REGENERATION by Yiwen Sun

ISBN 978-0-332792-92-8 $ 35.00 / CNY 200

A STUDY OF MOUNT VESUVIUS BRING IN THE DEATH AND VIGUOUR

The book is about after the vesuvius volcano eurpted from 1944 it has effected the rich soil from two minutes to two years. The first and second chapter is about volcano ash and maga destroys the city. The third chapter is about the strucutre of volcano threw chemistry. at the same time it tells people how volcano ash effect rich soil. To let rich soil to help reenforce living plants.The last chapter is about soil richness of volcano and no volcano comparison. At the same time how people use volcano ash to form rich soil.

REGENERATIOON

A STUDY OF MOUNT VESUVIUS BRING IN THE DEATH AND VIGUOUR

Introducing Mountain Of Vesuvius From Destruction to Rebitrh

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Introducing Mountain Of Vesuvius From Destruction to Rebitrh 0

Introducing Mountain Of Vesuvius From Destruction to Rebitrh

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Yiwen Sun sunyiwen000@gmail.com Ariel Gray

Graphic Designer Department Academy of Atr University Bindery

California Of Service 989 Howard

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CONTENTS

TWO MINUTES THE ERUPTION OCCUEERED ON JULY 28TH 1944 01 Precursor Signal 02 Period of explode 03 effect area

TWO HOURS HOW DOES VOLACNO ASH AND MAGEMA DESTORY CITY 01 Volcano Ash 02 Magam 03 Destory

TWO MONTHS A ANALYSE OF CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF VOLCANO ASH 01 Structure Of Volcanno Ash 02 How Volacno Effect Soil

TWO YEARS HOW DOES HUMAN USE VOCANO ASH AT PLANATION 01 Compare The Different Contry Soil 02 Volacno Ash Soil 03 How does human use volcano Ash Soil

INTRODUCTION Mount Vesuvius Latin: Mons Vesuvius is a stratification in the Gulf of Naples, Italy, about 9 km (5.6 mi) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes which form the Panamanian volcanic arc. Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure. Mount Vesuvius is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and several other settlements. That eruption ejected a cloud of stones, ash and fumes to a height of 33 km spewing molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 1.5 million tons per second, ultimately releasing a hundred thousand times the thermal energy released by the Hiroshima bombing. An estimated 16,000 people died due to hydrothermal iconoclastic flows. The book is about after the Vesuvius volcano erupted from 1944 it has effected the rich soil from two minutes to two years. The first and second chapter is about volcano ash and magma destroys the city. The third chapter is about the structure of volcano threw chemistry. At the same time it tells people how volcano ash effect rich soil. To let rich soil to help reinforce living plants. The last chapter is about comparison chemical construction of volcano ash soil and rich soil. Also describe how people use volcano ash soil.

Mount Vesuvius

July 28th 1944

THE ERUPTION OCCEERED

CHAPTER ONE 1

uring 5 3KM DEEP4KM meas uring 1 1KM DEEP 0.5 KM meas

uring 7.5 6KM DEE meas P 8K M

throat

conduit

crater

Volcanic pipes are subterranean geological structures formed By the violent, supersonic eruption Of deep-origin volcanoes. Volcanic pipes are relatively rare. They are well known as the Primary source of diamonds, and are mined for this purpose.

Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of the Earth or a solid-surface

Crater is a circular depression in the ground caused by Volcanic activity. It is typically a basin circular in form Within which occurs a vent from Which-magma erupts as Gases,lava, and ejecta.

Precursor Signal 2

Precursor Signal We analyses the seismic catalogue of the local earthquakes which occurred at Soma Vesuvius volcano in the past three decades (1972â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2000). The seismic in this period can be described as composed of a background level, characterized by a low and rather uniform rate of energy release and by sporadic periods of increased seismic activity. Such relatively intense sees Mick periods are characteristic by energy rates and magnitudes progressively increasing in the critical periods. The analysis of the b value in the whole period evidences a well-defined pattern, with values of b progressively decreasing, from about 1.8 at the beginning of the considered period, to about 1.0 at present. This steady variation indicates an increasing dynamics in the volcanic system. Within this general trend it is possible to identify a substructure in the time sequence of the seismic events, formed by the alternating episodes of quiescence and activity. The analysis of the source moment tensor of the largest earthquakes shows that the processes at the seismic source are generally not consistent with simple

double-couples, but that they are compatible with isotropic components, mostly indicating volumetric expansion these components are shown to be statistically significant for most of the analyses events. Such focal mechanisms can be interpreted as the effect of explosion, possibly related to volatile ex-solution from the crystallizing magma. The availability of a reduced amount of high quality data necessary for the inversion of the source moment tensor, the still limited period of systematic of Vesuvius micro-earthquakes and, above all, the absence of eruptive events during such interval of time, cannot obviously permit the outlining of any formal premonitory signal. Nevertheless, the analysis reported in this paper indicates a progressively evolving dynamics, charac- PM 5 : 30 terized by a generally increasing trend in the seismic activity in the volcanic system July 28 and by a significant volumetric component of recent major events,posing serious con- 1944 cern for a evolution towards eruptive activity.

CHAPTER ONE 3

Vesuvius Volcano Explode Vesuvius is a distinctive "humpbacked" mountain, consisting of a large cone (Gran Cono) partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure called Monte Somma. The Gran Cono was produced during the eruption of AD 79. For this reason, the volcano is also called Somma-Vesuvius or Somma-Vesuvio. The caldera started forming during an eruption around 17,000 (or 18,300) years ago and was enlarged by later paroxysmal e r u p t i o n s e n d i n g i n t h e o n e o f A D 7 9. T h i s structure has given its name to the term "somma volcano", which describes any volcano with a summit caldera surrounding a newer cone. The height of the main cone has been constantly changed by eruptions but is 1,281 m (4,203 ft) at present. Monte Somma is 1,149 m (3,770 ft) high, separated from the main cone by the valley of Atrio di Cavallo, which is some 5 km (3.1 mi) long. The slopes of the mountain are scarred by lava flows but are heavily vegetated, with scrub and forest at higher altitudes and v i n e y a r d s l o w e r d o w n . Ve s u v i u s i s s t i l l r e g a r d e d a s a n a c t i v e v o l c a n o, a l t h o u g h i t s current activity produces little more than steam from vents at the bottom of the crater. Vesuvius is a stratovolcano at the convergent boundary where the African Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate. Layers of lava, scoria, volcanic ash, and pumice make up the mountain. Their mineralogy is variable, but generally silica-undersaturated and rich in potassium, with phonolite produced in the more explosive eruptions.[20]

Mount Vesuvius has erupted many times. The famous eruption in 79 AD was preceded by numerous others in prehistory, including at l e a s t t h re e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a rg e r o n e s, t h e b e s t k n o w n b e i n g t h e Avellino eruption around 1800 BC which engulfed several Bronze A g e s e t t l e m e n t s . S i n c e 7 9 A D, t h e v o l c a n o h a s a l s o e r u p t e d repeatedly, in 172, 203, 222, possibly 303, 379, 472, 512, 536, 685, 787, around 860, around 900, 968, 991, 999, 1006, 1037, 1049, around 1073, 1139, 1150, and there may have been eruptions in 1270, 1347, and 1500. The volcano erupted again in 1631, six times in the 18th century,

eight times in the 19th century (notably in 1872), and in 1906, 1929, and 1944. There has been no eruption since 1944, and none of the post-79 eruptions were as large or destructive as the Pompeian one.The eruptions vary greatly in severity but are characterized by explosive outbursts of the kind dubbed Plinian after Pliny the Yo u n g e r, a Ro m a n w r i t e r w h o p u b l i s h e d a d e t a i l e d

description of the 79 AD eruption, including his uncle's death.[21] On occasion, eruptions from Vesuvius have been so large that the whole of southern Europe has been blanketed by ash; in 472 and 1631, Vesuvian ash fell on Constantinople (Istanbul), over 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) away. A few times since 1944, landslides in the crater have raised clouds of ash dust, raising false alarms of an eruption.

Vesuvius Volcano Explode 4

PERIOD OF EXPLODE DESTORY LEVEL AND OVERFLOW MAGMA

AD 79

1906

1910

1914

1944

EARTHQUARE LEVEL AD 79

1906

LEVEL 5

LEVEL 2

5 KM DEPTH

1914

1944

LEVEL 1

LEVEL 3

LEVEL 1

0.5 KM DEPTH

2KM DEPTH

0.5 KM DEPTH

1910

Each eruption of a length from six months to 30.75 years, ranging from 18 months to quiescent 7.5 years.

CHAPTER ONE 5

2 mm

PROCESSOF EXPLODE Vesuvius is best known for the lives of the Romans it claimed in AD 79, when Pompeii and other southern Italian towns were engulfed by the volcano. Less well known is the smaller but nevertheless destructive eruption of March 1944 when the Bay of Naples, which the volcano dominates, was under AngloAmerican control invasion of Italy in September 1943. Over a period of more than a week, falling volcanic ash inflicted a heavier loss of US Air Force planes than the Japanese at Pearl Harbor and parts of surrounding towns were destroyed. But the death toll was kept to a minimum thanks to the efforts of Allied personnel and by one man in particular, US army officer, Lieutenant-Colonel (James) Leslie Kincaid. He coordinated the evacuation, then the rehousing of more than 13,000 people, as well as the subsequent rebuilding of communities threatened with starvation by ash-covered fields of crops. It was an excellent example of crisis management. When Vesuvius began to erupt, four features characterized the successful emergency response: accurate information based on reconnaissance and clear scientific advice; the ability to deploy large numbers of troops with clearly defined tasks and to respond to changing circumstances within a clear command structure; development of contingency plans responding to the unexpected course of the eruption; and provision of aid in the immediate aftermath. Kincaid was a 59-year-old reserve officer who had no previous knowledge of volcanic eruptions. But he possessed a rare combination of extensive military experience, relevant civilian management expertise and well-honed

leadership skills. A trained lawyer and a successful New York businessman, he served as President of the American Hotels Corporation for many years. Enlisting in the National Guard as a private soldier 0.079 in 1904, he was later commissioned, fought on the Mexican border in 1916 and in the First World War served as a staff officer, as a judge advocate and in action, where he was decorated by the Belgian, British, French and Italian governments, as well as by the US. Between the wars and in addition to his business interests, Kincaid served as a National Guard brigadier general. Kincaid, like a number of US military administrators of his generation, had attended the School of Military Government at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville. Established immediately after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor at the end of 1941, the school was modeled on the British War Office's Intelligence Training Centre at Cambridge University and concentrated on the future administration of PM 6 : 30 Germany, Italy and Japan. The training received there was strongly influenced by the Field Manual 2July mm 28 for Military Government (FM27-5), largely based on the lessons learned by the Americans fol- 1944 lowing their occupation of Rhineland in 1918.

2 mm

Vesuvius Volcano Explode 6 2 mm

In October 1943 the Alliesli berated the area around the infamous volcano in the Bay of Naples.

2 mm

"The roars became more frequent and grumbled like a lion’s roar. Streams of fire were shooting thousands of feet into the air, and the countryside was lit up for miles around. Oft times the entire top of the mountain looked as if it were a blazing inferno. It’s really uncanny, yet amazing to look at this phenomenon. The vibrations of the building were truly uncomfortable."

Many people are homeless and without food, but they seem to take it in stride, just as the Northerners take the snow in winter. After this eruption it’s easy to visualize the destruction of Pompeii - a most amazing and uncanny phenomenon. I can still see what appears to be small areas with smoking lava, but the smoke from the crater has abated. Today, the wind is blowing inland, and it appears that cone is much "I learned that a stream of lava was flowing down lower than before,which is definitely not dead the side toward Naples, so we rode over to see it. after all these years of inactivity.” It was the most phenomenal thing I have ever witnessed. A huge mass of fiery coals some 20 feet high and 200 yards wide destroying everything in its path. There were many people evacuating their homes, which we saw destroyed as the lava pressed on. At night, the sky and countryside was bright for miles around. Flames were shooting into the sky for thousands of feet." "The eruption seems to have abated very slowly during the past few days. Cinders and ashes have been raining down over all the villages in this section, but seem to be slowing up. The smoke from the crater is apparently changing from the intense black to white again. Yesterday, I looked at the Autostrade through my glasses, and it is apparently covered with cinders as is the entire mountainside. Only two weeks ago, I rode up the Autostrade and then walked several hundred yards up toward the crater. Yesterday afternoon, we rode in the ambulance, and, on the way back, we took a shortcut via Pompeii. Bulldozers were plowing the cinders to the side of the road in huge banks. Practically all the gardens and vineyards are covered to a tremendous depth in the area all the way from Vesuvius to Salerno.

EEARTH QUAKE AREA

VOLCANO ASH COVER AREA

CHAPTER ONE

CENTER

EFFECT AREA

Effect Area When it comes to Italy's Mount Vesuvius,足 it isn't question of if it erupts but when, how far ?

The infamous volcano is best known for its nearly instantan足eous decimation of neighboring towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in A.D. 79. Considered one of the world's most dangerous, it is also the only active volcano on Europe's mainland Nevertheless, 600,000 people live in the 18 towns at its base that comprise the "red zone." The red zone denotes the populated area that would bear the brunt of an 足eruption. Directly in the line of fire, the 9-mile (12-kilometer) radius of people stand little chance of survival when Vesuvius explodes again. Because of the imminent and unpredictable threat, the Italian government has devised an evacuation plan to clear out the red zone 72 hours ahead of an impending eruption. Beginning in 2004, the government also set up a program to pay people $46,000 (30,000E) to relocate outside of the zone -- though it has had relatively few takers [source: Lorenzo]. Experts warn that emergency plans should also include nearby Naples since an explosion could send dangerous burning ash and pumice as far as 12 miles (20 kilometers) New research has shown that the mountain probably will not act as kindly next time. For starters, Mount Vesuvius sits on top of a layer of magma deep in the earth that measures 154 square miles (400 square kilometers). That's a lot of magma Kilauea Volcano is probably the most active volcano in the world, with 34 eruptions since 1952 [source: U.S. Geological Survey], but compared to Vesuvius, which has erupted PM 6 : 30 around 30 times since 79 A.D. its magma supply is much smaller. Topping it off, scientists expect that July 28 the next eruption will be an incredibly forceful explosion, termed Linea, marked by flying rock and ash at 1944 speeds of up to almost 100 miles per hour (160 kph).

"While we were just finishing supper, someone called to say there were huge red streams of lava flowing down the sides of Mount Vesuvius. It was a sight to behold. Never had we seen such at night usually a faint red glow at the most. As we watched the streams, like giant fingers flowing down the sides, we could see a glow in the sky. All during the night and Sunday there were quakes of the earth with tremendous roars - similar to thunder - from Vesuvius. The windows rattled, and the entire building vibrated."

Leander K Powers served in Italy during World War II

Mount Vesuvius

July 28th 1944

HOW DOES VOLCANO ASH AND MAGEMA DESTORY CITY

CHAPTER TWO

Volcano Ash Volcanic ash consists of fragments of pulverized rock, minerals and volcanic glass,during volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm

Small jagged pieces of rocks, minerals, and volcanic glass the size of sand and silt (less than 2 millimeters (1/12 inch) in diameter) erupted by a volcano are called volcanic ash. Very small ash particles can be less than 0.001 millimeters (1/25,000th of an inch) across. Volcanic ash is not the product of combustion, like the soft fluffy material created by burning wood, leaves, or paper. W ash is hard, does not dissolve in water, is extremely abrasive and mildly corrosive, and conducts electricity when wet. Volcanic ash is formed during explosive volcanic eruptions. Explosive eruptions occur when gases dissolved in molten rock (magma) expand and escape violently into the air, and also when water is heated by magma and abruptly flashes into steam. The force of the escaping gas violently shatters solid rocks. Expanding gas also shreds magma and blasts it into the air, where it solidifies into fragments of volcanic rock and glass. Once in the air, wind can blow the tiny ash particles tens to thousands of kilometers away from the volcano. The average grain-size of rock fragments and volcanic ash erupted from an exploding volcanic vent varies greatly among different eruptions and during a single explosive eruption that lasts hours to days. Heavier, large-sized rock fragments typically fall back to the ground on or close to the volcano and progressively smaller and lighter PM: 7 : 30 fragments are blown farther from the volcano by wind. Volcanic ash, the smallest particles (2 mm in diameter July 28 or smaller), can travel hundreds to thousands of kilometers downwind from a volcano depending on wind speed, 1944 volume of ash erupted, and height of the eruption column.

HOW DOES VOLCABO ASH DESTROY CITY

5 KM

10 KM

The size of ash particles that fall to the ground generally decreases exponentially with increasing distance from a volcano. Also, the range in grain size of volcanic ash typically diminishes downwind from a volcano

15 KM

CHAPTER TWO

Magma Magma is a mixture of molten or semimolten rock.

Magma is a complex high-temperature fluid substance. Temperatures of most magmas are in the range 700 °C to 1300 °C (or 1300 °F to 2400 °F), but very rare carbonate magmas may be as cool as 600 °C, and hematite magmas may have been as hot as 1600 °C. Magmas are silicate mixtures. Environments include abduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and potshots. Despite being found in such widespread locales, the bulk of the Earth's crust and mantle is not molten. Except for the liquid outer core, most of the Earth takes the form of a Heidi, a form of solid that can move or deform under pressure. Low pressure environments within several kilometers of the Earth's surface. Magma rises through cracks from beneath and across the crust because it is less dense than the surrounding rock. When the magma cannot find a path upwards it pools into a magma chamber. Magma chambers are commonly built up incrementally, by successive horizontal or vertical magma injections. New magma causes reaction of per-existing crystals and the pressure in the chamber to increase.

HOW DOES VOLCABO ASH DESTROY CITY

Magma Chamber The residing magma starts to cool, with the higher melting point components such as Olivie crystallizing out of the solution, particularly near to the cooler walls of the chamber, and forming a denser conglomerate of minerals which sinks (cumulative rock). Upon cooling, new mineral phases saturate and the rock type changes (e.g. fractional crystallization), typically forming gab-bro, cordite, tonality and granite or gab-bro, cordite, Yemenite and granite. If magma resides in a chamber for a long period, then it can become stratified with lower density components rising to the top and denser materials sinking. Rocks accumulate in layers, forming a layered intrusion. Any subsequent eruption may produce distinctly layered deposits, for example the deposits from the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius include a thick layer of white pumice from the upper portion of the magma chamber overlaid with a similar layer of Grey pumice produced from material erupted later from lower down in the chamber. Another effect of the cooling of the chamber is that the solidifying crystals will release the gas (primarily steam) previously

dissolved when they were liquid, causing the pressure in the chamber to rise, possibly sufficiently to produce an eruption. Additionally, the removal of the lower melting point components will tend to make the magma more viscous (by increasing the concentration of silicates). Thus, stratification of a magma chamber may result PM: 7 : 30 in an increase in the amount of gas within the magma near the top of the chamber, and also July 28 make this magma more viscous; potentially leading to a more explosive eruption than would be 1944 the case had the chamber not become stratified.

Fesio3

Co2 FeFeo4

Mount Vesuvius Sio2

SIO2

Spetember 1944

Mgiso2

ANALYES CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF VOLCANO ASH

SiO2 65% MgO

SALTS measurements (external + internal surfaces) were performed on the run products (< 1 Îźm fraction) using the adsorption of ethylene glycol mono-ethyl ether (EGME) according to the method recommended.

CaO 4% MgO

STRUCTURE OF VOLCANO ASH

The Benton samples were gently ground after drying at 60°C and the powders were ultrasonically dispersed in distilled water. The 0.1 m fraction was separated using Ca-,Na- and K-saturated

Trace elements were analyzed by IMP-MS (Service analyses dew CNS, Nancy). The cation exchange capacity (CECE) of the < 1μm fraction was obtained from Mg2+-exchanged Ca-saturated samples, the excess of Mg salt being carefully washed out with ethanol.

MgO

STRUCTURE OF VOLCANO ASH Results indicate that the basic composition of the ash consists of approximately 65% SiO2 , 18% Al2O3, 5% 2% Mg, 4% CaO, 4% Na2O, and 0.1% . Thirty seven trace metals are reported including Ba, Cu, Mn, Sr, V, Zn, and Zr. A change in the chemical composition of the ash as a function of distance from the volcano is related to a similar change in physical characteristics of the ash. Water soluble components were also determined after column leaching experiments were performed. Concentration levels of soluble salts were found to be moderately high (1500-2000 µg/g) with molar ratios suggesting the presence of NaCl, KCl, CaSO4, and MgSO4. Heavy metals such as Cu, Co, Mn, and Zn were found at appreciable concentrations (10-1000 µg/g). Unexpectedly high concentration levels of ammonium (45 µg/g) and nitrate (100 µg/g) ions as well as dissolved organic carbon (130 µg/g) were observed in several ash leachate. Results for fluoride and boron show low average levels of ∼5 and ∼ 0.5µg/g, respectively. A thick Permian Benton bed (>2 m) was discovered in the Mole area, Uruguay (Gobi 1952). It is nearly mineralogical and is composed of an exceptionally PM: 7 : 30 well crystallized Ca-Monticello. The purpose of the present work is to investigate the mineralogical and July 28 chemical composition of that Benton bed (major and trace elements), in order to determine the pos- 1944 sible origin of the initial volcanic ashes.

CHAPTER THREE

HOW VOLCANO ASH EFFECT SOIL Plants need and love nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium as their primary nutrients. Lavas and ash are rich in potassium and iron, which is often a limiting nutrient. Certain types of crystallized lava can be very porous, and vesicular,g that they can hold large amounts of water, especially if they've been given time to weather and erode. Certain lavas, dependent on local magma chemistry, can include significant amounts of magnesium, silica, aluminum, sodium, and chlorine. They care many non-crystalline (amorphous) minerals, such as allophone and impolite, which form strong bonds with organic materials, which, in addition to the elemental chemistry in the volcanic soils, allows enormous amounts of plant life to take root. New lavas aren't very fertile. They need time to weather and release their nutrients, and to open up those pores. This is why Kauai’s is the Garden Isle (I love it, there are surprisingly few places that are actually lush with vegetation. However, the dispersal of volcanic ash can also be devastating to soil and organics. When Mt. St. Helena went off, its ash covered enormous areas. Its particular ash acted as somewhat of a clay mineral when it gathered, especially when it bonded with precipitation, forming a fairly impermeable layer that hurt not only soils, but also stuck directly to plants, causes physical trauma and chemical trauma as well, blocking out light and gas intake / release for photosynthesis. The acidity and nature of the ash (and leachate derived from the ash) varies between volcanoes and eruptions. Ash falls can lead to elevated soil sulfur levels and lowered soil pH. These changes in soil

SiO2

composition can reduce the availability of phosphate and other essential minerals and alter the soil's characteristics to such an extent that arable crops and pasture plants will not survive. Where there is acid rain following an eruption, pastures will be scorched and die. Ash interaction with soil will have variable effects on pH, soil nutrients, capacity for cation exchange and micro-organism activity Dependant upon the ash composition and leachate composition. To date little research has been published discussing these dynamics in detail. The ash would not only fertilize plants but help the soil hold water and encourage bacteria. However volcanoes can also spew out poisonous ash and government officials are keeping an eye on the situation because of the risk to UK agriculture. Colin Dale, a horticulturist at Shortcuts garden center, said ash is a good source of nutrients and repellent to pests.“Although the volcanic ash is causing misery to many British holiday makers, we could be seeing some benefits from the ash cloud – in our gardens," he said. "Volcanic ash can be a great help to your garden in more ways than one.

SiO2

STRUCTURE OF VOLCANO ASH

23 SiO2

SiO2

The ash holds air and the air spaces it creates in soil can insulate plants against temperature change. It can also allow your soil to hold water for longer encouraging both soil bacteria and seed germination, both of which are great for plant growth.â&#x20AC;?Professor Jon Davidson, of Durham University, said fertile areas like Indonesia have benefited from ash in the past."In general volcanic ash is good because it is full of all kinds of elements and nutrients that regenerate the soil," he added. However he said the amount of ash falling on the UK at the moment it too small to cause any effect."At the moment the amount of ash in the UK is so minimal I cannot see it being an issue," he Saidee Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Dedra), is keeping a close eye on the ash situation because of PM: 7 : 30 the effect it could have on agriculture and food supplies. Depending on the chemical make-up of the July 28 ash when it falls, it could be good or bad for farmers. If it has high levels of fluorine then that can be 1944 poisonous to humans and plants in high amounts.

Cao

SiO2

So4

SiO2

Sio2

CaO

Mg2

CaO

FetO3

Sio2

Mount Vesuvius

Sepetember 1954

HOW DOES HUMAN USE VOLCANO ASH AT PLANATION

CHAPTER THREE TWO

SiO2 Al2O3

SiO2 SiO2

MgO,

SiO2

SiO2 SiO2

FetO3

Na2O

STRUCTURE OF VOLCANO ASH

VOLCANO ASH SOIL The unique set of soilmore phological, physical and chemical properties designated as andic havebeen attributed to the presence of noncrystalline andor poorly ordered clay minerals

CaO SiO2

SiO2

CaO

Close to an erupting volcano the short-term destruction by pyroclastic flows, heavy falls of ash, and lava flows can be complete, the extent of the damage depending upon the eruption magnitude. Crops, forests, orchards, and animals grazing or browsing on the volcano's slopes or surrounding lowland can be leveled or buried. But that is the short-term effect. In the long run, volcanic deposits can develop into some of the richest agricultural lands on earth. One example of the effect of volcanoes on agricultural lands is in Italy. Except for the volcanic region around Naples, farming in southern Italy is exceedingly difficult because limestone forms the basement rock and the soil is generally quite poor. But the region around Naples, which includes Mount Vesuvius, is very rich mainly because of two large eruptions 35,000 and 12000 years ago that left the region blanketed with very thick deposits of tephra which has since weathered to rich soils. Part of this area includes Mount Vesuvius. The region has been intensively cultivated since before the birth of Christ. The land is planted with vines, vegetables, or flowers. Every square foot of this rich soil is used. For example, even a small vineyard will have, in addition to grapes and spring beans on the trellises, fava beans, cauliflower and onions between the trellis rows, and the vineyard margin rimmed with orange and lemon trees, herbs, and flowers. It also is a huge tomato growing region.The verdant splendor and fertility of many farmlands of the North Island of New

Zealand are on volcanic soils of different ages. Volcanic loams have developed on older (4,000 and 40,000 years old) volcanic ash deposits of the Waikato and Bay of Plenty regions. Combined with ample rainfall, warm summers, and mild winters, these regions produce abundant crops, including the kiwifruit found around the world in modern recipes. The altered volcanic ashes are well-drained, yet hold water for plants, and are easily tilled. Deep volcanic loams are particularly good for pasture growth (there is a large New Zealand dairy industry), horticulture, and maize.are readily chemically separated into elemental components. Andic soils have unique morphological, physical and chemical properties that induce both considerable soil fertility and great vulnerability to land degradation. In recent years there have been many reports of soils with andic properties in NonVolcanic Mountain Ecosystems (NVME) in different parts of the world. This paper attempts to assess the importance of andic soils in mountain ecosystems of Italy. We used the criteria of altitude (> 700 m PM: 7 : 30 above sea level), slope (< 12째) and active green biomass (maximum Normal- ized July 28 Difference Vegetation Index (NVDI) value > 0.5) for identifying sites where andic soil 1944 processes may occur in the NVME of Italy.

CHAPTER THREE THREE

SiO2

SiO2 SiO2

Mg SiO2

SiO2

VOLCANO ASH SOIL

SOIL

STRUCTURE OF VOLCANO ASH

v Nature and Humans benefit indirectly from the enormous amount of volcanic ash that will flutter down from the volcanic eruption in Iceland.

VOLCANO SOIL VS REGULAR SOIL The types of minerals present in volcanic ash are dependent on the chemistry of the magma from which it erupted. Considering that the most abundant elements found in magma are silica (SiO2) and oxygen, the various types of magma (and therefore ash) produced during volcanic eruptions are most commonly explained in terms of their silica content. Low energy eruptions of basalt produce a characteristically dark coloured ash containing ~45 - 55% silica that is generally rich in iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg). The most explosive rhyolite eruptions produce a felsic ash that is high in silica (>69%) while other types of ash with an intermediate composition (e.g., andesite or dacite) have a silica content between 55-69%.Nature and Humans benefit indirectly from the enormous amount of volcanic ash that will flutter down from the volcanic eruption in Iceland. Because volcanic ash contains essential minerals and trace elements, essential and indispensable building blocks for life on Earth, according to the Anemone foundation, a research organization for marine life. Trace elements include copper, iron, cobalt, manganese and selenium. That come along with minerals in the surface water. Since they dissolve and form food for plankton and higher organisms. Volcanic eruptions provide a huge amount of these substances at once. People get these essential trace elements in their diets. A thin layer of ash makes the soil fertile and earth which was once covered with lava is extremely fruitful.

The chemistry of a soil determines its ability to supply available plant nutrients and affects its physical properties and the health of its micwrobial population. In addition, a soil's chemistry also determines its corrosivity, stability, and ability to absorb pollutants and to filter water. It is the surface chemistry of mineral and organic colloids that determines soil's chemical properties. "A colloid is a small, insoluble, nondiffusible particle larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in a fluid medium without settling. Most soils contain organic colloidal particles called humus as well as the inorganic colloidal particles of clays." The very high specific surface area of colloids and their net charges, gives soil its great ability to hold and release ions. Negatively charged sites on colloids attract and release cations in what is referred to as cation

exchange. Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is the amount of exchangeable cations per unit weight of dry soil and is expressed in terms of milliequivalents of positively charged ions per 100 grams of soil (or PM: 7 : 30 centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil; cmolc/kg). Similarly, positively July 28 charged sites on colloids can attract and release anions in the soil giving the soil 1944 anion exchange capacity (AEC).

CHAPTER THREE TWO

HOW DOES HUMAN USE VOLCANO ASH SOIL Close to an erupting volcano the short-term destruction by pyroclastic flows, heavy falls of ash, and lava flows can be complete, the extent of the damage depending upon the eruption magnitude. Crops, forests, orchards, and animals grazing or browsing on the volcano's slopes or surrounding lowland can be leveled or buried. But that is the short-term effect. In the long run, volcanic deposits can develop into some of the richest agricultural lands on earth. One example of the effect of volcanoes on agricultural lands is in Italy. Except for the volcanic region around Naples, farming in southern Italy is exceedingly difficult because limestone forms the basement rock and the soil is generally quite poor. But the region around Naples, which includes Mount Vesuvius, is very rich mainly because of two large eruptions 35,000 and 12000 years ago that left the region blanketed with very thick deposits of tephra which has since weathered to rich soils. Part of this area includes Mount Vesuvius. The region has been intensively PM: 7 : 30 cultivated since before the birth of Christ. The land is planted with vines, vegetables, or flowers. Every square foot of this rich soil is used. For example, even a small July 28 vineyard will have, in addition to grapes and spring beans on the trellises, fava beans, cauliflower and onions between the trellis rows, and the vineyard margin rimmed with 1944 orange and lemon trees, herbs, and flowers. It also is a huge tomato growing region.

STRUCTURE OF VOLCANO ASH

v Many of the farms are based in the Bay of Naples. Much of southern Italy is formed from limestone and has poor quality soil. However, the area around Mount Vesuvius has been covered with thick layers of ash and lava from eruptions such as that of 79AD which covered Pompeii and Herculaneum with between 5 – 20m of volcanic material. This ash and lava is rich in minerals and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, which are essential for plant growth. The volcanic soil here is therefore incredibly fertile. As a result, farmers in this area have focussed their attention on growing fruit and vegetables, rather than cereals which are grown in poorer quality soils elsewhere in the south of Italy. Much of the area inland is mountainous. Water is scarce, and after rain it quickly disperses towards the coast, forming rivers and entering the sea in the Bay of Naples. This regular supply of water, coupled with the moist oceanic air and warm Mediterranean climate are also key factors in why the area around Vesuvius is so heavily covered in

farms. On a visit to a local vineyard, the producer told me that the danger of the volcano simply isn’t something that they consider and that it was the quality of the earth under their feet that led them to develop their vineyard here – and helped them to keep their operation organic.

Most of Italy has poor soils with bare limestone rock. But the regions around Naples, the site of Mount Vesuvius, are covered in very rich soil that was posited in two huge eruptions 35,000 and 12,000 years ago. This area is planted with grape vines grow very well. The soil is rich because the volcanic released in eruptions is easily weathered by rain. This process breaks down nutrients in the ash and rock delivering it slowly to the plants.

Biblogaphy 0

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Martini, Kirk (September 1998). Chapter 2: Identifying Potential Damage

M. Rice, C. Rice and R. Bonson. Pompeii: The Day a City Was Buried.DK Pub., 1998

Jones, Rick (2004–2010). "Visiting Pompeii – AD 79 – Vesuvius explodes".

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Sigurdsson 2002, p. 35 on Seneca the Younger, Natural Questions, 6.1, 6.27.

Alfano, G.B., 1924. Le eruzioni del Vesuvio fra il 79 ed il 1631; Valle, Pompei

Suetonius, C. Tranquillu). The Life of Nero. The Lives of the Caesars. Loeb Classical Library, William P. Thayer.

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The Volcano Information Center, Department o f G e o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s , Un i v e r s i t y o f California, Retrieved May 15, 2010. Janick, Jules "Lecture 19: Greek, Carthaginian, and Roman Agricultural Writers". Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei (2007). "Pompeii, Stories from an eruption: Herculaneum". The Field Museum of Natural History. Cassiodorus, Variae. In: T.Mommsen, Auctores Antiqui XII. Berlin 1894.

Breislak, S. and Winspeare, A., 1794. Memoria sull'eruzione del Vesuvio accaduta la sera de' 15 giugno 1794. Napoli, Cassiodorus, Variae. In: T.Mommsen, Auctores Antiqui XII. Berlin 1894. Cortini, M. and Scandone, R., 1982. The feeding system of Vesuvius between 1754 and 1944. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Della Torre, GM., 1755. Storia e fenomeni del Vesuvio. Raimondi, Napoli,

Introducing Mountain Of Vesuvius From Destruction to Rebitrh 0

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