Booklet_Polimi Thesis_2020_Shen_xy

NEW ERA, NEW GREEN USING MODERN STRUCTURE TO REINTERPRET THE GREENHOUSE IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT

POLITECNICO DI MILANO A.Y. 2019-2020

Architettura Urbanistica Ingegneria delle Costruzioni

MSc. in Architectural Design and History

STUDENT SHEN XIAOYA 912911 SUPERVISOR PROF. LUIGI MARIO LORENZO SPINELLI

ABSTRACT

In the study about Mantova and Palazzo Ducale, one of the notable feature was the tendency of an endocentric development, which creates a difficulty for first-time visitor to construct an instinctual first impression. Such feature was formed by the unique landscape and historical reasons. Inspired by the Mantova ‘Interno Verde’ (Green Interior) activity, the thesis shows the interesting concept of turning the Palazzo Ducale inside out, in the same spirit of a temporary exhibition that could show the hidden gardens to the external world.

To achieve this goal, the project is built upon the theoretical foundation of the history of Italian garden development, medieval traditions, greenery and modern glass house development. During the conceptual process, finding sources about greenery construction project in historical context proves difficult. Therefore, the project is directed towards the experimental use of modern structure to reinterpret the greenhouse in historical context.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: AN ENDOCENTRIC HOUSE The Historical Analysis Of Mantova And Palazzo Ducale

MANTOVA AN ENDOCENTRIC 'ISLAND'

13

PALAZZO DUCALE AN ENDOCENTRIC HOUSE

16

PALAZZO DUCALE GARDENS

22

ITALIAN GARDEN | HORTUS CONCLUSUS

28

CHAPTER 2: NEW CHALLENGE NEW GLASSHOUSE The Balance Between Artificiality And Nature

1.1. GREEN INSIDE A BOX

36

1.2. PEOPLE INSIDE A BOX

38

1.3. FREE THE PLANTS AND HUMAN

40

2.1. BACK TO THE BEGINNING

42

2.2. GREEN EXPERIMENTS IN SMALL SCALE

44

2.3. GREEN EXPERIMENTS IN LARGER SCALE

46

CHAPTER 3: THE DECONSTRUCTED HANGING GARDEN Using New Form To Interpret The Ancient Building CONCEPT

51

PALAZZINA DELLA PALEOLOGA

56

SECTION, PLAN & AXONOMETRIC

62

COMPONENTS ANALYSIS

74

SCENES

82

CHAPTER 1 AN ENDOCENTRIC HOUSE The Historical Analysis Of Mantova And Palazzo Ducale

MANTOVA

AN ENDOCENTRIC 'ISLAND'

FIG 1. MANTOVA 1638

« Quindi passando la vergine cruda vide terra, nel mezzo del pantano, senza coltura e d’abitanti nuda.

Lì per fuggir ogni consorzio umano, ristette con suoi servi a far sue arti, e visse, e vi lasciò il suo corpo vano.

Li uomini poi che’ntorno erano sparti

s’accolsero a quel luogo, ch’era forte per lo pantan ch’avea da tutte le parti.

Per la città sovra quell’ossa morte; e per colei che’l luogo prima elesse, Mantua l’appellar sanz’altra sorte. » ——— INFERNO. Canto XX. Verso 82 a 93 13

MANTOVA

In Dante’s ‘Divine Comedy’, Mantova was described as an isolated city in the middle of the Mincio River. The origin myths about Mantova, either mysterious Etruscans or the fortune teller Manto, all indicated the high defensive ability of its environmental conditions. With four sides all surrounded by Mincio river, Mantova provided a natural shield for the FIG 2. MANTOVA 1439-1441

ancients who sought for protection.

TERRAIN AND HYDROGRAPHY Mincio River connects the Garda Lake and the Po River. In the past, it surrounded Mantova like an island. The muddy marsh and unstable hydrological conditions would limit the city development. In 1190, hydraulic engineer Alberto Pitentino came and reorganized the water system. The lake was divided into four parts: Upper, Middle, Lower and Paiolo Lake. In Middle Ages, the central canal and several dams were

FIG 3. MANTOVA 1575

added to promote the adjustability of the water defense system. In the 17th century, due to a large flood, the Paiolo Lake were dried up and formed the ‘peninsula’ shape that similar to today’s situation.

CITY WALL The rulers were all aware of this terrain advantage and made full use of it. From 12th to 16th century, three circles of city walls were built to protect the city.

The first circle was around the southwest edge of the Palazzo Ducale and the nearby Piazza Sordello. The north and east side was surrounded by water directly at beginning, but with the hydrographic transformation, later city wall closed these sides as well. The second circle was a combination of river and walls, which matched with today’s Rio River.

And the third circle was stopped near the Palazzo Te, and Palazzo Te

FIG 4. MANTOVA 1879-1880

was not included inside the last city wall. Outside from the three circles, 14

AN ENDOCENTRIC 'ISLAND'

HISTORICAL HYDROLOGY

HISTORICAL DEFENSE SYSTEM / CITY WALL

CITY WALL

the entrenchments and the hornworks were placed in the south. Influenced by the hydrological changes, at beginning, more defensive preparation was built in the southeast side where used to be the city edge that linked the mainland. However, more elements were added to the southwest as well after the Paiolo Lake dried.

With the advanced landscape condition, Mantova was born with the character of being a protective ‘island’.

And as the territory of the Gonzaga family, who worked as mercenary for a long time, Mantova’s protection system became even solider. As a result, the endocentric development became the main tendency. High wall of the old buildings created a solid boundary between inside and outside.

15

PALAZZO DUCALE

As the main residents for the Gonzaga family, Palazzo Ducale was also equipped with the high defensive

PALAZZO DUCALE

features. The whole building was built as an endocentric complex guarded by high buildings. And the high walls cut Palazzo Ducale apart from the surrounding city activities. Even though the logic and axis were quite clear from bird view analysis. But It was still difficult for the visitors to have a clear initial impression for the first visit.

Inspired by the Mantova ‘Interno Verde (Green Interior)’ activity, I felt it would be interesting to turn the Palazzo Ducale inside out. Having a temporary exhibition that

BOUNDARIES

16

AN ENDOCENTRIC HOUSE

could show the hidden gardens to the external world.

MAIN AXES AND COMPLEX CENTER

To find this path, it was necessary to understand the construction

?

process and the inner logic of this large complex. After years of additional construction and reorganization, the main axes of this building were finally settled by three triangle edges. Saint Barbara church was placed in the center of the whole palazzo, which was designed intentionally to represent the importance of the religion for their family life. The secondary axes were perpendicular to the primary axes and faced the outside. And several high roofs or bell towers were used to help to identify the orientation.

INNER CONNECTION

17

PALAZZO DUCALE

Hence, based on the axes analysis, the main circulation was chosen. The path started with the firstly built Palazzo del Capitano. After passing through the Giardino Segreto and recently renovated Cortile d’Onore, visitors would face the Saint Barbara church directly when they walked down the stairs as the Gonzagas used to do. Near the cathedral, a gate would lead people to the Vòlto Oscuro, which was the turning point in the famous war Sacco di Mantova. Walking out from the passage, people would finally arrive at the new installation.

During the visiting, visitors could see many spaces that were not open to public in normal days, and learned about the interesting stories behind. And the large new structure would tell them the other stories about the gardens inside and the demolished Palazzina della Paleologa.

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AN ENDOCENTRIC HOUSE

?

CORTILE D’ONORE

SITE

PALAZZO DEL CAPITANO

VÒLTO OSCURO

SAINT BARBARA CHURCH

GLASS TOWER GIARDINO SEGRETO

19

PALAZZO DUCALE

PALAZZO DEL CAPITANO

GLASS TOWER

CORTILE D’ONORE

20

AN ENDOCENTRIC HOUSE

?

SAINT BARBARA CHURCH

VÃ’LTO OSCURO

SITE

?

21

PALAZZO DUCALE GARDENS

GIARDINO PENSILE

CORTILE DELLA CAVALLERIZZA

CORTILE D’ONORE

GIARDINO DEI SEMPLICI

GIARDINO SEGRETO

Since this design was inspired by the ‘Interno Verde’

rounded by high walls or buildings, which were in-

activity, then it was necessary to introduce the gar-

visible from the outside. These gardens were built in

dens and courtyards in the Palazzo Ducale. There

different period and for different functions. Hence, in

were five main gardens inside. Four of them were

the first part I would introduce them individually and

hortus conclusus form, and the other one was used

then concluded the common features and the form

for equestrian events. All of these gardens were sur-

metaphors among them.

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GIARDINO PENSILE

Giardino Pensile was the only preserved hanging garden in the Palazzo Ducale. Supported by double levels of vaults, Giardino Pensile was located at the top floor of the building. And its design combined two type of gardens, which were the hanging garden and the porticoed garden.

The garden design modified several times from 1579 to 1581. The initial design started from 1579

by Mantuan architect Pompeo Pedemonte. Meanwhile, the nearby room Sala dei Fiumi, which had a direct view to the garden, was also under construction. After one year, the Veronese architect Bernardino Brugnoli was called to take the job. He enlarged the garden design and adjusted the Sala dei Fiumi. The last part was finished by Bernardino Facciotto, he built a fountain opposite to the Sala dei Fiumi. However, in the 18th century renovation, a closed Kaffeehaus replaced its original location. And this design was the current appearance we saw.

FIG 5. I GIARDINI DI PALAZZO DUCALE (LUIGI BRISELLI) 2018, MANTOVA, ITALY

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GIARDINO SEGRETO

Giardino Segreto (secret garden) was a garden from that appeared in the 16th century. It was probably developed from the ancient Roman garden such as Hadrian's island retreat at his Villa Adriana or the medieval hortus conclusus form. Privacy is the key element that separate it from the normal garden. It was usually behind residents and only special guests could come in.

Giardino Segreto in Ducale was a very small garden that surrounded by four sides of tall walls. It was built in 1522 by Battista de Covo. it was surrounded by Ionian order columns and pilasters, which by Bramante's theory, correspond to the Image of Minerva. Along with the elegant conclusus form that metaphor the Virgin concept in Christian religion. This secret garden illustrated a mature woman impression that Isabella d'Este cherished. In the 18th century, there used to be a staircase, but later restored to original in the 20th century.

FIG 6. I GIARDINI DI PALAZZO DUCALE (LUIGI BRISELLI) 2018, MANTOVA, ITALY

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CORTILE D’ONORE

Cortile d’Onore was the main courtyard of the Corte Vecchia. It already existed since the time of Isabella d’Este. And the marriage ceremony between Guglielmo Gonzaga and Eleonora of Austria was also hold in here.

The garden design was changed during the long history time, and the recent restoration finally recovered the original appearance.

It was also called as Cortile dei Quattro Platani or Giardino dei Bossi, and the new plan and vegetations showed these features.

FIG 7. I GIARDINI DI PALAZZO DUCALE (LUIGI BRISELLI) 2018, MANTOVA, ITALY

25

CORTILE DELLA CAVALLERIZZA

Cortile della Cavallerizza also known as Cortile della Mostra, it was surrounded by two short side of buildings and two long side of passages. The long sides were used to be only two simple passageways that connected the Loggia dei Marmi (north) and the Rustica (south). Later, it was missioned to Giovan Battista Bertani by Duke Guglielmo from 1556 to 1561, which was intended to give more permanent form to them. But maybe this design was planned already by Giulio Romano before.

The Rustica was used as the occasional theater before. Its facade was unique and illustrated many Giulio Romano's features.

The spiral columns and the stone arch base formed a moving and active impression. And this design was repeated again in the other three faรงades. The inner green was not well designed as others.

And it was used as a riding school by the last duke of Mantova, and that was the origins of the current name.

FIG 8. I GIARDINI DI PALAZZO DUCALE (LUIGI BRISELLI) 2018, MANTOVA, ITALY

26

GIARDINO DEI SEMPLICI

Giardino dei Semplici was created in the 15th century, same time as the Domus Nova. In the 1580, a pavilion was built inside, hence, the name changed as Giardino del Padiglione. But soon, in 1603, the design changed again by Zenobio Bocchi. He was worked in the Boboli Gardens in Florence. And in his design, the garden followed a rigorous and symbolic form. The herbs were also planted inside, which gave its name as ‘semplici’ (simples). It was a typical Italian garden, such as the quadrants and center water features would FIG 9. I GIARDINI DI PALAZZO DUCALE (LUIGI BRISELLI) 2018, MANTOVA, ITALY

all be discussed later.

27

ITALIAN GARDEN | HORTUS CONCLUSUS

FIG 10. ANNUNCIATION (LEONARDO DA VINCI) 1472–1475, FLORENCE, ITALY

After introducing the above five main gardens in Palazzo Ducale, some similar features are illustrated among them.

Most of these gardens are following the ‘hortus conclusus’ form, which is an important concept in the Italian garden design. Hortus conclusus means Enclosed Garden in Latin. Its name indicates the most important feature of this form. It is usually surrounded by several fences and separated from the nature environment. These fences do not have to be rigorously closed timber

FIG 11. THE ANNUNCIATION (FRA ANGELICO) 1440–1445, FLORENCE, ITALY

28

RELIGIOUS METAPHOR or masonry fences. And some inconsistent columns and hedges can also define as ‘enclosed’. Hence, ‘conclusus’ is more mental or psychological boundary than a solid one.

cial background of Italy. As one of the important origins of the Roman culture and Christianity, Italian garden design contains lots of religious metaphors. At beginning, hortus conclusus was mentioned in the Vul-

GIARDINO DI SEMPLICI

This special garden type was formed by the unique cultural and so-

gate Bible’s Song of Solomon: ‘Hortus conclusus soror mea, sponsa, hortus conclusus, fons signatus’ means (A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse; a garden enclosed, a fountain sealed up). And it is a song that King Solomon sang to his bride. In the later time, this sentence was reinterpreted into a united relationship between the Christian and church.

The choice of being a Christian is metaphorically described as marhortus conclusus also illustrate the important Immaculate Conception in Catholic religion. The enclosed garden represents Virgin Mary’s closed womb and untouched virginity. Hence, as illustrated left two paintings,

GIARDINO PENSILE

riage and creates the term of Bride of Christ. On the other hand, the

hortus conclusus is usually related to the Annunciation theme. In the Giardino Segreto that built for Isabella d’Este, she also used the hortus conclusus form and the elegant Ionian order to show the mature woman image that she valued.

time, many of the area were suffering from the consistent conflict between kingdoms. Nobles lived in well-protected houses with high walls.

The contact with nature was also limited in a safe zone, especially for the female members. Hence, this form also has its practical reason.

Hence, hortus conclusus become a common term in Italian garden design. Even after the period of frequent wars, due to its religious metaphors and aesthetics, this form is still kept and become the base of the further development in garden design.

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CORTILE D’ONORE (ABOVE) GIARDINO SEGRETO (BELOW)

From the social aspects, during the medieval and early renaissance

CENTRAL: WATER OF LIFE

Besides the feature of the enclosed boundaries, there are several other features that a hortus conclusus usually have.

In the high medieval time, water features such as fountain or well will be placed at the center. This choice is also influenced by both practice and religious aspects.

In the 5th to 6th century, religious started to realize the limitation of the secular life. They chose to live a cloistered life such as the Bene-

FIG 12. VILLA MEDICI ROME (GIACOMO LAURO) 1612-1628

dictines. Besides the spiritual works, they also cultivated on the land and grew medical herbs and daily foods. Hence, wells that placed at the center or near one edge would be convenient for them.

In addition to the practice reason, water in the center also represent the concept of the fountain of life, which is the symbol of baptism or Eucharist in Christian religion. In the following development, some iconic objects such as tree, sculpture or obelisk also gradually appeared SUORE OBLATE DEI POVERI, MANTOVA

and extend the choice range.

PALAZZO D’ARCO, MANTOVA

30

QUADRANTS

Around the center water, there usually extend out four paths and divide the garden into quadrants.

These paths are not strictly functioned, and sometimes they even lead to nowhere. But paths are important in the religious metaphors, which represent the rivers of paradise.

FOUR ELEMENTS FOUR CARDINAL DIRECTIONS FOUR SEASONS ACCORDANT COLORS

During renaissance, Leon Battista Alberti wrote in his treatise De Re Aedificatoria (On the Art of Building) that the orientation of garden features should follow the sun and seasons. The accordance of quadrants with natural elements consistently existed in western culture.

Garden quadrants can be related to the four seasons, four elements and four cardinal directions. And religious in monastery also believed that medical herbs and aromas can balance the four human dispositions. Hence, quadrant is another important feature of Italian garden.

In large renaissance villa gardens, some quadrant would subdivide into smaller four parts, but the ge-

FIG 13. PIANTA DEL GIARDINO DEL SERENISSIMO DUCA DI PARMA SUL’MONTE PALATINO (GIOVANNI BATTISTA FALDA) 1695

31

ometry logic is consistent.

PLANTS

In each quadrant, usually one similar category of vegetation would be planted. However, the category is not very clearly defined by botanic species.

The reborn of European garden culture started with the Benedictine monasteries. They usually had several gardens with different vegetables, fruits, herbs and flowers.

These vegetations were planted to fulfill the daily requirement of the

FIG 14. ITALIAN MANUSCRIPT TREATISE ON RURAL ECONOMY (PIETRO DE’ CRESCENZI) 1305

cloistered life.

Ancients believed that medical herbs could balance the four basic human dispositions (mild mannered, choleric, mournful, and hot tempered). And according to astrological medicines, these herbs could also be concluded into four categories: life, death, love ecstasy and oblivion. And their features and functions were also usually matched with the themes. For instance, death plants were mostly poisonous and the life one can be used for calming and curing.

ORTO CAROLINGIO, MANTOVA

32

PLANTS

LIFE

DEATH

LOVE ECSTASY

OBLIVION

THUJA (ARBORVITAE)

YEW

WISTERIA

CORNUS (CHERRY DOGWOOD)

THYMUS (THYME)

PAPAVER (POPPY)

ROSMARINUS (ROSEMARY)

ARTEMISIA (WORMWOOD)

HYSSOPUS (HYSSOP)

HEDERA (IVY)

RUMEX (SORREL)

HEMEROCALLIS (DAYLILY)

CALENDULA (MARIGOLD)

NERIUM (OLEANDER)

COREOPSIS (TICKSEED)

BOTRYCHIUM (MOONWORT)

33

CHAPTER 2 NEW CHALLENGE NEW GLASSHOUSE The Balance Between Artificiality And Nature

1.1. GREEN INSIDE A BOX

FIG 16. INDUSTRY REVOLUTION

FIG 17. CRYSTAL PALACE (PHILIP HENRY DELAMOTTE) 1854-66

When people talking about glasshouses, the Crystal Palace is usually the one that hard to ignore. Compared to the normal use as academic laboratory or private botanical garden for the wealthy, Crystal Palace firstly brought the large total steel and glass building to the public. Its size and technique were also impressive for the people in the 19th century.

The appearance of Crystal Palace indicated the contradicted two sides of the industry revolution. On the one hand, the massive production made the steel construction elements became more modular and efficient. And 36

THE DELICATE ARTIFICIAL NATURE AND FRAGILE HUMAN

PEOPLE ARE ISOLATED FROM SURROUNDINGS

TREES ARE ISOLATED FROM SURROUNDINGS

NATURE AS BACKGROUND

LACK OF PRIVACY

MOISTURE OVERHEAT

SOLID ARTIFICIAL FLOOR

COMMON CONS OF GREENHOUSE

TOTAL GLASS WALL BLOCK THE INTERACTION

NATURE BECOME ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS

TREES ARE ISOLATED FROM SURROUNDINGS

PEOPLE ARE ISOLATED FROM SURROUNDINGS

PEOPLE ARE ISOLATED FROM

SURROUNDINGS the rapid increasing of the steel production amount also created the possibility for England to build such a large LACK OF PRIVACY

building. On the other hand, the industrial revolution also created severe pollution to the environment. Tuberculosis became one of the popular diseases in the society. Hence, building a closed greenhouse became popular among the nobles to escape from the heavily polluted air and to show off the precious plants that they got from far abroad.

SOLID ARTIFICIAL FLOOR Influenced by the above reasons, the initial glasshouse emphasized the term of ‘closure’. The glasshouse was

an artificial piece which similar to a crystal ball that needed to be preserved on the shelf. The fragile plants and human were well-protected from the outside. It was isolated from the larger surrounding environment, and the TREES ARE ISOLATED

SURROUNDINGS interaction between FROM exterior and interior was also rare. The inherent disadvantage of the greenhouse effect

made the application for further uses become more difficult. It was hard for people to stay inside a humid and PEOPLE ARE ISOLATED FROM SURROUNDINGS

hot space for too long,

Hence, the initial glasshouse which tried to build a closed Eden garden to preserve the nature was an impressive but not very successful attempt. Nature is not only about moving trees inside. Because the soft touch of the soil, the sound of the waving leaves and the muddy smell before the rain was hard to repeat by artificial objects. Lock the nature inside was not the right answer for bring human and nature back together.

SOLID ARTIFICIAL FLOOR

37

1.2. PEOPLE INSIDE A BOX

FIG 18. ‘SIDE BY SIDE’ PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPARISON BETWEEN PHILIP JOHNSON’S GLASS HOUSE AND MIES VAN DER ROHE’S FARNSWORTH HOUSE (ROBIN HILL) 2015

In the following 20th century, with the modernism process, the glasshouse was applied into residential field. The indoor space become brighter and more transparent. More external elements can be brought into indoor space.

In this form, green was relieved from the artificial glass box, and grow naturally on the land. But people were still be kept inside, and the thin glass wall become the only boundary between inside and outside.

The most representative two glass house were the Farnsworth House by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and the Glass House by Philip Johnson. The positive side of glass house was shown clearly in these two. Without any visual bar38

SEEING AND TO BE SEEN

NATURE AS BACKGROUND NATURE AS BACKGROUND

MOISTURE MOISTURE

OVERHEAT OVERHEAT

rier between the inside and outside, nature became the transforming wallpaper of the house. And the reflection of the tree shadow caused by the changing light also created another blurring layer rather than the outside green itself.

PROS: CHANGING NATURE AS BACKGROUND

PEOPLE ARE ISOLATED FROM SURROUNDINGS PEOPLE ARE ISOLATED FROM SURROUNDINGS

But these dreamy effects came with conditions. The total transparent also brought insecure for the residents. In the case of Farnsworth House,

LACK OF PRIVACY LACK OF PRIVACY

the following criticizer describes the residents as the objects on a horizontal shelf. The long-time direct exposure would make people’s nerve on high-strung situation. And though Johnson was described as the man who did not care about external voices, his glasshouse was still not a space for all activities, his sleep space was not inside. And the possible relaxing space was inside the solid facade building. With the developing of the high technology and social media, People nowadays

CONS: LACK OF PRIVACY (SOMETIMES MENTALLY)

were in a more serious privacy lacking situation. If a glass building has

TREES ARE ISOLATED TREES ISOLATED FROM ARE SURROUNDINGS FROM SURROUNDINGS

no shields or was not big enough to keep distance, then the uncomfortable feeling would always be a challenge for the people inside.

PEOPLE ARE ISOLATED FROM PEOPLE ARE SURROUNDINGS ISOLATED FROM SURROUNDINGS

Similar to the first case where both people and plants were inside, placing only people inside still can hardly avoid the problem that the separation between people and nature. The seasonal changes were shown through only sight, and the other senses were not functioned. Hence, in the later period, the total glasshouse was less seen. And the different SOLID ARTIFICIAL FLOOR

improving methods were put into practiceSOLID ARTIFICIAL FLOOR 39

NATURE CANNOT BE JOINED WITH TOTAL FIVE SENSES

1.3. FREE THE PLANTS AND HUMAN

FIG 19. HEXENHAUS INTERIOR (A+P SMITHSON) HESSEN, GERMANY

FIG 20. HEXENHAUS INTERIOR (A+P SMITHSON) HESSEN, GERMANY

FIG 21. HEXENHAUS (A+P SMITHSON) HESSEN, GERMANY

Compared to the previous totally glass building, the following architects such as A+P Smithson and Carlo Scarpa found more balanced ways to blur the harsh boundary between human and nature space. They all noticed the subtle in-between space. For instance, In the Hexenhaus, many semi-open pavilions and passages were used.

When people stayed inside, they were covered by roof, but the gentle breeze could still pass in and brought the scent of greenery. In the Tomba Brion, when visitors walking through the silent passage above the water, they would notice the reflective light from the water, as well as the step tapping sound mixed with the slight water sound. It was hard to define if people were inside on the concrete floor or were outside above the pond. This 40

WHAT IF ADMIT HUMAN CANNOT CONTROL IT ALL?

OPEN AND CREATE IN-BETWEEN SPACE

USE ELEMENTS TO BALANCE THE PRIVACY

TOMBA BRION (CARLO SCARPA) TREVISO, ITALY

fragmented design method blurred the solid boundary between artificial space and nature. And the solid fragments also provided shelters for the human inside, which would decrease the insecure feeling and protect the privacy. Compared to the industry time when people tried to rule the nature. New type of architectural practice admitted the limitation of the artificiality, and blended the nature elements into the artificial elements.

Plants were freed from the box and as well as human ourselves.

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USE FRAGMENTS TO ACTIVATE THE SPACE

2.1. BACK TO THE BEGINNING

FIG 22. MARC-ANTOINE LAUGIER: ESSAI SUR L’ARCHITECTURE (CHARLES EISEN) 1755

FIG 23. THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA, 2012

In the current society, especially the past one year when people could not go outside freely, people became more aware of the importance of interaction between ourselves and the external world. For urban residents who live without much greenery around, the urge to see some trees became much more desired during this special time. Hence, I also started to think, why greenery and nature was so important for us?

If looking back to the old times when there did not exist tall buildings, the tall green trees were not only the important landmark for the ancients; they were also the important source of food, shelter and construction material.

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WHY GREEN WAS IMPORTANT FOR PEOPLE BACK THEN

Hence, nature worship was commonly seen in many different cultures.

In the ancient Greek and Roman mythology, many vegetations were related to gods. In the eastern religions such as the Buddhism, banyan

GATHERING AND AND GATHERING GATHERING AND TEACHING TEACHING TEACHING

was as regarded as the representation and the teaching space of the Buddha. Grand trees were usually described as the embodiment of wisdom, occupied the center of the village. Hence, nature was important from the ancient times in both spiritual and secular life.

LANDMARK AND WISDOM INHERITANCE

In the artistic and scientific fields, nature was also usually the inspiration.

From the ancient Corinthian order to the modern Art Nouveau, the influence of the nature elements was clearly shown in the form. Moreover, the abstract concept such as the spiral geometry and golden proportion were also come from the nature observation. And these results could not only apply for design, but also for scientific studies. Hence, nature enhanced the development of the aesthetics and knowledge.

ART INSPIRATION INSPIRATION ART ART INSPIRATION

Last but not the least, nature itself was the curing and relaxing space for human. On the one hand, nature seemed peaceful and quiet. And the grand horizon could make people realize the insignificance of our-

INSPIRATION FOR THE ARTISTS

selves and forget the daily chaos around us. On the other hand, the external world kept changing, and the other creatures were moving, growing or doing their daily stuffs. By observing these, people could feel peaceful while not feeling boring.

We started to cherish the nature more when it started to fade away from our daily life. However, it was hard to say whether this rethinking would disappear or not once the world back to normal. Hence, I start-

DOING NOTHING NOTHING DOING DOING NOTHING

ed to think what could we do, as designers, to evoke this feeling, and to brought nature back to the city life.

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RELAXING PLACE FOR PURE ENJOYMENT

2.2. GREEN EXPERIMENTS IN SMALL SCALE

FIG 24. NOUS LES ARBRES (FRANCIS HALLÉ)

FIG 25. NOUS LES ARBRES (THIJS BIERSTEKER)

HORTUS BOTANICUS, AMSTERDAM

FIG 26. NOUS LES ARBRES (TONY OURSLER)

By researching, I found these kind of there were many good experimental projects on this subject. If concluded these projects, they could be categorized into two scale. The small scale were usually the individual exhibitions, and the larger one was the architectural methods or large exhibitions.

In the smaller exhibitions, the first commonly used method was to encourage the intimate interaction between the visitors and the plant. For example, the small exhibition held in Amsterdam’s Hortus Botanicus placed several timber trucks in the park. And inside the trucks, many plants were organized based on different human senses.

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TOUCH

ART INSPIRATION

EVOKE THE SENSITIVITY WITH NEW ‘GREEN’ SOUND SMELL

GATHERING AND TEACHING

TASTE SIGHT TOUCH

ART INSPIRATION

DOING NOTHING

SOUND SMELL

MORE CAREFUL OBSERVATION

USE ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY TO FEEL THE TREES

REVERSE THE COMMON CONCEPTS

Some plants had strong smells were placed in glass contains with single openings for visitors to smell. And some eatable plants were with signals to invite people to taste directly. In the interview by the Nous les Arbres with botanist Francis Hallé, he also emphasized the importance of feeling the plants and observing. If just had a glance at the green, the dedicate features were usually ignored. Hence, He recommended to look careful and even INSPIRATION

DOING to NOTHING tried draw the plants, which in his opinion would enhance the understanding the most.

The other commonly used method was to use the advanced technology to reverse people’s common understanding of the world, and in this way, the unusual surprise would enhance the rethinking. For example, in the Thijs Biersteker’s project, the water absorbing process of the trees were illustrated through transforming waves. He tried to using sensors to expose the process that happened everyday but we could not see. And in Tony Oursler ‘s project, he reversed the common idea that sunlight cast through the leaves above. He wondered how it looked if the light came from below. Hence, artificial light was cast on the trees, and this unusual scene attracted many passages stopped by.

Creating surprise and the encourage of interaction were two effective methods in exhibitions. Unusual scenes could draw people’s attentions and create topics. And after the surprise, people would start to observe and understand. Green art installation did not provide an answer, but a question.

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2.3. GREEN EXPERIMENTS IN LARGE SCALE

FIG 27. ITALIAN PAVILION IN 13TH VENICE BIENNALE (LUCA ZEVI) 2012

In the larger scale experiments, the similar methods were also been used. Green was placed in unexpected locations to attract visitors. However, when requirement changed from the temporary art installation to the architectural project, these references were less useful since the background context was different.

In larger exhibition cases such as the Venice Biennale pavilion and the temporary city installation in Mantova, the green did show up in the unexpected locations. Some in ancient buildings, and some in the middle of non-greenery city center. However, these were only temporary installation without any new builds, and they were different 46

EVOKE THE SENSITIVITY WITH NEW ‘GREEN’

FIG 28. INTO THE FOREST (OPENFABRIC) MANTOVA

FIG 29. INTO THE FOREST (OPENFABRIC) MANTOVA

FIG 30. WILDERNESS AND WHIMSY (MARSHALL BLECHER & STUDIO FOKSTROT) COPENHAGEN

FIG 31. WILDERNESS AND WHIMSY (MARSHALL BLECHER & STUDIO FOKSTROT) COPENHAGEN

from what I wanted to build. And the other cases that involved new built construction were usually away from the heritage buildings, and located in the nature environment. For instance, the floating island in Denmark were built inside the sea, which was totally different from the Palazzo Ducale of Mantova.

Hence, I started to think whether it was possible to blend the modern methods that I learned from references with the historical context of Palazzo Ducale? When the material and form were modern, how could my building become a good storyteller to tell the visitors about the hidden beauties and stories within the ancient Italian form?

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CHAPTER 3 THE DECONSTRUCTED HANGING GARDEN Using New Form To Interpret The Ancient Building

CONCEPT

DECONSTRUCTION OF THE ROMAN GARDEN

Se presso alla biblioteca ci sarĂ un giardino, nulla ci mancherĂ .

If You Have A Garden And A Library, You Have Everything You Need.

--- Marcus Tullius Cicero

As discussed above, there were lots of metaphors within the medieval Italian garden design. However, if looked back to the more ancient Roman and Greek times, garden was not only a place for a relaxing, it was also a place for cultural activities. From the famous quote by Roman statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero, Roman garden was regarded as the space for thinking, philosophizing and discourse. Compared to the concept of library with a garden, the garden in this context was the library. He wrote about setting an academy in his Tusculum villa, and he enjoyed especially the time when walking with students in the garden and watching the plants grow. And this was not the single case. In the Lyceum operated by Aristotle, there was a large space in the center opening area where could hold sports, religion, politics and philosophy activities. And the earliest recorded botanical garden was also placed in the Lyceum, which probably contributed to his lost book On Plants. Philosophy contained a delicate balance between social stimulation and serene meditation. Social ferment enhanced the development and the discourse was also happened in public market or park. At the same time, garden library provided a serene space to escape and absorbed knowledge from the nature.

51

CONCEPT

THINKING

OBSERVING

STUDYING DISCUSSING

DISCUSSING

THINKING OBSERVING

DISCOURSE STUDYING

Based on the listed reasons, Roman garden used to be the place for academia and conversation. The above diagram tried to reform the ideal garden library image as Cicero once described. Scholars and students walked and sat in the garden to observe nature and think about society. Philosophy was developed in this small alfresco space.

If concluded the philosophy development process into five phases: observing (social and nature), studying, 52

DECONSTRUCTION OF THE ROMAN GARDEN

THINKING

DISCUSSING

OBSERVING

DISCOURSE

STUDYING

discussing, thinking and discourse. The Roman garden could be deconstructed into four parts, along with one external public discourse space. These parts were arranged into a spiral rising and falling order, which was corresponding to the researching process. Firstly, collecting information from daily life, then abstracting and polishing the content through self-studying and discussion, and finally rewarding back to the public. Hence, the basic space arrangement principles were settled. And the next step was to applied these principles into the historical site the Palazzo Ducale of Mantova.

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Castello di San Giorgio Palazzina della Paleologa

CORTE NUOVA FACADE

Hanging garden

Vòlto Oscuro

FACADE PROPORTION

As the ending of the ‘inside out’ journey, the site located at the meeting point of the demolished Palazzina della Paleologa and the Vòlto Oscuro. Though it faced both the Corte Nuova and the Castello di San Giorgio, due to the moat, Castello di San Giorgio had less connection from the site. Hence, The Corte Nuova facade was used for the typology reference.

The facade was divided by several axes and defined the proportion, APPLY AXES FOR PLAN

and this proportion was applied into the plan. According to the hortus

54

STAGE 1: PLACE TANK AT OLD ENTRANCE LOCATION

STAGE 2: MATCH BLOCKS WITH AXES

STAGE 3: ADJUST THE PASSAGE WIDTH

conclusus features, this plan had a central water. And the water was placed at the same location of the ancient entrance of the Palazzina della Paleologa hanging garden. Then, the surface was divided into four parts and matched with the axes, which corrosponded to the ‘quadrants’ concepts and the four paradise river paths. In the end, these platforms were raised and adjust to the surrounding context height. And the rising spiral form followed the previous ‘deconstructed Roman garden’ concept.

PLATFORM HEIGHTS MATCH THE FACADE

ADJUST THE PLATFORM HEIGHTS

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PALAZZINA DELLA PALEOLOGA

FIG 32. SAN FRANCESCO INTERCEDE PER MANTOVA PRESSO LA MADONNA (FRANCESCO BORGANI) 1618

Besides the hortus conclusus features, Palazzina della

According to the remaining drawings and photos,

Paleologa was the other key historical reference. It

some of the original appearance was traceable.

started to be built from 1531 for the Duchess of Man-

Palazzina della Paleologa contained two main parts,

tova, Margherita Paleologa. But now, the traces of its

one is a possible three or four levels villa, and next to

existing was hard to be found in site. Its demolishing

it was a two-floor hanging garden. The hanging gar-

was caused by the lacking of maintenance, and the

den disappeared earlier than the main house. Most

restoration would be an expensive total reconstruc-

of the photos illustrated the facade of the villa, but

tion project. After years of argument, this building

the garden was only shown in the ancient paintings.

was finally torn down in the 1899.

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BRING HISTORICAL MEMORY BACK

FIG 33. PALAZZINA DELLA PALEOLOGA (STEFANO L’OCCASO)

FIG 34. FOTO DELLA VILLA DELLA PALEOLOGA

FIG 35. MANTOVA, CASTELLO DI SAN GIORGIO E VILLA DELLA PALEOLOGA

57

FIG 36. PALAZZINA DELLA PALEOLOGA

PALAZZINA DELLA PALEOLOGA

HORIZONTAL SHRUNKEN ELEMENTS ON TOP

THE PILASTERS, ONE REACH INTO THE WATER

VERTICAL ELEMENTS

PROPORTION AND KEY ELEMENTS

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KEY ELEMENTS ANALYSIS

According to the historical photos, there were several key features of the building facade. The first one was the shrunken top edge. The main facade facing the lake followed a 1:3:3 proportion. The smaller and shrunken edge made the building volume become visually lighter and more feminine. The second feature was the emphasis of the vertical elements. Vertical pilasters overlapped the horizontal elements and made the building appear to be more sublime. There were four main pilasters at four corners, and two of them even reaching into the water to support the building. Hence, in the modern interpretation, these features were simplified by a more geometry form. The heavy masonry walls were also replaced by the steel structure and cables, Cable was visually lighter and provide the climbing support for plants.

59

PALAZZINA DELLA PALEOLOGA

60

DETAIL DRAWINGS

1

2

9 3

11

8

01

Timber Handrail

02

Double Glazing

03

Timber floor Screed Impact sound insulation Concrete floor slab

10

20mm 40mm 50mm 70mm 61

08

Metal deck Steel beam

10mm 300mm

09

Metal skirting

10

Primary beam

500mm

11

Secondary beam

300mm

SECTION AA'

A

A'

63

SECTION BB'

B

B'

65

PLAN GROUND LEVEL

67

PLAN FIRST LEVEL

69

PLAN SECOND LEVEL

71

AXONOMETRIC

5. DISCOURSE SPACE THE GREEN HOUSE

1. OBSERVING SPACE THE ANCIENT HANGING GARDEN

2. STUDYING SPACE LIBRARY UNDER THE TREES

4. THINKING SPACE LOOKING UP CUBE

3. DISCUSSING SPACE LIGHTING TOWER

0. INTRODUCTION SPACE REVERSE THE COMMON SENSE

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FIVE COMPONENTS | OBSERVING | THE ANCIENT HANGING GARDEN

LOVE ECSTASY Tree: Wisteria Bushes:

DEATH Tree: YEW

1 5

1. Rosemary 2. Carnation 3. Tickseed

1

2

1. Oleander

4 2

2. Bear’s breeches

3

4

3

4. Sorrel

5. Poppy

LIFE Bushes: 1. Hyssop 2. Marigold

3. Ivy 4. Harebell

5

5. Periwinkle

Tree: Ash tree

Bushes:

OBLIVION 1

3

TREE OF LIFE

2

Tree: Cherry Dogwood

Thuja 4

5

1 2

3. Thyme

3

Bushes: 4

1. Wormwood 2. Violet 3. Daylily

4. Lavender Cotton

4. Moonwort

5. Lavender

Based on the previous theory of the philosophy developing process, on the five different platforms and spaces, the corresponding themes were placed. Passing through the ground level, the introduction space, the first platform was the area of observing. This location corresponded to the original position of the Palazzina della Paleologa’s hanging garden. Hence, it was named as the Ancient Hanging Garden.

The Italian garden traditions were strictly followed in here. The center was the ‘spring of life’, and represented by the tree of life, Thuja. In the corresponded directions, the representative plants were chosen and planted in the 74

planters. Each planter included one tree and several bushes or flowers.

Since the theme was observing, wide timber seats were designed for the visitors to sit down and had long time observation. As the French botanist Francis HallĂŠ once said, the drawing and recording could help people to have a deeper understanding of the plants. Sketching were highly recommended in this area. Some eatable plants would have signs nearby. People would be encouraged to feel the nature with not only visual, but also touch, taste, smell and hearing.

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FIVE COMPONENTS | STUDYING | LIBRARY UNDER THE TREES

TREE AS STUDYING SPACE FROM ANCIENT TO NOW

FIG 37. SAINT JEROME IN HIS STUDY (ANTONELLO DA MESSINA) 1475

ABSTRACTING THE TREE FORM

The second platform was the studying area. It was inspired by two different elements. The first one was the experience of reading under the tree shade. Nature was a space that could make people feel calm and enjoy reading. The mottled sunlight and shade created interesting cast on the pages. The other inspiration was the renaissance studying cube. This cube was not necessary totally separated from the room, but more similar to a psychological boundary. The floor was maybe higher than the surroundings, or the material was different. This unique cube broke the solid boundary and created a delicate in-between space. Hence, the tree image was abstracted and created this flexible ‘under the tree’ cubes.

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TYPE 1: 4*4 GRID

There were three types of the cubes. The first one was the 4*4 grid cube. This type contained the most bookshelves inside, and one desk was also placed in the center. The cube was covered by movable glass sliding doors. This was designed to resist the moist winter days of Mantova and protected the books. People can push the sliding doors and created the suitable space for themselves.

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TYPE 2: 4*2 GRID

The second type was based on the 4*2 grid. This form provided half bookshelf space and half open seating spaces, which can provide an indoor space for the readers if the external weather was not comfortable for setting outdoors. There hid many small blocks under the seats. These smallest blocks were multi-functional. They could be pulled out and became movable seats. It can also hold some books inside for possible storage requirement.

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TYPE 3: 2*2 GRID

In the last type, it had the most flexible functions. This type based on the 2*2 grid and provided no glass shelter.

It connected to the external environment directly. The smallest blocks illustrated more functions here. It could be used as seats for a reading club events. It could also be used for contained some planters inside. When necessary, it could also be placed on the seats to be a temporary small desk.

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FIVE COMPONENTS | DISCUSSING | LIGHTING TOWER

THE LIGHTING TOWER SAINT BARBARA

FIG 38. IMAGINE PEACE TOWER (YOKO ONO) ICELAND

WORKSHOP GLASSHOUSE

TOWERS IN MANTOVA AND PALAZZO DUCALE

FIG 39. IMAGINE PEACE TOWER (YOKO ONO) ICELAND

The discussion platform started with the combination of two ideas. The first was the old-time memory when people finished one day work seating around the fire and have conversations. The lighting fire was the focus point and gathered people together. The second one was emphasis of this journey ending. Mantova had many towers in this small city, and the journey was also started with glass tower. Hence, though it was impossible to build a physical modern tower next to the historic buildings, then lighting tower would be a suitable choice. Three towers connected the journey consistently, and indicated the direction for the visitors.

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FIVE COMPONENTS | THINKING | LOOKING UP CUBE

NARROW TALL SPACE MAKES SILENT ATMOSPHERE

LOOKING AT SKY FOR RELAXING AND THINKING

AXONOMETRIC AND DETAIL OF THE CUBE

The thinking platform placed at the highest level of the building. Hence, it could provide a unblocked view direct to the sky. People usually had the memory that lying on the grass and looking at the sky, which could help to clear the mind and to calm the mood. Hence, this platform provided private cubes that opening to the sky. People could relax inside and enjoy the feeling of surrounded by fresh greenery. These cubes were narrow and tall, and it was inspired by the religious buildings where using this space to draw people’s attention to the upwards.

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EXTERNAL VIEW

83

INTRODCTION SPACE

85

OBSERVING

87

STUDYING

89

DISCUSSING & THINKING (DAY)

91

DISCUSSING & THINKING (NIGHT)

93

DISCOURSE

95

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig 1: Merian M. (1638) Mantua by M. Merian. Available at: https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/enlarge/34198 (Accessed: 28 April 2020); Fig 2: Pianta di Mantova 1439-1441 (n.d.) Available at: http://www.mantovafortezza.it/it/documenti (Accessed: 02 May 2020); Fig 3: Braun G. & Hogenberg F. (1575) Civitates Orbis Terrarum: Mantua. Available at: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Mappa_del_Ducato_di_Mantova_nel_1575.jpg (Accessed: 28 April 2020); Fig 4: Mappa di Mantova (XIX secolo) (n.d.). Available at: https://www.radiobase.eu/wp-content/uploads/20. jpg (Accessed: 28 April 2020); Fig 5-9: Briselli L. (2018) I giardini di Palazzo Ducale (Mantova). Available at: http://www.comune.mantova.gov. it/index.php/giardini/giardini-luoghi/i-giardini-di-palazzo-ducale (Accessed: 09 November 2020); Fig 10: da Vinci L. (1472–1475) Annunciation. Available at: https://www.uffizi.it/en/artworks/annunciation (Accessed: 10 November 2020); Fig 11: Angelico F. (1440–1445) Annunciation. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annunciation_(Fra_ Angelico,_San_Marco)#/media/File:ANGELICO,_Fra_Annunciation,_1437-46_(2236990916).jpg (Accessed: 10 November 2020); Fig 12: Lauro G. (1612-1628) Villa Medici and gardens, Pincian Hill, Rome. Available at: https://imagesproduction.gardenvisit.com/uploads/images/16453/villa_medici_rome-academie_francaise_1641_jpg_original. jpg (Accessed: 11 November 2020); Fig 13: Falda G. B. (1695) Pianta del Giardino del Serenissimo Duca di Parma sul’Monte Palatino. Available at: https://digital.library.cornell.edu/catalog/ss:11177585 (Accessed: 14 October 2020); 96

Fig 14: De Crescenzi P. (1305) Italian manuscript Treatise on Rural Economy. Available at: https:// gardensbefore1800.blogspot.com/2017/12/pietro-de-crescenzi-c-1233-1320-gardens.html (Accessed: 23 November 2020); Fig 15: Botanical Illustrations (n.d.) Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/ (Accessed: 22 November 2020); Fig 16: Eassen Steelworks Germany (1305) Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climatechange-global-warming-cooling-ice-age-industrialisation-emissions-a9594301.html (Accessed: 18 September 2020); Fig 17: Delamotte P. H. (1854-66) Crystal Palace. Available at: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/36521446963412547/ (Accessed: 22 July 2020); Fig 18: Hill R. (2015) ‘Side by Side’ photographic comparison between Philip Johnson’s Glass House and Mies van der Rohe’s Farnsworth House. Available at: https://www.metalocus.es/en/news/side-side-farnsworth-housevs-glass-house-robin-hill (Accessed: 22 July 2020); Fig 19-21: Hexenhaus By A+P Smithson (n.d.) Available at: https://en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/hexenhaus/ (Accessed: 23 August 2020); Fig 22: Eisen C. (1755) Marc-Antoine Laugier: Essai sur l'architecture: Allegorical engraving of the Vitruvian primitive hut. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Essai_sur_l%27Architecture_-_Frontispiece. jpg (Accessed: 18 September 2020); Fig 23: The Life of the Buddha (2012) Available at: https://www.buddhistdoor.net/photo/the-life-of-the-buddhathailand (Accessed: 18 September 2020); Fig 24-26: Fondation Cartier pour l’art contemporain (2019) Nous les Arbres Exhibition. Available at: https://www. fondationcartier.com/en/exhibitions/nous-les-arbres (Accessed: 18 September 2020); Fig 27: Mileto S. (2012) Italian Pavilion in 13th Venice Biennale by Luca Zevi. Available at: https://www. domusweb.it/en/interviews/2012/09/18/the-future-of-architecture-in-the-age-of-green-economy.html (Accessed: 16 September 2020); 97

Fig 28-29: Feslikenian J. G. (2012) Openfabric: Into the Forest. Available at: http://www.openfabric.eu/projects/ into-the-forestmantova-italy/ (Accessed: 18 September 2020); Fig 30-31: Harrouk C. (2020) Marshall Blecher & Studio Fokstrot Imagine Floating Islands in the Center of Copenhagen. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/937881/marshall-blecher-and-studio-fokstrot-imaginefloating-islands-in-the-center-of-copenhagen (Accessed: 18 September 2020); Fig 32: Borgani F. (1618) San Francesco Intercede Per Mantova Presso La Madonna. Available at: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Francesco_borgani,_san_francesco_intercede_per_mantova_presso_la_ madonna,_1618_ca._02.jpg?uselang=it (Accessed: 17 October 2020); Fig 33: L'Occaso S. (n.d.) The Palazzina Della Paleologa. Available at: https://www.mantovaducale. beniculturali.it/it/news/449-la-palazzina-della-paleologa (Accessed: 16 October 2020); Fig 34: Rara Foto Della Villa Della Paleologa, Foto Del Rivvellino Per Entrare Nella CittĂ (n.d.) Available at: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mantova,_Villa_della_Paleologa.jpg (Accessed: 17 October 2020); Fig 35: Mantova, Castello di San Giorgio e Villa della Paleologa (1890) Available at: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Mantova,_Castello_di_San_Giorgio_e_Villa_della_Paleologa_nel_1890.jpg (Accessed: 17 October 2020); Fig 36: Fotografia della Palazzina della Paleologa, costruzione inglobata dentro il Castello di San Giorgio, poi distrutta agli inizi del 900 (1866- 1889) Available at: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palazzina_della_Paleologa. jpg (Accessed: 17 October 2020); Fig 37: Da Messina A. (1475) Saint Jerome in his Study. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Antonello_da_Messina_-_St_Jerome_in_his_study_-_National_Gallery_London.jpg (Accessed: 04 November 2020); Fig 38: Imagine Peace Tower (n.d.) Available at: https://www.getyourguide.com/activity/reykjavik-l30/imaginepeace-tour-t34794?utm_force=0 (Accessed: 15 October 2020); Fig 39: Imagine Peace Tower (n.d.) Available at: http://imaginepeacetower.com/ (Accessed: 15 October 2020).

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