Xiaoxi Tammy Tan - Rethinking Architectural Potential of Relief Perspective by Xiaoxi Tammy Tan

Rethinking Architectural Potential of Relief Perspective

Name: Tammy (Xiaoxi) Tan SID:

311027008

Honours Thesis Supervisor: Dr Paolo Stracchi Honours Thesis Coordinator: Dr Simon Weir Graduation Studio Coordinator: Associate Professor Sandra Löschke Graduation Studio Tutor: Isabel Gabaldón

Table of Contents

0. Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Literature Review 3. Methodology and Research Plan 4. Stage One - Case Studies -

4.1 Colonnade at Palazzo Spada Gallery (1652-1653)

4.2 Scala Regia in Vatican City (1663- 1666)

4.3 Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza (1580-1585)

5. Stage Two - Prototype Experiment -

5.1 Siteless Prototype Model One

5.2 Siteless Prototype Model Two

5.3 Siteless Prototype Model Three

5.4 General Notes

6. Stage Three- Application Experiment 7. Conclusion

0. Abstract The research investigates the history and theory of relief perspective illusions with the idea to provoke thinking on contemporary architectural applications. Although powerful and inspiring, relief perspective ceased to be an architectural design concept after the Renaissance. The thesis aims to fill the gap between contemporary architectural practice and the centuried theory. By examining the design intents and resultant geometrical formulation of built relief perspectives in ancient architectural applications – here the examples are: Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza (1580-1585); colonnade at Palazzo Spada Gallery (1652-1653); Scala Regia in Vatican City (1663- 1666), archetypes emerge. From that, new spatial prototypes are derived and experimented both digitally and physically for enriched architectural realisation and experience. Finally, the graduation design will be demonstrated as an application of the derived prototypes with their potential, limitation and adjustment discussed when being confronted with the contemporary situation of an actual design project. 1. Introduction Beginning from a sculptural concept – bas-relief from the early Gothic period, being claimed first as a geometric theory by the mathematical field in 1798, till nowadays scenography being the only field of adaption in practice, built relief perspective failed to be developed into an architectural design method although inspiring applications were seen from the Renaissance showing great potential. Donato Bramante was the first who brought sculpture relief – namely bas- relief, into the architectural field in around 1476-14821 . Since then, a few practices were seen during the Renaissance, including Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza (1580-1585); colonnade at Palazzo Spada (1652-1653); Scala Regia in Vatican City (1663- 1666). With no treatises in architectural history and theory addressing the experimental design process of built relief perspectives in those architectural practices, this concept soon ceased its application in architectural design after the Renaissance. Not until the mathematical field rediscovered this concept by claiming its scientific base in 1798, had relief perspective being widely discussed in mathematical theory, meanwhile almost forgotten by the field of architecture. The aim of this thesis is to fill the expanding gap between the geometric theory of relief perspective and contemporary architectural practice, and thus to reboot thinking on architectural potential of this historically undervalued design concept for future application.

Richard Schofield and Grazioso Sironi. "Bramante and the problem of Santa Maria presso San Satiro." Annali di architettura: rivista del centro internazionale di architettura Andrea Palladio 12 (2000), 17-57.

The objectives of the thesis are providing analysis tracing back the design process and illusion formation of built relief perspective in the Renaissance, including the Teatro Olimpico, the Spada Colonnade and the Scala Regia; developing new spatial prototypes from the study; and demonstrating application of those prototypes into the Graduation Design of an architecture museum undertaking the existing urban context of the Domain Car Park in Sydney. This thesis proposes, on the one hand, to contribute practical inspirations to future architectural design applying relief perspective, on the other hand, to reclaim relief perspective as an architectural concept drawing relations across but running parallel to the relevant theory in the field of sculpture, mathematics and scenography. 2. Literature Review Relief perspective is a constructed three-dimensional effect that accelerates natural perspectival convergence so that an illusional extension of real space can be perceived. The conscious control behind the design of the constructed illusion often reflects the values of what is the ideal sculptural, architectural or scenographic space.2 Dating back from the early Gothic period, the idea of relief perspective was already discerned in embryo as a sculptural concept in bas-relief.3 An obvious example can be found in the standard feature of Gothic cathedrals, where the trinity of portal doorways was elaborated with various symbols and saints insinuated into the geometrical surface of facade, enhancing the god feeling of depth and entering. (Figure 1)

Figure 1.a

Figure 1.b

Figure 1.c

Figure 1. a. The back doors of the basilica of Saint-Denis, showing the beheading of Saint-Denis on the portal (11351140); b. The central portal and entrance doors of Notre Dame Cathedral (1163); c. The central portal and entrance doors of Laon Cathedral (1235). 2

Giuseppe Amoruso, “The Relief-Perspectives of Bitonti and Borromini: Design and Representation of the Illusory Space,” in Handbook of Research on Visual Computing and Emerging Geometrical Design Tools, ed. Giuseppe Amoruso (Hershey: IGI Global, 2016), 455. 3 Kirsti Andersen, The Geometry of an Art – The History of the Mathematical Theory of Perspective from Alberti to Monge (New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2007), 159.

However, none of the previous bas-relief examples above was constructing the ideal sculptural space in a way that looks completely logical to human eyes. The belief transcended stays in a symbolic and visceral level. Between 1476-1482, Donato Bramante was the first to extend bas-relief into architectural practice. Moreover, he advanced the bas-relief concept in his architectural practice to be accurate following the rules of vision, which is unprecedented at that time. In the design of the illusionary choir on the south side of the transept in Santa Maria presso San Satiro in Milan, Bramante constructed a built relief perspective (Figure 2.a), where his task was to expend the perception of the T-shaped ground floor plan to a cross-shaped without physical addition of space due to the fact that the footprint of the church was strictly restrained by the boundary of the street4.

Figure 2.a.

Figure 2.b. Figure 2. a. Bramante's perspective illusion choir (1476-1482) viewed from the nave; b. Bramante's perspective illusion choir (1476-1482) viewed from the west transept.

Although Bramante’s original intention of bringing sculpture relief into architectural practice was from a usability point of view – to visually overcome insufficient space, Architects in the later Renaissance seemed were inspired by Bramante and started a trend to make the most of accurate illusionary space for enriched architectural realisation and experience. If to say there is one obvious deficient in Bramante’s solution in Santa Maria presso San Satiro, that is the simulated illusion only corresponds to viewers gazing from the north side of the transept. The illusion would be overridden immediately by reality once the viewers move aside from the nave. (Figure 2.b). That is not to say, the nature of relief perspective being view specific is a limitation, but quite the contrary, designing when and how illusion collapses into the reality, or even avoiding giving away clear sign of perspective intervention so that a smooth transition between illusion and reality becomes the enriched architectural realisation and experience. These initiatives could be seen from architectural practice of built relief perspective in later Renaissance period - in chronological order, Andrea Palladio and Vicenzo Scamozzi’s Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza (1580-1585)5; Francesco Borromini and Padre Giovanni Maria da Bitonto’s colonnade at Palazzo Spada (1652-1653)6; Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s Scala Regia in Vatican City (1663- 1666) 7 . Unfortunately, no architectural treatise from that time that might have clearly unveiled how the built relief perspective in those masterpieces were designed has survived.

Figure 3. Brunelleschi’s perspectival experiment

Massimiliano Ciammaichella, “Temporary Theatres and Andrea Palladio as a Set Designer,” Nexus Network Journal 21, no.2 (2019): 209-225. 6 Lionello Neppi, Palazzo Spada (Roma : Editalia, 1975), 175-188. 7 Tod A. Marder, “Bernini’s Staircase, 1663-1666,” in Bernini's Scala Regia at the Vatican Palace (New York : Cambridge University Press, 1997), 130-164.

This might be a great loss. Comparing with the development of perspective theory, which was the prerequisite for relief perspective theory, it started with Filippo Brunelleschi’s perspectival experiment around 1425. According to Antonio Manetti, Brunelleschi painted an image of the Baptistry in Florence with an approximate linear perspective and put a small hole in the centre of the vanishing point level. He held the painting facing away from him, and then he held a mirror facing the painting in the back. Through the hole on the painting, by constantly taking the mirror away to see the actual Baptistry and taking the mirror back on to see the reflection of his painting from the mirror, he was able to correct his representation painting with precision and accuracy.8 Brunelleschi’s experiment device (Figure 3) had already presented the qualities of an analogous model and his findings were very intuitive and practical. They soon dominated western painting tradition, even before Leon Battista Alberti’s book De Pictura (On Painting) was published in 1436, which codified Brunelleschi’s findings into a manual and was regarded on the history of western art as the establishment of perspective theory.9 Similarly, Constructing an accurate relief perspective must have been a sophisticated task, very likely, a series trial and error with the help of physical models like Brunelleschi’s experiment to perspective rules might be carried out for the design of Teatro Olimpico (1580-1585), Palazzo Spada (1652-1653) and Scala Regia (16631666), while architecture history failed to record those design efforts. This probably also explains why after the Renaissance built relief perspective ceased to be an architectural concept and played a minor role in architectural theory. While built relief perspective was almost completely forgotten by the field of architecture, the mathematical field rediscovered it and established a geometric theory from it, and soon dominated academic publicity on this matter in the recent two centuries. Mathematician, Johann Adam Breysig was the first in history to introduce the term “relief perspective” to describe the three-dimensional effect of accelerated perspectival convergence and had the first book on this matter published in 1798 - Versuch einer Erlauterung der Reliefperspektive (The use of perspective in projecting relief). In his book, Breysig illustrated the construction of relief perspectives for basic geometries (Figure 4.a) and simple rooms (Figure 4.b).10 Nevertheless, his publication didn’t catch the attention of the architecture realm, instead, the gap between the geometric theory of relief perspective and architectural practice started to expand.

Samuel Y. Edgerton, “Brunelleschi's First Perspective Picture,” Arte Lombarda 18, No. 38/39 (1973), 172-195. Andersen, The Geometry of an Art – The History of the Mathematical Theory of Perspective from Alberti to Monge, 11-19. 10 Cornelie Leopold, “The Development of the Geometric Concept of Relief Perspective,” Nexus Network Journal 21, no.2 (2019): 241-243. 9

Figure 4.a

Figure 4.b Figure 4. a. Drawing by Breysig (1798), showing relief perspective drawing method of a pyramid; b. Drawing by Breysig (1798), showing relief perspective drawing method of a room in plan and elevation.

Since 1798, mathematician, Ludwig Burmester was the first from the mathematical field aimed at bridging the gap between the geometric theory of relief perspective and architectural practice. In his book, Grundzüge der Reliefperspective nebst Anwendung zur Herstellung reliefperspectivischer Modelle (Main features of the Relief Perspective together with the application for the production of relief perspectival models) published in 1883, he proposed a group of built relief perspective examples, and documented detailed drawings of his design process with photographs of the physical models 11 (Figure 5.a,b,c,d.). However, with few followers of Burmester’s inspiring research, the publicity of relief perspective witnessed a sharp drop from the late nineteenth century, according to Cornelie Leopold, who in her recent article argued that relief perspective is an architectural initiated mathematical theory and called on the field of architecture to consider utilising relief perspective in contemporary architectural design.12 11 12

Daniel Lordick, “Reliefperspektivische Modelle aus dem 3D-Drucker,” IBDG 1(2005): 33-42. Leopold, “The Development of the Geometric Concept of Relief Perspective,” 227-252.

Figure 5.a

Figure 5.b

Figure 5.c

Figure 5.d Figure 5. a. Drawings by Burmester (1883), showing built relief perspective design of typical solids in a box setting; b. Drawings by Burmester (1883), showing the built relief perspective design of typical solids in a box setting on the left side and an arch hall on the right side; c. Drawings by Burmester (1883), showing the built relief perspective design of romanesque basilica; d. Photos of the built relief perspective models by Burmester (1883).

3. Methodology and Research Plan From the literature review in Chapter 2, the term – relief perspective was introduced by mathematical theory first while architectural applications following the scientific rules of vison already emerged almost a century earlier. After the Renaissance, built relief perspective had almost forgotten by the architectural field. Meanwhile, some development of this concept was made in the mathematical field, but barely being referenced back in architectural theory and practice. The research attempts to bridge the expanding gap by laying down a new way to think about relief perspective as an architectural concept. This report will elaborate this new way in the following three stages in Chapter 4-6: The first stage is to conjecture the possible design process of relief perspective in successful architectural applications during the Renaissance to link back from where the chain was broken between the theory and practice. In particular, the examples in this research are the Teatro Olimpico, the colonnade at Palazzo Spada, and the Scala Regia. By referencing historical literature over the selected case studies, the investigation of the social, functional and site conditions of each case was taken to frame out the pre-design situation that the architects were confronting and thereby the design decision arrived to introduce relief perspective. After reconstructing 3D models of each case study according to available survey drawings, the research will attempt to restore how the geometric concept of vison might have guided architects of the Renaissance to find the ideal architectural space by built relief perspectives. The focus here is not merely to discover what mathematical rules had governed the illusionary geometry composition, but more importantly, exploring beyond shapes to their meaning on the enriched architectural realisation and experience. It is necessary to acknowledge, in the absence of survey access, the expected outcome of this stage is not to take the position to suggest an accurate representation of the selected case studies. Rather, in an analogous way, to generalise hypothesis on what architectural considerations might have involved and how to make adjustments when applying the geometric rules to best realise an ideal architectural space, hoping the discussion could serve as a knowledge or inspiration bank to revive future design based on built relief perspectives. The second stage is to propose new iterations using relief perspective principles learnt from the study in stage one. The end results of this stage are siteless architectural prototype models. Derived from the basic geometric rules of built relief perspective witnessed in the Renaissance, the siteless models are designed by combination and variations of the basics. Each siteless model will discuss a new way of illusion collapsing into reality, and thus different illusional architectural experience along the journey. The siteless models proposed at this stage are to be regarded as new spatial formulas which entail illusional architectural experience, yet open to site adaption and architectural interpretations.

The final stage is a demonstration of an experimental application of the proposed siteless architectural prototype models in stage two into a site with specific contemporary pre-design situations. With the knowledge and experience gained from stage one, the focus of this stage is to discuss when built relief perspective becomes a design approach how to balance the challenge of the programs and the illusional architectural experience, and then the limitation and potential of illusion informed architecture design will also be discussed. 4. Stage One - Case Studies At stage one, the Spada Colonnade will be introduced first due to its greatest level of success and recognition. The research will take the Spada Colonnade as a worked example to illustrate the basic geometric rules of built relief perspective witnessed in the Renaissance. As a comparison to the Spada Colonnade, the Scala Regia achieved a completely different architectural experience based on the same spatial formula, showing architectural intent played a great part in adjusting a spatial formula of built relief perspective to a site-specific contextualised architectural solution. Finally, the Teatro Olimpico will be discussed at last for its highest level of complexity and far-reaching influence. The spatial formulation of combined illusional views by built relief perspective demonstrated in the Teatro Olimpico remained inspiring for contemporary practice in complexed illusory architectural design. 4.1 Colonnade at Palazzo Spada Gallery (1652-1653) The recent study by Lionello Neppi discovered that the built relief perspective colonnade at Palazzo Spada Gallery was constructed during 1652-1653, and designed by Padre Giovanni Maria da Bitonto and Francesco Borromini. 13 Bitonto, a name barely being referenced in architectural history, but was believed as the one who has brought the expertise of built relief modelling from previous experience to the project in partnership with the architect, Francesco Borromini.14 The task that Bitonto and Borromini were given was to transform a two-dimensional perspective drawing which was originally hanging on the wall of the Cardinal Bernardino Spada’s reception room into a three-dimensional space. This space was to be read visually extending from the Cardinal’s reception room into the courtyard. 15 This intent was clearly depicted in the drawings (Figure 7) by Francesco Righi, who was Borromini’s assistant at that time. 13

Neppi, Palazzo Spada, 176. Giuseppe Amoruso, “Characteristics of Baroque Solid Space in the Perspectival Tabernacle of Bitonti and Borromini in Bologna”, diségno 1 (2017): 103-112. 15 Tod A. Marder, “Iconographic, Ritual, and Historical Contexts for the Ensemble,” in Bernini's Scala Regia at the Vatican Palace (New York : Cambridge University Press, 1997), 215-225. 14

Figure 6. Photo by the author (2019), showing the illusional view into the colonnade at V2.

A Built Releif Perspective

Courtyard

–

The Colonnade

Reception Room Va

Vanishing Point

Figure 7. Longitudinal section and the corresponding plan of the colonnade at Palazzo Spada Gallery by Francesco Righi from Neppi’s book. Labelled by the author.

From viewer point V1 (defined in Figure 7), the 8.6m long narrow colonnade successfully gives the perception of a walkway about 40m long. The plain-coffered barrel vault at the frontmost is about 6m high and 3m wide, while the one at the far end of the colonnade is diminished to a height of 2m and a width of 1m. The statue placed 3.5m behind the colonnade is about 0.8m tall, but a viewer at V2 (defined in Figure 7) will receive an illusion of a real person's height. (Figure 6). Following this investigation, the research attempts to restore how the rules of vison might have guided Bitonto and Borromini to find the ideal three-dimensional architectural representation of the two-dimensional perspective drawing. This might be an unconventional way to look at this case study. While explaining by steps, this report will also relate back to the modern mathematical theory of relief perspective with their meaning to contemporary architectural practice where applicable. Owning to the architectural intent, the proposed colonnade must be in the visual axis of the original painting to be read as the same representation. With the position of prioritized viewer point (V1) in the Cardinal’s reception room defined, and thus the distance and angles of vision to the original painting were known. A projection of the original painting from V1 through the courtyard to the south wing, where the proposed colonnade entry could be found. (Figure 8.a.) Projection on the south wing – colonnade entry

2D Painting

Figure 8.a. Illustrative diagram by the author, showing the projective relationship.

Then, a unique illusional three-dimensional space perceived that was related to the view of gaze (V1) could be derived, by tracing the vista depicted on the original drawing (Figure 8.b.). However, this does not mean the resultant built relief perspective has to follow this specific projection. Instead, mathematically speaking, there are infinite ways to build relief space to the same illusional effect. The scientific base of infinity was proved by the mathematician, Rudolf Staudigl, in two centuries later (1868). They are being defined as “collinear space” to each other in mathematical terms. 16 This mathematical proof is very powerful for architectural design, as it explains the great potential of built relief perspective in achieving the same visual perspectival effect by infinite ways of physical built to satisfy different architectural goals and site conditions. 16 Rudolf Staudigl, Grundzüge der Reliefperspektive (Vienna: Seidel & Sohn, 1868), 3. Cited in: Cornelie Leopold, “The Development of the Geometric Concept of Relief Perspective,” Nexus Network Journal 21, no.2 (2019): 245-246

Illusional vista of the 2D painting in 3D releif, according specifically to V1

Projection on the south wing – colonnade entry

2D Painting

Figure 8.b. Illustrative diagram by the author, showing the perceived illusional space.

That is where architectural considerations could come back into play. In the case study of Palazzo Spada Gallery, it is clear that the determining factor was the available space in the south wing, that was where the colonnade needed to end because of the site condition. With the depth of the built relief determined, the angle of floor rising and the angle of ceiling fall could be derived. (Figure 8.c.). Depth of the built relief perspective determined by site condition – end of a collinear space to find that is equivalent to the illusional vista colonnade exit

Projection on the south wing – colonnade entry

Illusional vista of the 2D painting in 3D releif, view specific to V1

2D Painting

Figure 8.c. Illustrative diagram by the author, showing how to find to a collinear space of the illusional space.

The next step would be finding the vanishing point in space that was related to this specific composition of the built relief perspective. Extending the surfaces of the tiled floor and the declivitous ceiling would give a line of intersection, that would be the vanishing level of the built relief perspective viewed from V1. The vanishing point in space would be at the intersection point (F) between the vanishing level (F1F2) and the line of vision (V1F) through the vanishing point of the original painting. (Figure 8.d.). Consequently, the position of the vanishing point in space would regulate the angle of converging between the two sidewalls. (Figure 8.d.).

Depth of the built relif perspective determined by site condition – end of a collinear space to find that is equivalent to the illusional vista colonnade exit Illusional vista of the 2D painting in 3D releif, view specific to V1

Projection on south wing – colonnade entry

F F2

2D Painting

Figure 8.d. Illustrative diagram by the author, showing the vanishing point on the vanishing level of the collinear space

A collinear space – the built relief perspective

Illusional vista of the 2D painting in 3D releif, view specific to V1

Projection on south wing – colonnade entry

2D Painting

F colonnade exit

Figure 8.e. Illustrative diagram by the author, showing the built relief perspective as a colinear space of the perceived illusional space.

To this point, the built relief perspective had found its representation in threedimensional space (the grey space in Figure 8.e.) from the two-dimensional painting according to the architectural intent and site condition. Moreover, Bitonto and Borromini were also conscious that the colonnade was not merely a three-dimensional transformation showcasing a frozen illusional moment at the designed viewpoint of gaze, rather, it had a full architectural realisation associated to the walkthrough architectural experience. Hence, the research continued with the exploration of enriched architectural realisation and experience of the colonnade by the built relief perspective. Being more advanced in controlling the targeted visual illusions than Bramante’s illusional choir to Santa Maria presso San Satiro, Bitonto and Borromini’s design seemed cleverly maintained a narrowed and deep field of vision so that the illusional effect would not collapse even if the viewer steps out the Cardinal’s reception room into the courtyard and into the colonnade, until the viewer completely walks through the colonnade and finds the statue is actually 0.8m tall.

Figure 9.a

Figure 9.b

Figure 9.c

Figure 9.d

Figure 9.e Figure 9.a.b.c.d. Drawings by the author, showing the series of changing illusional spaces the viewer will perceive along the journey; e. Drawing by the author, showing a superposition map of the illusional journey in Spada Colonade.

Figure 9 (a,b,c,d,e) reveals the aforementioned illusional realisation journey. The grey space is what has been built as the relief perspective space, while the red space is the illusional space in the viewer’s perception because of the visual tricks explained earlier. Along the journey, a series of changing illusional spaces will be perceived. The illusional space will gradually morph into the realisation of the real until the viewer reaches the end of the colonnade, where the illusion finally collapses into reality. Meanwhile, this enriched architectural realisation and experience of the colonnade analysed had significant metaphoric allusions, which has likely played an important role among other possible architectural considerations when Bitonto and Borromini designed it, as architectural historian Tod Marder summarised Neppi’s research on Spada’s moral epigram – “The illusory nature of mundane perception was a fitting message and reminder of the cardinal and his visitors ”- that “worldly things large and small”.17 4.2 Scala Regia in Vatican City (1663- 1666) Ten years later than the completion of the colonnade at Palazzo Spada Gallery, Gian Lorenzo Bernini was commissioned to alter and renovate a pre-existing staircase for 17

Marder, “Iconographic, Ritual, and Historical Contexts for the Ensemble,” 221.

Pope Alexander VII. The pre-existing staircase was originally built by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger in the early 16th century.18 Bernini was obviously facing a more challenging pre-existing site condition than Bitonto and Borromini confronted with the Spada Colonnade, giving the task to upgrade an originally private pathway for the popes to the new Scala Regia as part of the formal entrance to the Vatican Palace. The old stairs consisted of two unbroken flights of steps, with a 180-degree turning after the landing.19 Bernini’s contribution to the architectural practice of built relief perspective was concentrated on the lower flight, which the research will focus on

Figure 10 Figure 10. Drawings by Filippo Bonanni (1696), showing plan and section of Bernini’s design of Scala Regia.

Bernini broke the lower flight of stairs into two parts allowing some compensation of natural light from the windows at each landing (Figure 10). Despite the academic dispute on whether the convergence of walls was exploiting a fait accompli or it was from Bernini’s intervention to make the narrow stairs appear spacious, the gradually diminishing height of columns and barrel-vault radius clearly define a strong perspective illusion by the same token as in Spada Colonnade. 18 Tod A. Marder, “Bernini’s Staircase, 1663-1666,” in Bernini's Scala Regia at the Vatican Palace (New York : Cambridge University Press, 1997), 130-135. 19 Suzanne Boorsch, “The Scala Regia,” in The Building of the Vatican (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982), 38-39.

However, Bernini’s Scala Regia showed a distinctive solution to terminate the vista of a built relief perspective than that of the Spada Colonade. In the Spada Colonade, the vista ended on a statue with a false height in a semi-enclosed mini garden landscape, while Bernini opened up the vista of Scala Regia to the exterior, by a window high up. Both of which served to their metaphoric allusions in context well.

Figure 11.a

Figure 11.b

Figure 11. A comparison of scale to human perception. a. The Scala Regia; b. Colonnade at Palazzo Spada Gallery

Even though the Spada Colonade and the Scala Regia shared the same spatial formulation, a basic built relief perspective, the scale of work played a decisive role in setting up the base tune for architectural perception (Figure 11.a,b). In the Spada Colonade, where the size of architectural elements all diminished from life-size to false size much smaller than usual, the illusional architectural experience imparted mundane values in a slightly cynical and amusing way to people (Figure 11.b). Different from the Spada Colonade, at the base landing of the Scala Regia, the architectural elements were built much more spacious and grander than common in dimension, which drew people immediately out of mundane life to the monumental and divine journey to ascend to the reception of the pope. At the top of the stairs in the presence of the pope, the size of architectural elements diminished back to the ordinary (Figure 11.a). Furthermore, Beinini fully engaged his expertise in sculpture in the project of Scala Regia. From the statue of Emperor Constantine to the coat of arms of Alexander VII, the order of seeing along the illusional journey in the built relief perspective were reminiscent of Constantine's vision before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. 20 The 20

Tod A. Marder, “Other Rituals Involving the Scala Regia,” in Bernini's Scala Regia at the Vatican Palace (New York : Cambridge University Press, 1997), 235.

ensemble of daylight and symbolic architectural items or scenes being realised in sequence along the illusional journey all together made the architectural experience of a built relief perspective very informative and distinguishable, which has instructive meaning to today’s architectural practice of built relief perspective. 4.3 Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza (1580-1585) Although designed and built almost a century earlier than the Spada Colonade and the Scala Regia, the Teatro Olimpico still stands for the most sophisticated and far-reaching practice of built relief perspective in comparison. The research attempts to extend Teatro Olimpico’s influence on scenography to architectural interest, focusing on the spatial formulation for combined illusional views by built relief perspective, in order to provide a foundation for complexed illusional experience design in contemporary architectural practice. When Andrea Palladio was commissioned by the Accademia to design the Teatro Olimpico - a permanent and indoor theatre, the task required him to surpass medieval stage design traditions, where temporary perspectival decorations were applied to create multiple scenes that were simultaneous in view. 21 A stage with combined illusional views using built relief perspectives became a natural extension of solution (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Photo by the author (2019), the scaenae frons of the Teatro Olimpico

Different from the Spada Colonnade and the Scala Regia, where prioritised viewers would all come from the same visual axis aligned with the walk space, in the design of the Teatro Olimpico, Palladio needed to deal with the spatial relationship between stage and audience so as to consider spatial variants for multiple visual axes and their illusional views. Palladio found his way to determine prioritized viewer positions in relation to stage shape from the Roman amphitheatres.

Leopold, “The Development of the Geometric Concept of Relief Perspective,” 230.

Scholar Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi’s hypothesis (1776) on Palladio’s thoughts was proven being very close to what was finally built in the Teatro Olimpico by a recent architectural survey study.22 Comparing Ottavio Scamozzi’s hypothesis (Figure 13.a) with Palladio’s study drawing for a typical Roman amphitheatres - Teatro Berga (Figure 13.b) which was believed by many scholars as the direct inspiration for the Teatro Olimpico23, it is clear to see how Palladio had interpreted Marcus Vitruvius Pollio’s treatise on Roman amphitheatre design into the site condition given by the Teatro Olimpico and had determined the position of scaenae frons (stage front), pulpitum (actor’s stage in front of scaenae frons), cavea (audience seating area), and orchestra (between pulpitum and cavea).

V5 V2

V4 V3

Figure 13. a.

Figure 13. b. 22 Giuseppe Amoruso, Alberto Sdegno, and Andrea Manti, “Surveying and 3D Modelling of the Andrea Palladio’s Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza. First Studies on Geometric Analysis and Perspectives,” Research Gate, last Modified in June 2018. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325475244 23 Ciammaichella, “Temporary Theatres and Andrea Palladio as a Set Designer,” 211.

Figure 13. a. Ottavio Scamozzi’s hypothesis on his survey plan drawing of the Teatro Olimpico (1776), superpositioned by the author; b. Andrea Palladio’s study drawing for Teatro Berga (1556) with Vitruvius’s principle highlighted by the author.

Palladio transformed Vitruvius’s traditional theatre scheme from perfect circumscribed and inscribed circles to relations of perfect circles to ellipses. The intention behind was very likely to compress Vitruvius’s scheme leaving space for built relief perspective stage settlement behind the scaenae frons. Unfortunately, Palladio passed away suddenly in the summer of 1580 after submitting the preliminary design, which included the stage composition with a central built relief perspective through valva regia (the central opening of the scaenae frons). (Figure 14).

Figure 14. Ottavio Scamozzi’s survey drawing showing section through the valva regia of the Teatro Olimpico (1776)

Vincenzo Scamozzi inherited the project. When Vincenzo Scamozzi took over the project, the foundations were completed. This is some academic debate around what was Vincenzo Scamozzi’s contribution to Palladio’s original design.24 This research takes the position that it was Vincenzo Scamozzi who redeveloped Palladio’s concept by adding in secondary built relief perspectives through portae hospitales (the two openings on either side of the central opening of the scaenae frons), which Palladio might have the wish while never had a chance to develop. Then this research proposes its own hypotheses from thereon. Possibly, for the ease of construction, Vincenzo Scamozzi aimed at retouching the design with minimum changes to Palladio’s original idea. Hence, it is reasonable to assume Vincenzo Scamozzi decided to share the same angle of the stage floor and ceiling inclinations from Palladio’s design on the central built relief perspective to all the secondary built relief perspectives through portae hospitales. This would ensure 24 Giuseppe Amoruso, Alberto Sdegno, and Andrea Manti, “Surveying and 3D Modelling of the Andrea Palladio’s Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza. First Studies on Geometric Analysis and Perspectives.”

him that all the streets scenes (built relief perspectives) behind the triumphal arch (scaenae frons) were to be perceived on one horizon (FaFb) by the audience. Figure 15.a and Figure 15.b illustrate this hypothesis in plan. Figure 8.d in this report has explained the same principle earlier in a three-dimensional illustration.

One shared horizon – vanishing level Fa

Figure 15. a. One shared horizon – vanishing level Fa

Fcc

Fe Ff Fb

Figure 15. b Figure 15.a Illustrative diagram by the author on Ottavio Scamozzi’s plan drawing, showing the horizon level determined by the central built relief perspective; b, Illustrative diagram by the author on Ottavio Scamozzi’s plan drawing, showing the same horizon level shared by all the secondary built relief perspectives.

It is worthwhile to acknowledge that the hypotheses made in this research did not take the illusional scenes design for the parodos (the two edge openings) into consideration, since there were proven by scholars being the final adaption for the first performance25, which stands to reason that they were not being the key consideration when Vincenzo Scamozzi redeveloped Palladio’s scheme. Vincenzo Scamozzi might also have considered to terminate the vista of all the secondary built relief perspectives derived on a perfect circle (the orange circle in Figure 15.c). Following Palladio’s logic in altering Vitruvius’s scheme, the perfect circle to be added would circumscribe the outermost ellipse had considered by Palladio (Figure 15.c). One shared horizon – vanishing level Fa

Fc Fc

Fe Ff Fb

Figure 15.c. Illustrative diagram by the author on Ottavio Scamozzi’s plan drawing, showing a possibility of how Vincenzo Scamozzi might terminate the vista of the secondary built relief perspectives

Furthermore, to ensure a full realisation of multiple illusional views, Vincenzo Scamozzi might have to conceive Palladio’s scheme as a site of visual relations, where prioritized viewers (V1,V2,V3,V4,V5 shown from Figure 13.a) would be defined by the vertex of each equilateral triangle over the cavea (audience seating area). Subsequently, views from those privileged points would be critical for making decisions including the size of openings on the scaenae frons, grouping secondary built relief perspectives behind the scaenae frons, and the angle of converging for sidewalls in each secondary built relief perspective (Figure 15.d,e).

Ibid.,433.

V1 V2

Figure 15.d.

Figure 15.e

Figure 15.d Illustrative diagram by the author on Ottavio Scamozzi’s plan drawing, showing the field of vision from V1; e, Illustrative diagram by the author on Ottavio Scamozzi’s plan drawing, showing the field of vision from V2

As a result, at each privileged point of view, the realised Teatro Olimpico was able to provide at least three perfect illusional perspectival views simultaneously into the streets scenes behind the triumphal arch. This research remodelled the Teatro Olimpico digitally according to Ottavio Scamozzi’s survey drawings with the aforementioned assumptions, and then this research investigated the combined illusional views in three dimensions as shown in Figure 16.

V4 V5

Figure 16. Illustrative diagrams by the author, showing combined illusional views at the privileged points.

To sum up, although Palladio and Vincenzo Scamozzi’ s interpretation on Vitruvius’s traditional theatre scheme may not be directly practical to contemporary cases, how they had successfully treated the design as a mapping of illusional views from multiple viewpoints and how the architecture was informed by the geometrical mapping, provide a way for architects nowadays to rationalise their design with site-specific illusional solutions to contemporary design challenges by built relief perspectives. 5. Stage Two - Prototype Experiment Stage one unveiled the possible design process of several masterpieces during the Renaissance that had utilised built relief perspective as an architectural design concept. In the case study of the Spada Colonnade, the common mathematical rules had governed the illusionary geometry composition was explained with architectural interest and meaning, whereas as a comparison, the case study of the Scala Regia which shared the same spatial formulation, demonstrated the significant influence that adjusting factors in the same spatial formulation can make to architectural experience. From the final case study of the Teatro Olimpico, a rigorous and coherent method to manage complexed illusional views by multiple built relief perspectives were presented. Those knowledge and inspirations accumulated laid a solid foundation for stage two and stage three in this research. However, the basic spatial formulation of built relief perspective witnessed during the Renaissance may not be prolific enough as an architectural concept to cope with various complicated contemporary design challenges. To reclaim built relief perspective as an architectural concept for contemporary design, diversifying the basic spatial formulation is necessary. Therefore, at the second stage, the research proposes some new spatial formulas. Derived from stage one studies, where the basic spatial formulation contains a colinear built relief, a targeted equivalent illusional space and an illusionary realisation experience of the former morphing into the later by walking through, the new spatial formulas will experiment with a smooth mixture of both accelerated perspective and normal perspective views in one built unit, generating a richer sensory perception of the fictional and the real along the journey wandering through. The new spatial formulas are presented as siteless prototypes models. Each siteless model will discuss a new way of illusion collapsing into reality, and thus different illusional architectural experience along the journey. With the special gauge ruler designed, a perfect illusional moment is obtained by looking through the peephole when the gauge ruler is placed right next to the model. By sliding the model along the gauge ruler towards one’s eye at the peephole, the illusional journey of walking through the built space is simulated.

Chapter 5 is to be read in conjunction with the design work – the physical models on Architecture Graduate Exhibition held by the School of Architecture, the University of Syndey 2019. The followings are a short description of the work with photos and drawings. 5.1 Siteless Prototype Model One Siteless Prototype Model One explores an echoing front and back relationship. The front is an accelerated perspective that projects one’s view to the back of space where there is no perspective acceleration (Figure 17.a). The viewer will perceive an illusional continuous space at the start of the journey, but gradually realise a hidden space, the discontinuity, once walking in (Figure 17.b).

Figure 17.a. Drawings by the author, explaining the formation of accelerated perspective illusions in siteless prototype model one

Figure 17.b. Photos by the author, showing the observation in siteless prototype model one

5.2 Siteless Prototype Model Two Siteless Prototype Model Two explores an echoing left and right relationship. The left is an accelerated perspective that is equivalent to the right which is the normal perspective (Figure 18.a). The viewer will perceive an illusional symmetrical space at the start of the journey, but gradually realise two parallel spaces, the asymmetry, once walking in. (Figure 18.b).

Figure 18.a. Drawings by the author, explaining the formation of accelerated perspective illusions in siteless prototype model two

Figure 18.b. Photos by the author, showing the observation in siteless prototype model two

5.3 Siteless Prototype Model Three Siteless Prototype Model Three explores combined accelerated perspective views from different angles. The perfect illusional perception of three enclosed colonnades viewed from the front is composed of three deconstructed built relief perspectives matching together (Figure 19.a). At the beginning of the illusional journey, the viewer will see three enclosed colonnades, which are actually composed of three accelerated perspective views on two distinctive levels with a smooth transition of projection. Gradually, the viewer will realise the two secondary colonnades are open spaces on a different level (Figure 19.b).

Figure 19.a. Drawings by the author, explaining the formation of accelerated perspective illusions in siteless prototype model three – front view

Figure 19.b. Photos by the author, showing the observation in siteless prototype model three – front view

In addition, Siteless Prototype Model Three is designed to be viewed from both sides, while the illusional views from one side are completely hidden from the other. That is because they are designed within the illusional hidden space of each other (Figure 19.c,d).

Figure 19.c Drawings by the author, explaining the formation of accelerated perspective illusions in siteless prototype model three – back view

Figure 19.d. Photos by the author, showing the observation in siteless prototype model three – back view

5.4 General Notes The way of drawing in this chapter that explained the illusion formulations for the proposed siteless prototype models was greatly influenced by mathematical publications, especially by the work of Ludwig Burmester (mentioned in the literature review). With drawings and built relief perspective models presented in sets, the intention was to follow Ludwig Burmester ‘s research to add in some efforts bridging the gap between the geometric theory of relief perspective and contemporary architectural interest. The idea of demonstrating the siteless prototype models in this particular way was inspired by Samuel van Hoogstraten’s Perspective Box of a Dutch Interior (1663).26 These proposed siteless prototype models require observers to look through the peephole while sliding the gauge ruler. This interactive way of observation attempted to recall Brunelleschi’s perspectival experiment device (mentioned in the literature review), which this thesis argued in the architectural history of built relief perspective might have missed, hoping to relink from where the chain was broken between the theory and architectural practice. Following the principles established in the series of siteless prototype models, the illusional effect examed is guaranteed, while the scale and parameters from thereon to a built space are still open to adaptation to any site conditions and to specific architectural interpretations. When applying the siteless prototype models to real projects, with the knowledge and experience built up from stage one, the continual dialogue between spatial formulation and architectural intent will be discussed in stage three. 6. Stage Three- Application Experiment Chapter 6 is to be read together with the design work – Chapter Three in Beyond Perspective, the portfolio for Graduation Studio, and with the design work - Beyond perspective: Illusional Journey, the video of the graduation design submitted on Canvas. The following of the report would briefly comment on the findings in stage three. The graduation design brief questions the disconnection between visitors and architecture museums in the 21st Century. From the case study of the Teatro Olimpico in stage one, combining multiple built relief perspectives showed a great potential to reflect upon a closer relationship between architecture and the audience. Thus, contemporary architecture museum design might be a promising field of application of built relief perspectives. In particular, the siteless prototype models developed from stage two were implemented to the architecture museum design to demonstrate and test their adaptability to the existing site conditions of the Domain Car Park in Sydney.

Agnes Verweij, “Perspective in a box,” Nexus Network Journal 12, no.1 (2010): 47-62.

Meanwhile, to further engage visitors in the theme of architecture, a fabrication based architecture museum was proposed, where all the architectural models produced in the museum would be put onto display for exhibitions, and how professionals had been working on those works would be showcased to the public in live scenes. With the scheme and programs defined, existing site conditions were examed to find visual relations on site. Especially, by analysing existing access conditions of the site, privileged points of view were found. Preliminary relations between privileged points of view gave a coordinate of axes to map out illusional fields on site to inform the design. On the visual axes, a nested application of the prototype models proposed in stage two was discussed. When a truth clashes with an illusion, another illusion starts without knowing. One could step into an illusion of the others or step into two illusional fields at once. Spaces may make sense from one view, but completely challenging visitor’s cognition by a shift of gaze. The architectural experience gained with time wandering around the museum tells the story of each illusional space, of the views to exhibition works, of the scenes it framed out from the exterior, and of the fabrication process each exhibition work went through, and how differently they all of a sudden change when an illusion collapses. The simultaneous multisensory ensemble all contribute to a deeper understanding of architecture from the visitor point of view. Apart from the pleasant side of this approach, there were also some limitations encountered. For example, the difficulty in taking balance between illusional views with space utilisation efficiency was confronted. This was not a huge problem for the museum design based on the given site of Domain Car Park, since there was plenty of space and exhibition space was also quite flexible. A further research direction might be on plan layouts of prototype groups to enhance spatial utility without compromising the enriched architectural realisation and experience brought by the built relief perspectives. Another difficulty encountered was the balance between illusional views from the interior and the exterior form of architecture in context. Fortunately, the given site of Domain Car Park was sat into the terrain of Domain Pitches. It was natural to take a modest approach by being very selective on any extrusion forms above ground while hiding the most underground. The proposed museum design made a detour to find a strip of public activated area emphasizing on the geographical and visual connectivity of the exposed part of built relief perspectives with the site surroundings. This was not a universal solution, rather, a site-specific one. Hence, another further research direction might be on vertical layouts of prototype groups to provide more choices and control over the exterior form of built relief perspectives.

In general, there is no denying of the promising potential of built relief perspective to enrich contemporary architectural experience and realisation to a never seen level. The deficiencies discovered during the application experiment, to some extent was due to insufficient library source of siteless prototype models, which would be overcome once built relief perspective regain its attention and preference as an architectural design concept by the field of architecture. 7. Conclusion This thesis has picked up the long-forgotten design concept, built relief perspective, from the field mathematics and scenography, and it has demonstrated a possibility to reclaim built relief perspective as an architectural design approach for contemporary practice. By tracing back the design process and illusion formation of built relief perspective in the Renaissance, the research has attempted to bridge the geometric concept of built relief perspective with architectural meanings and interest. The discussion covered has provided a knowledge or inspiration bank to revive future design based on built relief perspective. To provoke thinking over contemporary architectural applications, this thesis has taken a step further to generate new spatial prototypes and then to verify their adaptabilities on Graduation Design with the design approach rediscovered from the case studies presented. Despite some deficiencies experienced which were mainly due to the shortage of siteless prototype models proposed, this thesis has proved that built relief perspective has the ability to provide site-specific illusional solutions to contemporary design challenges with an inspiringly richer architectural experience and realisation.

Bibliography: Amoruso, Giuseppe,ĀThe Relief-Perspectives of Bitonti and Borromini: Design and Representation of the Illusory Space.” In Handbook of Research on Visual Computing and Emerging Geometrical Design Tools, edited by Giuseppe Amoruso, 420-455. Hershey: IGI Global, 2016. Amoruso, Giuseppe, “Characteristics of Baroque Solid Space in the Perspectival Tabernacle of Bitonti and Borromini in Bologna”. diségno, no.1 (2017): 103-112. Amoruso Giuseppe, Sdegno Alberto, and Manti Andrea. “Surveying and 3D Modelling of the Andrea Palladio’s Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza. First Studies on Geometric Analysis and Perspectives” Research Gate. Last Modified in June 2018. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325475244 Anderson, Kristi. The Geometry of an Art: The History of the mathematical Theory of Perspective from Alberti to Monge. Copenhagen: Springer, 2007. Boorsch, Suzanne. The Building of the Vatican. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982. Cabeleira, João. “Inácio Vieira: Optics and Perspective as Instruments Towards a Sensitive Space.” Nexus Network Journal 13, no.2 (2011): 315-335. Ciammaichella, Massimiliano. “Temporary Theatres and Andrea Palladio as a Set Designer” Nexus Network Journal 21, no.2 (2019): 209-225. Edgerton, Samuel Y. “Brunelleschi's First Perspective Picture.” Arte Lombarda 18, No. 38/39 (1973), 172-195. Edgerton, Samuel Y. The Renaissance Rediscovery of Linear Perspective. New York: Basic Books, 1975. Hersey, George L. Architecture and Geometry in the Age of the Baroque. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. Howard, Pamela. What is Scenography? London: Routledge, 2002. Kernodle, George R. From Art to Theatre: Form and Convention in the Renaissance Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1944. Kemp, Martin. The Science of Art. Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat. London: Yale University Press, 1990

Leonardo, Paris. “Prospettive solide - La Galleria di Palazzo Spada,” in Prospettive architettoniche conservazione digitale, divulgazione e studio, edited by Graziano M. Valenti, 829-848. Roma: Sapienza Università Editrice, 2014. Leopold, Cornelie. “Perspective Concepts. Exploring Seeing and Representation of Space.” Journal for Geometry and Graphics 18, no.2 (2014): 225-238. Leopold, Cornelie. “The Development of the Geometric Concept of Relief Perspective.” Nexus Network Journal 21, no.2 (2019): 227-252. Lordick, Daniel. “Reliefperspektivische Modelle aus dem 3D-Drucker.” IBDG 1(2005): 33-42. Magagnato, Licisco. “The Genesis of the Teatro Olimpico.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 14, no. 3/4 (1951): 209-220. Marder, Tod A. Bernini's Scala Regia at the Vatican Palace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Neppi, Lionello. Palazzo Spada. Roma : Editalia, 1975. Pérez-Gómez, Alberto and Pelletier, Louise. Architectural representation and the perspective hinge. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997. Scamozzi, Ottavio B. Le fabbriche e i disegni di Andrea Palladio raccolti e illustrati da Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi. Vicenza: 1776. Preserved by and revamped by CISA A. Palladio: 2003. Accessed September 4, 2019, https://mediateca.palladiomuseum.org/palladio/immagine.php?id=4676 Verweij, Agnes. “Perspective in a box.” Nexus Network Journal 12, no.1 (2010): 47-62.

Image Reference Note: Figure 1. a. Mary A. Sullivan, Photos of Basilica of St. Denis: Valois porch, north transept. 2006. University Drive, Bluffton, Ohio, USA. Accessed September 25, 2019,https://www.bluffton.edu/homepages/facstaff/sullivanm/france/paris/stdenis /transeptext.html Figure 1. b. Shawn O'Brien, Photo of Notre Dame Cathedral Entrance Doors Arch Friezes And Statues Paris France. 2017. Accessed September 25, 2019, https://pixels.com/featured/notre-dame-cathedral-entrance-doors-arch-friezesand-statues-paris-france-shawn-obrien.html Figure 1. c. Martin M. Miles, photo of Laon – Cathedral. 2014. Accessed September 25, 2019, https://www.flickr.com/photos/martin-m miles/14521737131/in/photostream/ Figure 2. a. Author Unknown, “Heritage and History of Milan #3: Bramante at Santa Maria by San Satiro”. Video, prepared for yesmilano.com, 3:03. Subtitled and posted by Carlo Rolle, 2018. Accessed September 28, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q6YZNWyXiYM Figure 2. b. Luca Volpi, Santa Maria presso San Satiro Milano. 2013. Accessed September 28, 2019, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SanSatiroInteriors3_crop.jpg Figure 3. Francisco Martín Casalderrey, La Mystification des Sens. 2013. Accessed October 12, 2019, https://images.math.cnrs.fr/La-mystification-dessens.html?lang=fr Figure 4. a. Adam J. Breysig, Versuch einer Erlauterung der Reliefperspektive (Magdeburg: Georg Christian Keil, 1798), 94. Cited in: Cornelie Leopold, “The Development of the Geometric Concept of Relief Perspective” in Nexus Network Journal 21, no.2 (2019): 243. Figure 4. b. Adam J. Breysig, Versuch einer Erlauterung der Reliefperspektive (Magdeburg: Georg Christian Keil, 1798), 90. Cited in: Cornelie Leopold, “The Development of the Geometric Concept of Relief Perspective” in Nexus Network Journal 21, no.2 (2019):242. Figure 5. a-d. Ludwig Burmester, Grundzüge der Reliefperspective nebst Anwendung zur Herstellung reliefperspectivischer Modelle (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1883), Tafelĉ Č Figure 6. Drawings by Francesco Borromini’s assistant, Francesco Righi, year unkown. Cited in: Lionello Neppi, Palazzo Spada (Roma : Editalia, 1975), 186187. Figure 7-9. Photo and Drawings by the author. Figure 10. Plan and section drawings of Scale Regia by Filippo Bonanni (1696). Cited

in: Suzanne Boorsch, “The Scala Regia” in The Building of the Vatican (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982), 39. Figure 11. a.b. Ruud Teggelaar, Rome and Tivoli. Accessed October 29, 2019, https://www.teggelaar.com/en/rome-day-4-continuation-8/ Figure 12. Photo by the author. Figure 13 – 15. Ottavio Scamozzi’s survey drawing for the Teatro Olimpico (1776). Cited in: Cornelie Leopold, “The Development of the Geometric Concept of Relief Perspective” in Nexus Network Journal 21, no.2 (2019):: 234. Overlaid with analysis by the author. Figure 16 – 19. Photos/Drawings by the author.

Xiaoxi Tammy Tan - Rethinking Architectural Potential of Relief Perspective

Articles inside

Conclusion

Methodology and Research Plan

Stage Three- Application Experiment