Volume 1 / Issue 3 / June 2013
景观设计学
收稿时间 / Received Date
中图分类号 / TU982.3
2013-01-28
文献标识码 / B
Landscape Architecture Frontiers
社区
排泄物景观： 孟买的临界性景观 索 与
Sh*tscape: Mumbai’s Landscape In-Between
过
季风
程 布雷特·巴特纳 美国内布拉斯加—林肯大学景观设计系助理教授
142
Experiment and Process
探
Abstract ...
摘要 …… 当今世界上，几乎、甚或根本没有卫生设施可
A growing number of the world’s population has little or no access to
Bret BETNAR
用的人口数量日益增加。这个问题在印度尤为突
sanitation. This is particularly prevalent in India, where over 750 million
Assistant Professor of Landscape Architecture,
出，这个国家有7.5亿人口没有足够的卫生设施。
people are without adequate sanitation facilities. With burgeoning urban
University of Nebraska–Lincoln, USA
随着城市人口的迅速增加，像加尔各答、孟买和新
populations, cities like Kolkata, Mumbai and Delhi are incapable of
德里等城市，甚至已无法为新移民提供诸如卫生设
providing even basic municipal services like sanitation and clean water for
翻译 Translated by / 张凌 Ling ZHANG
施、洁净水源等最基本的市政服务。因此，这些城
many of the cities’ recent migrants. As a result, living conditions for these
校对 Proofread by / 李舒雅 Shuya LI
市中新移民的生活条件非常不理想。
new arrivals are less than ideal.
“排泄物景观：孟买的临界性景观”这个项
“Sh*tscape: Mumbai’s Landscape In-Between” proposes the making
目，计划创建一个以人类的排泄物为基础的完全功
of an entirely functioning landscape built from human excreta. Its
能化的景观。它位于孟买桑贾伊·甘地国家公园西
location, Appapada Quarry, is found along the western edge of Sanjay
缘的阿巴帕达采石场，该采石场将一个现有的居住
Gandhi National Park in Mumbai. The quarry separates an established
区和一个山坡上的贫民窟分隔开来。这个项目试图
neighborhood and a hillside of informal settlements. The project takes the
将人类排泄物看作是丰富的、可再生的资源，而不
view of human feces as an abundant and renewable resource rather than
是废弃物。通过将特定的生物过程和基础设施设计
waste. By linking certain biological processes, infrastructural strategies,
与当地的社区联系起来，本项目旨在使居民需求和
and local communities, a more harmonious relationship between the needs
附近国家公园需求之间的关系变得更加和谐。
of the human residents and those of the nearby National Park can be
1
1. 2. 1. 2.
场地区位图 场地周边生活条件 Site location Living conditions near site
143
established.
关键词 …… 排泄物景观；孟买；生物过程；基础设施；当地
Key words ... Sh*tscape; Mumbai; Biological Process; Infrastructure; Local Community
社区
表1 “城中村-贫民窟”调查 1. 对城市生活的看法？
2. 对住房条件的看法？
3. 对赚钱机会的满意程度？
4. 能否稳定地赚取足够的收入？
不确定
8％
相当不错
15％
很不满意
10％
完全不能
14％
农村生活更好
20％
满意
11％
不那么满意
77％
偶尔
68％
城市生活绝对是更好的
72％
可以容忍
34％
相当满意
13％
不确定
4％
非常糟糕
40％
相当稳定
14％
2
Volume 1 / Issue 3 / June 2013
景观设计学
Landscape Architecture Frontiers
Experiment and Process
探 索 与 过 程
边界 Topography with high-low pts 带有等高线的地形图
Drop-offs greater than 2 meters 坡面高差超过2m
3-2 Existing composites with study strips 根据研究地带绘制的场地现状复合分析图
144 Existing circulation system 现有的环路系统
Toileting areas 排泄区域
3-1
3. 4. 3. 4.
场地分析图：图中灰色部分为居民排泄区域。 阿巴帕达采石场 Site inventory: Toileting areas in grey. Quarry Panorama
145
排泄物景观
范围
4
Volume 1 / Issue 3 / June 2013
景观设计学
Landscape Architecture Frontiers
“Sh*tscape: Mumbai’s Landscape InB e tw een ” p r o p o s es th e mak in g o f an entirely functioning landscape built from human excreta. The vision for a landscape intervention at Appapada Quarry is one which
Experiment and Process
takes advantage of this resource by recovering
探
the “soil” from the settlements while
索
extracting the essence of the forest, in the
与
form of beneficial flora, and utilizes both as a
过
generator for a new and evolving landscape.
程
The project seeks to enable local community participation in the making, processing and profits of this landscape. The project and many of the ideas presented here were developed during a Spring 2009 landscape architecture graduate studio at the University of Pennsylvania. As a studio, we travelled to Mumbai for ten days at the beginning of February. For the first seven days, we stayed at the Hare Krishna Temple in the neighborhood of Juhu. Our days were spent traversing and investigating
146
5. 5.
the western side of the island of Salsette
结论
采石场墙体上方的旱厕剖面图 Section of composting toilet unit above quarry wall
including the Sanjay Gandhi National Park. The studio projects came from our direct onsite experience in Mumbai and the remarkable insight, patience and curiosity of our faculty
results from its position as a large port city, a
Although many migrants believe that the
the issue in his work, Cities: Small Guides
communities, but in the minds of the informal
advisors Anuradha Mathur and Dilip da
financial hub, and a world center for cinema.
better life they seek can be found in the city,
to Big Issues . While he states that many of
settlement dweller, housing can be upgraded
Cunha.
Due to the industrialization of rural farming,
the realities faced upon arrival tend to be
the poor in the city are worse off than in the
as economic situations improve. These two
Coincidentally, at the same time we
and the promise of prosperity founded in
much different than expected. The poverty
rural areas, he is also quick to acknowledge
factors and Gill’s final two questions point
were preparing for our trip, Danny Boyle’s
the city, Mumbai has received an influx of
many seek to escape often awaits them on the
the ingenuity of the people living in these
that Sh*tscape is away from a housing-based
Slumdog Millionaire was out in cinemas. As a
migrants over the past several decades. For
streets and in the neighborhoods they settle
informal settlements. He says, they “often
solution, and instead, toward a direction of
studio, we knew we should come face-to-face
the past twenty years, this mass migration
in. Despite hardships, many find city life to
create their own work in an ever-expanding
increasing migrants’ access to the economic
with new migrants and their living conditions.
has become commonplace throughout India
be better than their former lives in rural India.
and increasingly ingenious informal sector”.
success of the city.
The following sections describe the research
and South Asia. According to the Census of
Rajesh Gill’s “Slums as Urban Villages”
On the surface what Seabrook and Gill are
conducted in order to understand the complex
India, from 1991 ~ 2001, 73 million Indians
survey data provides a revealing look at some
saying appear to contradict one another. What
conditions and juxtapositions we would be
had migrated from rural locations to urban
commonplace assumptions about the living
seems to be the case, however, is that recent
One of the first things we were taught in
designing within.
centers. The trend has continued since 2001.
conditions and attitudes of those who call
migrants to the city are, in fact, worse off than
studio was the importance of the monsoon
With burgeoning urban populations, Indian
these informal communities home (Table
those in rural areas — at least economically.
for the Indian subcontinent. All of India,
cities are incapable of providing even basic
1). Although the survey only includes four
It is their outlook about the possibilities the
including Mumbai, is affected by seasonal
Mumbai is located just off the west coast
municipal services like sanitation and clean
responses, it offers a view into the life and
city affords and general optimism about
monsoons. The summer monsoon winds bring
of the Indian subcontinent. It is the largest
water for so many migrants. As a result, living
perspectives of recent migrants to Mumbai.
their prospects that keep them in the city.
moisture from the Arabian Sea to most of the
city in India and one of the most densely
conditions for these new arrivals are less than
Gill is not the only scholar looking at this
Density and housing conditions seem to be
subcontinent. It occurs from roughly June
populated places on the earth. Its dynamism
ideal.
sector of the city. Jeremy Seabrook takes up
the first thing an outsider notices about these
through September and brings roughly 80%
The Community
The Monsoon
147
Volume 1 / Issue 3 / June 2013
景观设计学
of India’s rainfall. Then, from December to March, the monsoon reverses. Southeastern
1. Views regarding city life?
2. Views on type of housing?
3. Satisfaction over economic opportunities?
4. Views of ability to secure sufficient income?
India and Sri Lanka see significant rain
Uncertain
8%
Quite Good
15%
Very Bad
10%
Not at all
14%
during this period, but the vast majority of
Rural Life was Better
20%
Satisfactory
11%
Not So Good
77%
Only Sometimes
68%
Tolerable
34%
Quite Good
13%
Uncertain
4%
Very Bad
40%
Quite Well
14%
与 过 程
convenient routing, the communities on either
terrain along the city and park’s edge.
this is limited to a few banana and coconut
side of the quarry can be linked together via
trees. This is not widespread, therefore, not
the maidan, or community open space located
abundant.
in the center of the quarry.
The Ground
Perhaps the most significant is the several
In order to utilize the nutrient resources
is Appapada Quarry. The quarry separates
areas in and around the quarry environs
of the settlements, the plan calls for the
For those living in the monsoon regions of
the established neighborhood of Malad East
utilized by the local populace for toileting.
construction of several trench-like composting
the subcontinent, the traditional method for
and a hillside of informal settlements. This is
Apart from contaminating ground water in an
toilet modules. To take advantage of the
months.
dealing with this influx of heavy rainfall over
that undermine physical well-being and
The focus of the studio course was the
just one of many abandoned quarries dotted
adjacent stream, it also represents a missed
topography in the creating of the trenches,
such a short period of time was to construct
breed disease”. Even today, it is estimated
western edge of the park. Along its territory,
along the western park periphery. For the
resource opportunity for this same population.
they are located where the landscape drops
step-wells and tanks, also called “Talao”, to
that about 750 million Indians lack access to
informal settlements have increasingly spread
most part, the centers of these quarries are left
collect rainwater during the monsoon and
adequate sanitation facilities. Establishing a
up the hillsides into parkland. Some attempts
uninhabited, but beneath, around and above
store it for the dry season. Older maps of
clear distinction between water resources and
to remove settlements have taken place
these vertical cuts in the landscape people are
Sh*tscape proposes three major
the back wall and a constructed front wall,
Mumbai show many of these tanks scattered
toileting is a priority of Sh*tscape.
periodically, but they are usually built back
clinging to the margins of the city in order
introductory insertions: constructed trench-
also from native basalt, will form these
within a matter of hours. In some places
to make a better life for themselves. Their
like composting toilets, a stone pathway
trench structures. Each module contains six
along the periphery, the park has erected
self-constructed houses speak at the same
traversing the quarry wall, and stone “tanks”
toileting “rooms” approximately 1.5m ×
about the islands usually surrounded by a small community or village. Although there
148
is a small amount of food production, but
The Territory
off steeply, providing less work for those
The Sh*tscape
who will construct them. Exposed stone for
are only two remaining tanks in Mumbai,
Sanjay Gandhi National Park lies at
fences and walls as a deterrent to settlement
time to a hardscrabble existence and to a
for the retention of water. Other minor
1.5m. They can be accessed by walking up
the Banganga and the Bandra, the remnant
the center of Mumbai’s northern island of
only to find out later that these too, are
certain toughness of those who live there. The
insertions should include a slow-sand filter
a choice of three removable bamboo ramps
infrastructure of many forgotten tanks do still
Salsette. It is unique in that it has a wealth
often penetrated or circumvented. It would
functioning of the city as a whole is dependent
for availability of potable water, a grove of
— two rooms to each ramp. On the top of
exist. Tanks were not only water sources for
of biodiversity while sitting in the center of
appear, then, that the twin attempts of
upon these resilient people, yet their access
bamboo, coconuts and bananas to begin the
the ramp, on either side, are small gates that
drinking, but for all manner of household
a substantial metropolis. Because of this,
population removal and barrier construction
to the services of the city — water, sewer,
functioning of the landscape and pit toilets for
swivel for access and provide some modest
requirements. Some, like the Bandra tank
both sides of Sanjay Gandhi National Park
are short sighted solutions to the problem
education and economy is remarkably limited.
use during the monsoon season.
privacy. The toilets located above the quarry
on the island of Salsette in Mumbai, were
are under increased pressure from legal and
of peri-urban development along the
As if being an isolated part of society were
The stone pathway will provide the
will have spectacular views to the city below,
reserved for washing cattle.
illegal settlements. There is a long history of
park’s edge. The failure of these methods
not enough, they also must deal with the
physical connection to the city for the
while the toilets at the base of the quarry will
For those dwelling in informal settlements,
the removal of park flora for use as firewood.
inherently leads to a questioning of the
constant threat of their own legitimacy.
squatters living above the quarry. It should
have a view to the park. Behind the toilet
access to water is typically only available
Thus, from the park’s perspective, settlement
deliberate demarcation of this contested
In the center of the quarry is the Appapada
be constructed as near to the location where
units, there is a storage area for composting
through opportunistic harvesting of water
in its present form threatens the sensitive
ground. Our charge for the studio, and what
Maidan where children and adults from across
existing trails lead down to the quarry floor.
cover material. This material will be provided
from leaks in the city pipes or by collecting it
landscape and thwarts the park’s efforts at
Sh*tscape attempts to do, is to develop a
several northern Mumbai neighborhoods
Due to the steepness of the slope, the path
along a channel at the back of the toilet just
from wells and watercourses. None of these
reforestation.
strategy, or framework, for the landscape that
congregate for recreation and festivals. There
should extend in length. Thus, through
arm’s length away, so the toilet users can
are reliable sources of clean water. Water sources are often additionally compromised through the habit of open defecation. Informal toileting usually occurs adjacent to communities either along stretches of semidry land next to waterways or alongside rail tracks. Since these spaces are also often used for small-scale vegetable gardening, it sets up a potential dangerous mixing of fecal matter with food and water supplies. Toilets are seen by many as perhaps the most important issue in this city of nearly 13 million. Gandhi himself, when speaking of the improvement of villages, called sanitation, “the most neglected of all the problems…
6. 6.
具有集水渠和过滤系统的采石场墙体剖面图 Section above quarry wall with water catchment and filtration system
Experiment and Process
索
City Life is Definitely Better 72%
can activate a more “dynamic and productive”
The operating ground for this investigation
India, including Mumbai, is left dry for these 探
Table 1 “Slums as Urban Villages” Survey
Landscape Architecture Frontiers
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Volume 1 / Issue 3 / June 2013
景观设计学
马拉德社区
森 林 ： 季 风
规划通向社区的连接道路
现有河流
椰子树
香蕉树
与
姜黄 格架
过 程
小豆蔻 格架
黑胡椒
罗勒
阿巴帕达空地
巨型露天洗衣场
印度参
阿周陀那树
毛诃子 规划石径
诃子
季风期用厕所
印楝
采石场墙体
150
开发
种植方案
采石场墙体
余甘子
凤凰木
红丝棉
堆肥厕所
规划石径
柚木
现有路径
印度玫瑰木
Conclusion
cover the fecal matter when finished. This
Another way for the locals to make money
cover will remove the smells and keep flies
is to grow medicinal plants that could be sold
The completed landscape architectural
from accessing the fresh organic material. It
on the market. India happens to be the native
project is a playing-out of a possible scenario;
will also hasten the breakdown of diseases
range of nearly all plants used in Ayurvedic
one that attempts to answer the many
by accelerating the start of the composting
medicine. Ayurveda is an ancient way of life
questions that the territory and its players
process. Cover material should be further
developed in India that has become popular
are asking. By necessity, this is a projective
managed by those overseeing the toilets
in the West. Many important plants found in
enterprise, and therefore represents an
in order to keep them in proper working
Ayurvedic medicine, such as Neem, Arjuna
optimistic, yet incomplete effort.
order. Finally, the toilets will be alternated
and several other species of the Terminalia
If this landscape is to be a success, it will
and cleaned out roughly every four months
genus, are also native to the region of
need not only the inputs from the community,
(the year being divided into three sections
Maharastra, which Mumbai is a part of.
but their ingenuity in adapting the plan to
of four months with the monsoon being one
All of this production will require a
their own uses. As such, it is hoped that this
of them). The partially composted material
water source. Like the ancients, these urban
landscape could be maintained through multi-
is then moved to a location uphill, toward
villagers will have access to water from their
family networks, much like a village system.
the park for roughly one year of curing. The
own decentralized “tanks” also constructed
Gandhi believed that if the “city is a boil
curing duration is further insurance against
from a combination of concrete and local
on the body politic”, then the natural way
pathogens. Over time the toilets and curing
stone. From these, the community will be able
to heal it is for the city dwellers to become
process will produce a rotation of nutrient
to filter water through a slow-sand filter for
truly “village-minded”, then “all other things
rich composted manure (humus). When it is
their drinking water. A portion of the water
will automatically follow and the boil will
ready, humus can be added to the existing soil
can be managed and utilized for the growing
quickly heal”. Likewise, simply making
to create new areas for cropping or to improve
of small family food plots and the more
efforts to resolve some basic problems like
soil already under cultivation.
extensive agricultural enterprises.
sanitation and water access for those living
Re-forestation is seen as the initial
With water, improved soil, food supplies
at the margins of the city has the potential
financial driver of this landscape. Teak and
and the resiliency of the local population,
for widespread effects on many other parts
Indian Rosewood are extremely valuable
this landscape can evolve throughout time
of Mumbai — particularly this sensitive edge
forest products, but take considerable time to
to accommodate more varieties of produce,
along Sanjay Gandhi National Park.
grow to maturity. A partnership between the
timber and Ayurvedic plant m a t e r i a l .
community and the National Park could result
Additions to the water and toilet systems can
in improved re-forestation programs while
be made as required by the local community.
also allowing the communities that care for
Within the plan there are also provisions
7.
the valuable timber to share in the eventual
for collection, irrigation and other water
7.
windfall from the sale of their trees.
management necessities.
以创建丰产的经济景观为种植理念，种植包括本地果树、 材用树种及阿育吠陀药用植物。 The planting scheme focuses on creating an economically productive landscape with native fruit, timber, and Ayurvedic plants.
聚落点：土壤1
固化梯田
REFERENCES
0
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10
[2]
20 40m
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Estuary. Kolkata: Rupa & Co. Morrish, W. (2008). After the Storm: Rebuilding Cities upon a Reflexive Urban Landscape. Social Research: An International Quarterly of Social Sciences, 75(3): 993-1014. [7] Neuwirth, R. (2005). Shadow Cities: A Billion Squatters, A New Urban World. New York: Routledge. [8] Pathak, B. (1981). Sulabh Shauchalaya: hand flush water seal latrine: a simple Idea that worked. Amola Prakashan: Patna. [9] Prakash, G. (2002). The Urban Turn. Sarai Reader 02: The Cities of Everyday Life, 2:2-7. [6]
[10] Sassen, S. (2001). Afterword. In Josef Gugler (Eds.), World Cities beyond the West: Globalization, Development, and Inequality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [11] Seabrook, J. (2007). Cities - Small Guides to Big Issues. London: Pluto Press. [12] World Report Media (Producer and Director). (2008). The Scavengers [Documentary]. United States: World Report Media.
Experiment and Process
竹子
索
堆肥厕所
季风期用厕所
探
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