, where l = stroke length, in.

Retract volume Vr = (π(dc2 – dr2)/4)l Total volume per cycle V = Ve + Vr Multiply total volume per cycle by cycles/ min to calculate total volume/min, in.3/ min. Multiply in.3/min by conversion factor 1728 in.3/ft3 to determine cubic feet per minute (cfm) flow. Finally, convert cfm to scfm. This conversion requires the compression ratio of compressed air. This converts compressed air to standard conditions (14.7 psia, 36% relative humidity, and 68°F) and gives the working pressure in absolute terms. In most industrial applications, ambient temperature and humidity can be ignored because they have little impact on the calculations. Compression ratio for air at 80 psi, for example, is (80 + 14.7)/14.7 = 6.44. Multiply compression ratio by cfm to get scfm.

Knowing the cylinder’s air requirements, use this information and manufacturers’ catalog data for scfm and Cv to properly size valves, fittings, flow controls, FRLs and other system components. Note that all components that conduct air resist flow to some degree, and pressure drop across each device will increase with flow.

Cv specifications help evaluate typical circuits for potential bottlenecks, as the total system Cv is less than that of the component with the smallest Cv. Online calculators

Such tedious and, sometimes, error-prone calculations for forces, flows and pressure drops may be necessary when an OEM or designer needs to fine-tune a design for exacting performance or minimal costs.

But often, engineers are better off turning to online calculators for fast, efficient and accurate component selection and overall design.

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That’s why many pneumatics manufacturers have developed software tools that encompass theoretical operating parameters, well-established sizing equations, predetermined safety factors and real world experience to arrive at conservative, but not overly designed, product selections.

The tools are very well-accepted. Users trust they will receive an answer that technically works well, with the understanding that there may be some room for minor adjustments away from the conservative side.

However, different manufacturers’ tools may apply different safety factors in their calculation software, or adjust them based on specific cases like cylinder orientation, the effects of gravity, or even the type of application. But results from one tool to another are usually similar.

Interactive tools such as the AVENTICS CylinderFinder let the user describe the intended application in terms of loads, cycle times, system pressure, mounting orientation and the like, and in a few seconds the tool replies with the recommended cylinder dimensions and applicable products.

Results also include operating margins in terms of maximum load handling and speed, plus recommended valve sizes and hose dimensions. Other calculation tools are also available online, including air consumption calculators as a special feature.

With online tools such as product configurators, engineers can conveniently choose functions, weigh alternatives, and

select styles, mountings, and other accessories to create custom packages. Product data, including CAD models and pricing are also immediately available.

Speed and cushioning

Another benefit of online calculators is that they recognize the limits of a cylinder. For example, thanks to ongoing seal and bearing improvements, cylinder speeds of 6 to 15 ft/sec and higher are certainly attainable.

But not all cylinders are suited for such quick movements, and the software tools instantly recognize restrictions concerning a particular product.

It’s one thing to get a cylinder moving fast. It’s equally important to bring it to a stop without excessive impact loads that generate noise and vibration and can damage the cylinder and the machine itself.

Software tools not only know maximum cylinder speeds, they take deceleration requirements into consideration as well.

Cylinder cushioning may not be necessary in low-energy applications that involve low speeds and light loads. In fact, probably the majority of “throw-away” type cylinders are made without cushioning. But any cylinder larger than about 1-in. bore with a stroke exceeding a few inches would expect to warrant some kind of cushioning—whether it’s an elastomeric bumper, pneumatic cushioning or even an external shock absorber. Today, more and more

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Proper dimensioning is essential for best performance in both rod-type and rodless cylinders.

Cylinders come in countless standard and special versions, including compact, mini and short-stroke designs; with round or square profiles; in light-duty “throwaway” units and rugged tierod constructions; and in rod-type as well as rodless designs.

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manufacturers are gravitating toward to building cushions into the cylinder.

AVENTICS, for example, offers what we call “Ideal Cushioning,” and it is a critical part of the cylinder selection process. Ideal Cushioning is a proprietary, adjustable method to optimize cushioning and reduce shock/vibration, noise and cycle times. It includes both adjustable, precision pneumatic cushions and elastic elements for impact cushioning. It’s designed such that the direction of travel of the piston is the same throughout the entire cushioning sequence (no piston bounce), and such that the velocity can be exactly zero when the piston reaches the end of its travel, so impact and noise generation on contact are minimized. A shorter total cycle time is an additional valuable benefit; many OEMs and end users have used this method in rod-type and rodless cylinders to increase machinery productivity.

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Tubing considerations

While this discussion focuses on the cylinder, getting air efficiently in and out of the actuator is important, too. Another recommendation is to make air-line lengths as short as possible. Reducing the tube volume between the valve and cylinder saves energy and shortens cylinder response times, because that volume pressurizes and empties every cycle. In fact, from an efficiency standpoint, the ideal place to mount a valve is directly on the cylinder, almost completely eliminating the tubing.

Also, each application has an optimum air-line ID. Choking flow to the cylinder

Manual and electropneumatic regulators improve the energy efficiency of pneumatic systems by reducing compressed-air

consumption.

from undersized tubing, fitting and valves will definitely limit cylinder power, stroke time and maximum acceleration. On the other hand, a larger line diameter increases Cv, but it also increases the volume that must be filled and emptied each cycle. And in short stroke, high-frequency applications, larger tubing can actually increase the cycle time and decrease throughput.

Fortunately, online configuration tools and air consumption calculators also recommend the valve flow rate and tubing ID based on the application and the tubing length between valve and cylinder, to produce optimum results.

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Demand-based pressure

One additional note regarding cylinders: The vast majority of pneumatic controls apply the same pressure for both cylinder extend and retract strokes, and that frequently wastes energy and money by supplying higher pressure than an actuator actually needs. For instance, in many applications cylinders either pull or push the load, but not both.

Fortunately, pressure regulators with a reverse flow/backflow mechanism can independently control a cylinder’s load and non-load pressure. Studies have shown that supplying the right pressure for each operation by using pressure regulators on a machine can lower air consumption and produce energy savings on the order of 25%. The key to non-load pressure regulation is to look for cylinders with significant differences in the forces required for each stroke action. And, in general, the larger the cylinder, the greater the efficiency gain.

Properly adjusted manual regulators are one option. And electro-pneumatic pressure regulators are useful in cases where loads can vary, say in flexible automation systems. For example, E/P regulators can be programmed to supply exactly the pressure needed to perform a specific operation on one type of parts, and then reset the pressure for a different product or operation. Savings increase even more because the user does not need to specify the maximum pressure needed for a range of operations—the level can be tailored to each task.

Another benefit of pneumatic pressure regulation is higher cylinder speed. In addition to wasting energy, charging a cylinder to a higher-than-necessary pressure also reduces cylinder speed because the actuator wastes time charging beyond the level required, and it takes longer to empty the chamber.

And overpressurizing can magnify internal and external leaks.

And one final note. Machine operators commonly increase supply pressure on regulators in hopes of improving performance. But this wastes air and increases costs for no actual benefit—if components are sized correctly. It’s important to monitor and ensure machine pressure remains within designated limits to avoid wasting energy.

FPW

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P.O. Box 9070 • Fort Wayne, IN 46899 USA

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Pilot systems for mining shovels:

Large motions begin with tiny valves Mining equipment showcases the brute force of hydraulics, as well as the precise control.

Carl Dyke •

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CD Industrial Group

www.fluidpowerworld.com

8/11/16 10:31 AM

I have been in the mining pits. It can be a rough and dusty environment. Two million pound, 5,000-hp shovels quickly and gracefully load 4,000-hp haul trucks that drive off weighing over one million pounds. As those trucks steer along the haul road, graders with hydraulically operated blades as wide as two highway lanes do their best to smooth the bumps.

Back at the mining face, 900-hp dozers lift, drop and angle their blades while helping to feed the shovel. It takes those haul trucks only half of a minute to hoist and dump their loads, so they’ll be back at the shovel in no time.

The operator’s light touch If it’s hard to appreciate all of the massive hydraulic flows from a distance, it’s not much easier from inside the sound insulated operator’s cab. Shovel motions such as boom lift begin with a very light touch, pulling back just slightly on the right hand joystick. A digital instruction, or an analog signal of only a few milliamps is sent from the joystick to an electronic controller.

Somehow, that signal results in smooth, feathered control of a pair of boom lift cylinders that are several feet in diameter each.

From the operator’s seat in the haul truck, only light and gentle movements are needed on the steering wheel to keep the massive wheels on the steering axle pointed in the right direction. Similar to the light efforts of the shovel operator, the haul truck operator hoists and dumps a 400-ton load with just a simple upward pull on a small lever.

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Image: shutterstock.com

When you watch the lumbering motions of the shovel or the simple hoisting action of the haul truck from a distance, it’s hard to appreciate that there are dozens of hydraulic pumps at work on each of those machines. You have to see the massive directional valves for yourself to appreciate the control of 300 gpm for body hoisting and well over 1,500 gpm for some combined shovel motions.

There are also some very small hydraulic components in sub-circuits where there is almost no flow occurring. Yet without these components functioning correctly, the heavy lifts and forceful motions of the grader, dozer, haul truck and shovel will simply not occur.

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M O B I L E

H Y D R A U L I C S Examples of pilot control Valve piloting provides enormous amplification of the operator’s efforts.

Piloting minimizes operator fatigue while allowing hydraulic systems to do all of the forceful controlling work and, of course, the heavy lifting. In some cases, an operator simply wouldn’t have the physical strength needed to manually activate such large valves.

To bring massive hydraulic flows online quickly when the shovel needs to swing towards the haul truck, or when the haul truck operator needs to steer quickly around an obstacle, the swash plate inside multiple piston pumps may have to swivel from neutral all the way to full stroke in a fraction of a second. Again, pilot pressure valves are needed to control another spring returned valve. In this case the valve is a controller for the pump displacement.

Hydraulic pressure color key

Pilot control is force control Pilot control of hydraulic components is not often fully appreciated as a key subsystem.

Pilot components are small, and the hydraulic flows passing through them are tiny. In fact,

Large boom lift motions require large valves and large flows. The smallest touch from the operator’s lever brings small pilot components into action to accomplish these large flows.

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most pilot systems in mining machines are not meant to control flow, but rather they are force controlling. An example of force control is how hard to push on the end of a spring returned, proportional flow, directional valve spool. In older generations of hydraulic machines, and on some smaller and simpler machines in the current day, the valve spool is moved directly by hand, via a mechanical lever. If you have a keen sense of observation, you sometimes notice that a lever-operated spool valve requires more of your physical strength as you move the spool further away from neutral. Return springs inside the valve oppose the operator’s effort.

On large machines, the increasing and decreasing force required to operate a valve spool, against return springs, is handled by the pilot pressure system.

On some shovel models, there are two stages of pilot control. A two-stage system is needed where the primary stage is a highly accurate, electrically operated, pressure reducing valve, but not adequately sized to handle the very short burst of flow that is needed to move a large directional valve spool to a new position. The secondary pilot stage is also a pressure-reducing valve with the same basic function as the primary stage—except that this larger sized valve with its heavier spring cannot be operated electrically.

Moving directional control valve spools into position is just one example of a force controlling, pilot scenario. The main steering amplifier valve on most haul trucks is essentially another (if slightly unique) piloted valve spool example.

Displacement controls on large pumps use a similar pilot method as well. Naturally, force control is accomplished in pilot systems via pressure control.

A very central component in controlling pilot pressures is no larger than a soda pop can; often it is only half of that size. A screw-in or slip-in valve cartridge is a common style, with only the armature tube and solenoid visible above the manifold or cavity. For shared porting

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M O B I L E

H Y D R A U L I C S

and hose connection efficiency, as many as eight of these valves are built up as one assembly with a common manifold.

Variable pressure from a pilot valve is used to signal the displacement controller on a large pump.

“Pilot control of hydraulic components is

not often fully appreciated as a key subsystem.

Pilot pressure valves are actually pressure reducing valves The valve in question is a pressurereducing valve. When the solenoid is left unpowered, it provides no pressure on its outlet higher than what is found in the tank. As the proportional current level through the solenoid increases via operator joystick movement and through electronic controller circuitry, the pressure-reducing valve produces a progressively higher outlet pressure. These valves are often referred to simply as pilot pressure valves.

The range of pressures and the exact pressure value produced at any one moment on the outlet of a pilot pressure valve are a forceful translation of the operator’s lever and pedal motions.

Even though we have translated a small electrical signal from levers to a forceful hydraulic pressure, we’re still working with very small components. Ultimately, the goal will be to control large valves that can handle large flows.

Pilot components are small, and the hydraulic flows passing through them are tiny.”

B

Moving a spool requires more strength as you go, due to the increasing opposition force from the return spring.

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M O B I L E

H Y D R A U L I C S

The pilot pressure pump The source component in a pilot system is the pump. If a typical pilot system has too little or no flow as stated earlier, then why is a pump needed? If you’ve learned that a pump does not account for the pressure value present in a hydraulic system, then you’ve got one piece of the puzzle. Remember, resistance to flow from narrow passages (orifices, valves, undersized hoses) or from heavily loaded cylinders is what accounts for the pressure value on a gauge that precedes those components. If you noticed the word ‘flow’ in the previous sentence, then obviously a pump has a role to play. If there is no flow from a source component (the pump), then there is no flow to resist, and thus no pressure.

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M O B I L E

H Y D R A U L I C S

There are other ways to create and store potential energy (pressure) for use in valve piloting. These can include a raised boom cylinder with the weight of the raised boom and cylinder rod pushing down on a trapped column of fluid. The use of fluid from a charged accumulator is another method. Indeed, these methods of providing pilot pressure do exist for some mining machines.

In the case of a raised boom, the pilot pressure will dissipate once the boom rests on the ground. This is a handy trick as an alternate energy source for the piloting of directional valves to help lower a raised dozer blade to the ground, should the prime mover or pumps fail. Once the charge oil has been drawn from a pilot system accumulator, it will need to be recharged.

At some point, a pump will come into play in the proper functioning of a pilot system.

On hydraulic shovels, the most common component for providing a source flow for a pilot system is a small gear pump. Earlier, we noted that pilot pressure valves typically consume little if any flow.

Tiny lever signals are translated to small current values at the pilot pressure valves. Increasing lever signals results in higher pilot pressures.

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What is the path for the pilot pump’s flow, if not through the pilot pressure valves? The pilot pump flow is directed back to tank over the poppet of a spring-loaded, pressure relief valve. This relief valve is located on a tee fitting on or near the outlet of the pilot pump. As the pilot pump is very small, and the typical hydraulic tank on a shovel is very large, the continuous flow over the pilot pressure relief valve does not contribute much heat to the fluid volume, nor consume too much input energy.

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Small components and soft springs make quick pressure adjustments possible.

How a pilot pressure valve works The hose or tube that continues onward from the pilot pump and relief valve towards the manifold of pilot pressure valves supplies a maximum pilot pressure value. The exact maximum value that is set on the pilot pump relief valve is supplied to all of the pilot pressure valves. When activated individually by the partial lever/ pedal movements of the operator, some but not all of that supplied pilot pressure is transferred over to the outlet port of the pilot pressure valve.

As the operator slightly increases lever or pedal movement away from the neutral position, increased current through the solenoid of the pilot pressure valve causes the armature to push the spool downward, which connects the pilot pump pressure to the valve outlet. This connection is only made for a brief moment. If the operator only moves the boom lift lever by a tiny amount (desiring a slow rate of cylinder extension), then the pilot pressure valve for boom lift only allows a portion of the maximum available pilot pressure to build on its outlet.

When the operator moves the lever back towards the neutral position (desiring a slower rate of boom lift), the decreased solenoid current allows the spool in the pilot pressure valve to momentarily move upward to connect the valve outlet to tank, decreasing the outlet pressure.

The pilot pressure valve only opens slightly, and for very brief periods of time for any new operator lever position. Why is this? With each change in lever position, the operator desires a different rate of cylinder travel or hydraulic motor speed.

These speeds are determined by how much flow is allowed through a large, proportional, directional valve. The spool in such a large valve is pushed (piloted) from one end or the other, to the correct amount of flow opening using a tiny amount of fluid from the pilot pressure valves. What causes this large spool to stop travelling once the required level of flow is passing through?

Springs and the pilot pressure valves take care of this action.

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M O B I L E

H Y D R A U L I C S

Once the pressure rises to the level needed, the valve holds itself at a “barely closed” position, ready to produce a fast response to any operator lever movements.

Complete pilot system in action Let’s look at the action and response of the full system.

1 The primary pilot pressure valve opens for a very brief moment, connecting pilot pump to the outlet of the pilot pressure valve.

2 Fluid travels from the pilot pressure valve to the pilot end of a directional valve spool, or to a secondary pilot pressure valve.

3 The spool now starts to move. As it moves, the spool compresses a spring on the opposite side of the valve spool.

4 The compressed spring causes an increase in resistance to the tiny pilot flow, which causes the pressure value to rise.

5

This increased backpressure is sensed nearly instantly inside the primary pilot pressure valve. The surface area on the larger flange-like, annular piston surface in the pilot pressure valve forces the spool to move upward against the solenoid force, closing off the path from pilot pump to pilot pressure valve outlet.

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M O B I L E If the pilot pressure valve was to spend any significant amount of time (a few seconds would be very long) in the open position, as the operator selects a slightly increased signal, the maximum available pilot pressure would force the directional valve spool to move as far as possible.

This would mean maximum flow to the cylinder on the shovel where the operator may have only wanted a very slow motion.

This makes it clear that the outlet of any pilot pressure valve must only be open to the pilot pump supply pressure, or to the tank pressure, for a very brief moment only, whenever the operator makes a slight increase or decrease motion on a control lever.

The flow rate through a primary pilot pressure valve is limited by the tiny oil volume needed to move a directional valve spool or a pump displacement

control spool, or the spool in a secondary pilot pressure valve. In addition, the primary pilot pressure valve must open and close quickly to establish and hold the correct outlet pressure. These two factors combined dictate a pilot pressure valve design with a small spool that travels only 1 ⁄16 in. (a few millimeters) in each direction, at the most.

What we have learned is that the large hydraulic flows that pass through massive directional valves to move boom lift cylinders and other large actuators on mining machines, are initiated by tiny spool movements inside of very small pilot valves.

The manufacturers of these tiny, precision components contribute a very large effect. As with all hydraulic systems, doing everything possible to keep valvejamming contaminants out of the fluid

H Y D R A U L I C S

makes for a reliable piloting system, where the operator can smoothly move hundreds of tons per machine motion with only the twitch of a finger.

FPW

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Gear pump with higher operating pressures Muncie Power Products munciepower.com/optimumw Applications using the FR66 Series power take-off can now use the Optimum W Series gear pump’s higher operating pressures due to new modifications to the pump’s housing. The W Series gear pumps can operate at pressures up to 4,350 psi. All standard “W” displacements are available for the FR66 Series power take-off “Q” mount option. The modified W Series gear pump can only be used on the F-650 and F-750 chassis.

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Measurement Solutions

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AD INDEX

Aggressive Hydraulics, Inc. ......... 15 Anderson Metals Corp. .............. 60 AutomationDirect ........................ 1 AVENTICS Corporation ............... 23 CD Industrial Group ................... 19 Clippard Instrument Laboratory, Inc. ...................... BC Eaton Hydraulics ........................ 35 Elesa USA Corporation ................. 2 Fabco-Air .................................... 13 FASTER, Inc. ................................ 21 Flaretite ...................................... 70 Flow Ezy Filters ........................... 65 FluiDyne Fluid Power ................. 29 Hawe Hydrauliks .......................... 9 HED ............................................. 44

Holmbury, Inc. ........................... IBC Hunger Hydraulics ...................... 61 Hy-Pro Filtration ......................... 41 Hydra Mount .............................. 71 HydraForce ................................... 5 Hydraulex Global ........................ 24 IC-Fluid Power ............................ 68 Kocsis Technologies, Inc. ............ 27 Lillbacka USA, Inc. ...................... 43 Main Manufacturing Products ..... 4 MICO, Inc. ................................... 55 NOSHOK, Inc. ............................. 71 O+P SrL ......................................... 3 Panagon Systems ....................... 28 Peninsular Cylinder .................... 67 Permco, Inc. ............................... 58

PHD, Inc. ..................................... 51 Price Engineering ....................... 25 Prince Manufacturing Corp ....... 50 RYCO Hydraulics ......................... 37 Schroeder Industries .................. 57 Servo Kinetics, Inc. ..................... 17 Super Swivels ............................. 59 SMC Corporation of America ..... 62 Tompkins Industries, Inc. ....... IFC,4 Veljan Hydrair Inc. ...................... 33 WAGO Corp. ............................... 45 Webtec ....................................... 69 Yates Industries, Inc. .................... 7

LEADERSHIP TEAM Co-Founder, VP Sales Mike Emich 508.446.1823 memich@wtwhmedia.com @wtwh_memic Co-Founder, Managing Partner Scott McCafferty 310.279.3844 smccafferty@wtwhmedia.com @SMMcCafferty

EVP Marshall Matheson 805.895.3609 mmatheson@wtwhmedia.com @mmatheson

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8/15/16 3:27 PM

Holmbury 12-15_FPW.indd 1

8/8/16 8:40 AM

Clippard 8-16_FPW.indd 1

8/8/16 8:39 AM