SOCIAL 9

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Lesson 1

Physical Characteristics of Asia

The world Asia which originated from the Aegean word ―Asu‖, meaning the breaking of down, was first used by the Greeks but is not found in any vocabulary of Asian languages.

Asia is the largest continent in the world which measures 48, 680, 144 square kilometers. It covers 1/3 of the total land area of the world, while the remaining 2/3 is divided into 6 continents: North America, South America, Europe, Antartica, Africa and Oceania including Australia. Asia is divided into 5 regions on the bases of topography, physical characteristic, climate, culture and race in each country. Southwest Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, east Asia, and North Asia. Asia includes 49 countries (including east Timor). At present Asia has an estimated 3, 998 billion populations. It has be said that the extent of the container is equal to the number of different races in it. It comprises different religions, languages, customs and beliefs of Asians.

Asia is also panorama of nations. Some of the world‘s largest and smallest nations in terms of area and population are located in Asia.

Topography and Climate Southwest Asia is known for its oil mines which are the region‘s most important product.

Southwest Asia has a total land area of 6, 830, 956 square kilometers. Most of these lands are desert, are rocky, mountainous and rough.

Climate varies according to location. Extreme or average cold and hot climate are observed in this region. There are also places that do not experience rainy season.

Natural resources Southwest Asia is rich in natural resources like clay, which is used in making pots, briks and jars. Marbles, cement, gold, bronze, tin, mercury, and oil are also found in the region. Oil is considered the most important natural resources in Southwest Asian countries as half of their livelihood depends on it. The biggest oil deposits in Asia are found in Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Oman.

Farming is not suited in Southwest Asia because of its climate. However, many Southwest Asians still engage themselves in farming especially those in coastal areas and in places where there is regular rainfall.

Countries in Southwest Asia 1. Afghanistan- Way of the Ancient Invader 2. Armenia- Historical Remnants of the Past 3. Azerbaijan- Land of the brave warrior 4. Bahrain- land of Two Rivers 5. Cyprus- Rich Land in the Mediterranean River 6. Georgia- The Richest republic in the former Soviet Union 7. Iran- land of the great Emperor 8. Iraq- land of the First Civilization 9. Israel- Birthplace of Judaism and Christianity 10. Jordan- land of the Sacred and the Secular 11. Kuwait- Remnants of the Historical Typhoon in the Desert 12. Lebanon- Forerunner of Civilization 13. Oman- Little Kingdom in the Powerful Monarchy 14. Qutar- land of the Seven Shiekdom 15. Saudia Arabia- Birthplace of Islam 16. Syria- land of Saladin 17. Turkey- Land of the Ottoman Turk 18. United Arab Emirates (UAE)- Pirate Coast 19. Yemen- Land of Sheba

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Exploration Answer what are asked in the following sentences.

1.

2.

3.

4.

What are the five regions in Asia?

Which country in Southwest Asia has a climate which is similar to desert?

From what perspective should we study Asia?

In your opinion, how are the countries in Asia grouped and what are the bases for their groupings? Explain.

5. Why are the places surrounding Iraq called the Fertile Crescent? How do the two rivers help in the livelihood of the people?

Group the different countries inside the box according to the regions where they belong and write their respective capital cities.

Lebanon Oman

North Korea China

Thailand Taiwan

Cyprus Turkey

Mongolia Maldives

Siberia

Bhutan

Iran

Make a pie graph showing the different continents in the world. Provide the correct figures representing the size of each continent.

Southeast Asia Topography and Climate According to geographers, Southeast Asia is the only region in the world which has many mountainous islands that can be inhabited. There is vast forest in Southeast Asia which can be sources of live hood. Fertile valleys are found in the region like the Mekong and Red Rivers in Vietnam, Irrawaddy in Myanmar, Chao Phraya in Thailand. Southeast Asia lies in the Tropical Zone so there are dry and wet, cold and warm seasons which are good for crops. Generally, Southeast Asian countries have the same climate.

Natural resources Southeast Asia is rich in natural resources. Many of its forest have deposits of mineral and metal. The soil in the region is best for planting because it is rich and fertile.

Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam have fertile valleys because of the rivers that are found in the region. Southeast Asia is also rich in marine resources like fish, pearl, and shellfish.

Countries in Southeast Asia 1. Brunei Darussalam- The Richest Country in Southeast Asia The Independent Sultanate of Brunei is located in the northern coast of the island of Borneo and is surrounded by the islands of Sarawak in Malaysia.

Brunei has bog oil deposit which is the country‘s biggest source of income.

2. Indonesia- The Largest Archipelago in the World Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world, composing of more or less 13, 500 islands. Out of these numbers, 6,00 are inhabited. Most of these islands are called East Indies. Four of its largest islands are Kalimantan, Java, Sumatra, and Sulawesi. The country is rich in oil and mineral deposits which are its major exports.

Despites its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wildlife that support the world‘s second highest level of biodiversity . the country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread in contemporary Indonesia.

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Indo China 1. Cambodia-Land of the Khmer Like neighboring Thailand, Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy. Phnom Penh is the kingdom‘s capital and largest city, and is the principal center for economics, industry, commerce and culture. Silm Reap, a city located near the farmed ruins of Angkor Wat and gateway to the Angkor Region, is Cambodia‘s main destination for tourism. Battambang, the largest city in Western Cambodia, is known for rice production and Sihanoukville, a coastal city, is the primary sea port.

2. Laos- land of Elephants After a period as a French protectorate, Laos gained independence in 1949.

A long civil war ended officially when the communist Pathet Lao movement came to power in 1975 but the protest between factions continued for several years. Forty-four percent of the population live below the international poverty line, equivalent to US$1.25 a day according to a 2006 data thought the CIA World Factbook currently places this figure at 26%.

3. Vietnam- Little Dragon of Asia Indochina is composed of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. These countries have rich land, rivers and forest. Mekong River flows through these countries which explain why soil of these countries is fertile. The Red River found in North Vietnam also helps makes the soil fertile.

4. Malaysia- Land of Early Malay Malaysia is a federation of thirteen (13) states. Strategically located, it is a thoroughfare of ships coming from the South and Southwest Asia including those from Europe going to Asia. The country is mountainous with vast forest which is sources of the people‘s livelihood. There is a deposit of tin which is exported to other countries.

5. Myanmar- land of Golden Pagodas Myanmar lies between Southeast and East Asia in gulf of Bengal and is formerly known as Burma. The country is called ―Golden Land‖ because of its golden pagodas It is surrounded by Bhutan and China on the North, Laos and Thailand on the east, Bangladesh and India on the west. Myanmar is divided into regions; Lower Myanmar and upper Myanmar. Lower Myanmar is considered the best farmland in Asia because of its fertile delta of the Irrawaddy River, Sitang and Salween. Upper Myanmar is rich in mineral Rangoon, the former capital of Myanmar is located in Upper Myanmar.

The military has dominated government since general Ne Win led a coup in 1962 that toppled the civilian government of U Nu. Burma remains under the tight control of the military-led State Peace and development Council.

6. Philippines- Pearl of the Orient The Philippines is an archipelago of more or less 7,107 islands and islets.

The Philippines is bigger than Cambodia, Laos and Great Britain but smaller than Japan. Thailand and Spain. It is divided into three groups of islands: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The country has many ports farmlands and forest.

7. East Timor East Timor was colonized by Portugal in the 16th century, and was known as Portuguese Timor until Portugal‘s decolonization of the country. In late 1975, east Timor decides its independence, but later that year was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared as Indonesia‘s 27th province the following year.

8. Singapore- Land of the Ship Maker Singapore is the second smallest country in Asia with an area of 632.6 sq. km..of the Sinagpore Island comprises 570. 4 sq. km and 50.1 sq. km. for the Young Ji International School / College

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islets bought by the English under Sir Thomas Standard raffles from Jahore, Malaysia in 1891.

9. Thailand- Land of the Free Thailand is surrounded by Myanmar on the north and west, laos on the north, Cambodia on the east and Malaysia on the south. The northern part of the country is mountainous and forested while the eastern part is surrounded by hills with dry land during by season and lush green during wet season.

Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

1. The Philippines is composed of more or less _____ islands and islets.

2. Most of the present territories of Indonesia are called _______> 3. The principal product of Thailand is _____________.

4. Among the three countries in Indochina, ___________ is considered the most progressive.

5. The ______ in North Vietnam helps in making the land rich and fertile.

6. The small island in the Malaya peninsula is named ________.

Answer the following questions.

1. What are the natural resources of Southeast Asia?

2. Why does the Philippines have a tropical climate?

3. How can you compare east Timor with the Philippines?

4. Why do countries in Southeast Asia have similar climate?

Lesson 2 Theories about the origin of the Philippines What is the origin of the Philippine? Consider the following explanations: Three phenomena try to explain the origin of the Philippines, diastrophism, volcanism, and gradation. Diastrophism is the movement of the plates in the first layer in the crust of the earth, resulting in the opening of other layers.

An earthquake of tectonic origin is an example of the effect of diastrophism.

Volcanism is the movement of molten lava from beneath the earth to the surface. The eruption of a volcano shows the phenomenon of volcanism.

Gradation is the leveling of a land surface, resulting from the concerted action of erosion and deposition.

There are also other theories that attempt to explain the origin of the Philippines.

1. Asiatic Theory of Dr. Leopoldo Faustino 2. Pacific Theory of Dr. Bailey Willis 3. Continental Drift Theory 4. Land Bridges Theory Asiatic Theory According to Leopoldo Faustino, the Philippines archipelago was formed by the process of diastrophism. The process involves the movement of the earth‘s crust resulting in the rising up of the other parts of the earth and the sinking of some parts. This happens through folding, faulting and wrapping of lands. It was believed that the Asian Continental Shelf is a part of the Philippines so it was called Asiatic Theory. According to this theory, the outline of the Philippine archipelago was formed after the Paleozoic Era two hundred million years ago. During this period, there was a widespread and large movement beneath and on the surface of land and ocean. As a result, the part of the land that rose up became mountains, hills and cliffs and the part that sank became oceans and other bodies of water.

When the land mass in Asia moved to the south, it caused depression and the outline of the archipelago appeared. As evidence of this, the ocean that separates the Philippines and the continent is shallow while the Pacific Ocean in the eastern part of the country is deep. The

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mountain ranges in the country passes through the coast of the continent. These are some of the evidence which prove that the Philippines is connected the continent of Asia.

Pacific Theory Bailey Wills was the first scientist who theorized that the Philippines archipelago was formed by eruption of volcanoes under the Pacific Ocean in the eastern boundary of Asia.

This is called the Pacific Theory According to this theory; the eruption of volcanoes took place two hundred million years ago. Through the process of volcanism, the molten lava under the volcanoes that were closer separated because of the force of the eruption. This was also the cause why there are wide bodies of water in between the islands. The process of volcanism happened not only in the Philippines but also in Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Solomon Islands and New Zealand. These countries are located in the Ring of Fire. There are two hundred fifty five active volcanoes found in these countries. The Philippines has twenty four active volcanoes that often erupt. The Philippines is also located in the Circumpacific belt where earthquake often occurs.

Continental Drift Theory Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist stated that two hundred million years ago, Pangea or Pangara, the only existing continent was divided into two; the Laurasia in the northern hemisphere and the Gondiwanaland in the southern hemisphere. It was believed that the Philippines was part of laurasia. In fact, before the Pleistocene Period there was a land bridge that connected the Philippines and Vietnam. As the Earth rotated the Philippines floated from the continent of Asia and finally separated from it. The location of the country now is called the Philippines plate which is a subplate of the Eurasian Plate.

Land Bridges Theory According to the land Bridges Theory, the main islands of the country were all connected to each other and the to other countries of Southeast Asia Palawan, Mindanao and Sulu were connected with Borneo and Borneo was connected with other countries in Asia. It was believed that these land bridges served as the roads used by the first inhabitants in our country. The five land bridges formed during that period were the following: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Palawan-Borneo Philippine-Taiwan-Asia Borneo-Sulu-Mindanao Celebes-Mindanao New Guinea-Mindanao

Many geologists accepted the land bridges theory because there was few bridges connecting the Philippines and Asia. After the Ice Age, these land bridges sank. As the ice melted the water in the sea rose causing the lower region of the earth to sink including the land bridges which caused the Philippines to be separated from Asia.

Exploration List down the information asked for in the following: A. Three phenomena about the origin of the Philippines _________________________________________. _________________________________________. _________________________________________.

B. Four theories about the origin of the Philippines _________________________________________. _________________________________________. _________________________________________.

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Introspection 1. Which theory about the origin of the Philippines is acceptable to you? Why? Is it important for you t know the different theories regarding the origin of the Philippines even if you believe that the world is created by God? Why? South Asia South Asia is a very panoramic region. Its impressive physical features and diverse cultures and technologies make up what we term a many-faceted land.

The whole of South Asia has an area of 4, 489, 240 sq. km. it is composed of India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Maldives, and Sri Lanka. The biggest country in South Asia is India, Pakistan and Bangladesh were originally part of India.

Topography and Climate There are different kinds of soil in South Asia. Alluvial soil is found in the plains of Indo Gangetic, the wide central part of the subcontinent of India from Bengal Bay in the east to Arabian Sea to the west. There is also the reddish laterite which is rich in iron-oxide, quasi-laterite like. The soil in the Indian Peninsula is basalt and is found in the Deccan Plateau.

China in South Asia varies. It is cold during the months of December until February, warm and dry from March to May and humid with shower during the months of June, July, August and September. The climate is very cold with snow in some parts of South Asia, like that of the Mt. Everest.

Agriculture Wheat, rice, barley, sugarcane, corn, peanut and cotton are planted in the plains and valleys of Indus River, Ganges and Brahmaputra. The principal products of the region are jute, ivory, rubber and cotton.

Farming is progressive in the region because of the Indus and Ganges Rivers which flow with melted ice into the Himalayan mountain ranges. They serve as irrigation in the fields near the valleys, plateaus and plains of India.

Natural resources There are many mineral reasons in South Asia. The Decan Platea is a source of metal, limestone and manganese in the region. Carbon, silver, chromites, vanadium, ruby and sapphire are also found in the region.

Countries in South Asia Bangladesh- Land of the Bengali Bangladesh is formerly a part of east Pakistan or east Bengal. It is located on the eastern part of India and is surrounded by Nepal, Bhutan, and Myanmar.

The country has a wide and fertile delta wherein the Ganges and Brahmaputra flow to the Bengal bay. This makes agriculture progressive in Bangladesh. Jute is the country‘s principal product. However, Bangladesh is still one of the poorest countries in the world because of calamities that brought damages to farm products and livestock‘s.

The country has made significant progress in human development in the areas of literacy, gender parity in schools and reductions of population growth. However, Bangladesh continues to face a number of major challenges, including widespread political and bureau tic corruption, economic competition relative to the world, serious overpopulation, widespread poverty and an increasing danger of hydrologic shocks brought by ecological vulnerability to climate change.

Bhutan- land of Lions with Good Bearing Bhutan is located between India and China. Climate is hot in the lowlands and the climate is cold in the highlands near the Himalayas. There are also places that experience Young Ji International School / College

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snow the whole year round. Most of the communities in the country are located far from each other because of the topography. The Bhutanese call their country Druk Yul, which means the ―land of the dragon‖.

Bhutan balanced modernization with ancient culture and traditions under the guiding philosophy of Gross national Happiness. Rampant destruction of the environment has ben avoided. The government takes greats measures to preserve the nation‘s traditional culture, identity and the environment.

India- Birthplace of Buddhism and Hinduism India has a total land area of 3, 287, 590 square kilometers, and ranks seventh among the largest countries in the world.

India is surrounded by Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. It is a big peninsula facing the Indian Ocean.

Twenty three percent of the land in India is covered with forest where wild animals live. Although fifty seven percent of the Land is agricultural, harvest is not good due to irregular rainfall.

Economic reforms since 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world. However, it still suffers from poverty, literacy disease and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multingual and multiethnic society, India is also home to diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats Maldives- Islet of East Asia The republic of Maldives is the smallest country in Asia.

Maldives is composed of 1, 200 small islands of corals in the Indian Ocean. There are wide bodies of water in the country and fishing is its main resources of livelihood. There are many beautiful beaches with white sand which are good for swimming and strolling. The people use boat as means of transportation and for earning a living. The agricultural products are breadfruit, pepper, coconut and sweet potato.

Nepal- land of the Great Himalayas The Kingdom of Nepal is located in the mountain ranges of the Himalayas with China on the north and India on the south. It is divided into three principal geographical divisions the Upper region, the Mountainous region and Swamp, Forested and Farmland region.

The Nepalese live by means of farming and logging. Climate in Nepal varies according to location.

Nepal is a country of highly diverse and rich geography, culture and religion. The mountainous North has eight of the worlds ten highest mountains, including the highest, Sagarmatha, known in English as Mount Everest.

Pakistan- land Born from India Pakistan comprises an area of 803, 940 sq. km. and is considered the home of Muslim Indians.

Located in the northwestern part of India, Pakistan is surrounded by Iran, Afghanistan and China. Pakistan is mountainous with three mountain ranges: the Himalayas, Karokorams, and Hindu Kush. Climate varies according to the season and location.

Sri Lanka- Land of the Jewels Formerly Ceylon, Sri Lanka is considered one of the world‘s loveliest places.

Sri Lanka is located on the southwest and central part of Asia, on the southern part of India. A strait separates the country from India. The southern part is mountainous and plains are found in the northern part. Beautiful sceneries are also found in the plateaus.

Temperature is high in Sri Lanka because the country is located near the equator.

Tea is the country‘s principal product.

The country is famous for the production and export of tea, coffe, coconut, rubber and cinnamon-which is native to the country.

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Exploration I. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

1-2 The two countries referred to as former parts of the India are ______________ and ___________.

3-4 The __________ and __________ serve as the sources of irrigation in northern India.

5. The biggest country in South Asia is _______________.

6. Located between India and China is ______________.

7-10. The types of soil found in South Asia are _____________________, ___________________, _____________________, and ________________.

II. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the types of climate in South Asia?

2. What are the means of livelihood in South Asia?

3. What are the different products in South Asia?

4. How do the Indus River and the Ganges River help the people of South Asia for their livelihood? Explain.

Lesson 4

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia (/ˌmɛsəpəˈteɪmiə/, from the Ancient Greek:Μεζοποηαμία "[land] between rivers"; Arabic: (bilād al-rāfidayn); Syriac: ‫( ܢ ܗܪܝ ܢ ܒ ܝܬ‬Beth Nahrain) "land of rivers") is a name for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, corresponding to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, the northeastern section of Syria and to a much lesser extent southeastern Turkey and smaller parts of southwestern Iran.

Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization in the West,Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the Akkadian,Babylonian, and Assyrian empires, all native to the territory of modern-day Iraq. In the Iron Age, it was controlled by the NeoAssyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires. The indigenous Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians) dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. It fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.

Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthians. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD 226, it fell to the Sassanid Persians and remained under Persian rule until the 7th-century Arab Islamic conquest of the Sassanid Empire. A number of primarily neo Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including Adiabene, Osroene, and Hatra.

Etymology The regional toponym Mesopotamia comes from the ancient Greek root words μέζος (meso) "middle" and ποηαμός (potamia) "river" and literally means "(Land) between rivers". It is used throughout the Greek Septuagint (ca. 250 BC) to translate the Hebrew equivalent Naharaim. An even earlier Greek usage of the name Mesopotamia is evident from the Anabasis Alexandri, which was written in the late 2nd century AD, but specifically refers to sources from the time of Alexander the Great. In the Anabasis, Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the Euphrates in north Syria.

The Aramaic term biritum/birit narim corresponded to a similar geographical concept.Later, the term Mesopotamia was more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the Tigris, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of Iraq and southeastern Turkey. The neighbouring steppes to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the Zagros Mountains are also often included under the wider term Mesopotamia. A further distinction is usually made between Upper or Northern Mesopotamia Young Ji International School / College

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and Lower or Southern Mesopotamia. Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the Jezirah, is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad.[ Lower Mesopotamia consists of southern Iraq, Kuwait and parts of western Iran. In modern academic usage, the term Mesopotamia often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the Muslim conquests, with names like Syria, Jezirah, and Iraq being used to describe the region after that date. It has been argued that these later euphemisms areEurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.[10][11] Geography Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the mountains of Armenia in modern-day Turkey. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a 15,000 square kilometres (5,800 sq mi) region of marshes, lagoons, mud flats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the Persian Gulf.

The arid environment which ranges from the northern areas of rain-fed agriculture to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential if a surplus energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) is to be obtained. This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melting snows from the high peaks of the Zagros Mountains and from the Armenian cordillera, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority.

Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals and timber, and so historically has relied upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times, and has added to the cultural mix.

Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons.

The demands for labor have from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological carrying capacity, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city states has meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units. These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq.

History History of Mesopotamia The pre-history of the Ancient Near East begins in the Lower Paleolithic period, but writing began with a pictographic script in the Uruk IV period (ca. 4th millennium BC), and the documented record of actual historical events — and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia — commence in the mid-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings, and ends with either the arrival of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th century BC, or with the Arab Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia and the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, from which point the region came to be known as Iraq.

During this period Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient highly developed and socially complex states. The region was one of the four riverine Young Ji International School / College

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civilizations where writing was invented, along with the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus Valley in the Indian subcontinent, and Yellow River valley in China. Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, Assur and Babylon, as well as major territorial states such as the city of Eridu, the Akkadian kingdom, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the various Assyrian empires. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon (who established the Akkadian Empire), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), Ashur-uballit II and TiglathPileser I (who established the Assyrian Empires).

Periodization  Pre- and protohistory  Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,000–8700 BC)  Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8700–6800)  Hassuna (~6000 bc–? BC), Samarra (~5700 BC–4900 BC) and Halaf (~6000 BC– 5300 BC) cultures  Ubaid period (~5900–4400 BC)  Uruk period (~4400–3100 BC) [13]  Jemdet Nasr period (~3100–2900 BC) 

Early Bronze Age  Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BC)  Akkadian Empire (~2350–2100 BC)  Ur III period (2112–2004 BC)  Early Assyrian kingdom (24th to 18th century BC)

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Middle Bronze Age  Early Babylonia (19th to 18th century BC)  First Babylonian Dynasty (18th to 17th century BC)  collapse: Minoan Eruption (c. 1620 BC)

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Late Bronze Age  Middle Assyrian period (16th to 11th century BC)  Assyrian Empire (c. 1365 BC–1076 BC)  Kassite dynasty in Babylon, (c. 1595 BC–1155 BC)  collapse: Bronze Age collapse (12th to 11th century BC)

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Iron Age  Neo-Hittite or Syro-Hittite regional states (11th to 7th century BC)  Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th to 7th century BC)  Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th to 6th century BC)



Classical Antiquity  Persian Babylonia, Achaemenid Assyria (6th to 4th century BC)  Seleucid Mesopotamia (4th to 3rd century BC)  Parthian Babylonia (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD)  Osroene (2nd century BC to 3rd century AD)  Adiabene (1st to 2nd century AD)  Hatra (1st to 2nd century AD)  Roman Mesopotamia, Roman Assyria (2nd century AD)



Late Antiquity  Persian Mesopotamia, Persian Asuristan (Assyria) (3rd to 7th century AD)  Arab Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia (mid-7th century AD)  Language and writing

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The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was Sumerian, an agglutinativelanguage isolate. Along with Sumerian, Semitic dialects were also spoken in early Mesopotamia. Subartuan[14] a language of the Zagros, perhaps related to the HurroUrartuan language family is attested in personal names, rivers and mountains and in various crafts. Akkadian came to be the dominant language during the Akkadian Empire and the Assyrian empires, but Sumerian was retained for administration,religious, literary, and scientific purposes. Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the NeoBabylonian period. Aramaic, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration language of first the Neo Assyrian Empire, and then the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. The last Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century AD. Early in Mesopotamia's history (around the mid-4th millennium BC) cuneiform scriptwas invented for the Sumerian language. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to have been developed from pictograms. The earliest texts (7 archaic tablets) come from the E Temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators.

The early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus, only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its use. It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.

During the third millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerian and the Akkadian language users, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD. 

Literature Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire. An old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.

A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up.

Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sin-liqe-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. The whole story is a composite product, although it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure. 

Mathematics

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Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system. This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360degree circle. The Sumerian calendar was based on the seven-day week. This form of mathematics was instrumental in early map-making. The Babylonians also had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if were fixed at 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height; however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used as 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. 

Astronomy From Sumerian times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times when Limmu lists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of Mesopotamia.

The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict eclipses and solstices. Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy.

Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time.

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution.

This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.

In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy.

The only Greek Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC). Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used (except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of Moon's attraction).

Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy. 

Medicine The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar,Esagil-kinapli of Borsippa, during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC) Along with contemporary Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. In addition, Young Ji International School / College

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the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic, and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptomsand often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of apatient with its diagnosis and prognosis.

The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from anycurses.

Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient'sdisease, its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.

Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his Diagnostic Handbook. These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis. 

Technology Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copperworking, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation.

They were also one of the first Bronze age people in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces.

According to a recent hypothesis, the Archimedes' screw may have been used

by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the 7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a Greek invention of later times. Later during the Parthian or Sassanid periods, the Baghdad Battery, which may have been the world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia. 

Religion and philosophy Mesopotamian religion was the first to be recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, heaven. They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the universe was born from this enormous sea. In addition, Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic. Although the beliefs described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki.Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the Pantheon, equivalent to the Greek god Zeus and the Roman god Jupiter. The Sumerians also posed philosophical questions, such as: Who are we?, Where are we?, How did we get here?.] They attributed answers to these questions to explanations provided by their gods. 

Philosophy The origins of philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms ofdialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose works, andproverbs.

Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.

The earliest form of logic was developed by the Babylonians, notably in the rigorous nonergodic nature of their social systems. Babylonian thought was axiomatic and is comparable to the "ordinary logic" described by John Maynard Keynes. Babylonian thought was also based on an open-systems ontology which is compatible with ergodic axioms. Logic was employed to some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine.

Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Greek and Hellenistic philosophy. In particular, the Babylonian text Dialogue of Pessimism contains similarities to Young Ji International School / College

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the agonistic thought of the sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialectic and dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the maieutic method of Socrates.

The Ionian philosopherThales was influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas. 

Culture

 Festivals Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by at least six important factors:

1. The Lunar phase (a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld) 2. The phase of the annual agricultural cycle 3. Equinoxes and solstices 4. The local mythos and its divine Patrons 5. The success of the reigning Monarch 6. Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.) 

Music Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused kings, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the marketplaces. Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many generations as an oral tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided a means of passing on through the centuries highly important information about historical events.

The Oud (Arabic: ‫ ) وعل‬is a small, stringed musical instrument used by the Mesopotamians. The oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia over 5000 years ago. It is on a cylinder seal currently housed at the British Museum and acquired by Dr. Dominique Collon. The image depicts a female crouching with her instruments upon a boat, playing right-handed. This instrument appears hundreds of times throughout Mesopotamian history and again in ancient Egypt from the 18th dynasty onwards in long- and short-neck varieties. The oud is regarded as a precursor to the European lute. Its name is derived from the Arabic word ‫ وعل‬al-‗ūd 'the wood', which is probably the name of the tree from which the oud was made. (The Arabic name, with the definite article, is the source of the word 'lute'.) 

Games Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings. Boxing and wrestling feature frequently in art, and some form of polo was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses. They also played majore, a game similar to the sport rugby, but played with a ball made of wood. They also played a board game similar to senet andbackgammon, now known as the "Royal Game of Ur."  Family life Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of Urukagina, Lipit Ishtarand Hammurabi, across its history became more and more a patriarchal society, one in which the men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the "en", or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses, a man. Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as many others, has suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased.

As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. Girls had to stay home with their mothers to Young Ji International School / College

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learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusual for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights. They could own property and, if they had good reason, get a divorce. 

Burials Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian burial habits. In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets. Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family chapel. Other remains have been found buried in common city graveyards. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them. It is assumed that these were royal graves. Rich of various periods, have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun.. 

Economy and agriculture Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC. Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale system of loans and credit, but the Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial banking. It was comparable in some ways to modern post-Keynesian economics, but with a more "anything goes" approach.

In the early period down to Ur III temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency. The word Ensi was used to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture. Villeins are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.

The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and good drainage, a fact which has had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish (used both for food and fertilizer), reeds, and clay (for building materials).

With irrigation, the food supply in Mesopotamia was comparable to the Canadian prairies.

The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the north-eastern portion of the Fertile Crescent, which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for crops, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. This is why the development of irrigation was very important for settlers of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley, onions, grapes, turnips, and apples. Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and wine. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian, farmers did not depend on slaves to complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slave). Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept. Over time the southernmost parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils, leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north. 

Government The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities along Young Ji International School / College

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with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed. Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous. Thus, each Sumerian city became a city-state, independent of the others and protective of its independence. At times one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by Eannatum, but the unification was tenuous and failed to last as the Akkadians conquered Sumeria in 2331 BC only a generation later. The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see the peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations.  Kings The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the City of Gods, but, unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed their kings were real gods. Most kings named themselves ―king of the universe‖ or ―great king‖. Another common name was ―shepherd‖, as kings had to look after their people.  Power When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called provinces. Each of these was named after their main cities, like Nineveh, Samaria, Damascus, and Arpad.

They all had their own governor who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes. Governors also had to call up soldiers to war and supply workers when a temple was built. He was also responsible for enforcing the laws. In this way, it was easier to keep control of a large empire. Although Babylon was quite a small state in the Sumerian, it grew tremendously throughout the time of Hammurabi's rule. He was known as ―the law maker‖, and soon Babylon became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It also became one of history's greatest centers of learning. 

Warfare With the end of the Uruk phase, walled cities grew and many isolated Ubaidb villages were abandoned indicating a rise in communal violence. An early king Lugalbanda was supposed to have built the white walls around the city. As city-states began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war—the first recording of a war occurred around 3200 BC but was not common until about 2500 BC. An Early Dynastic II king (Ensi) of Uruk in Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2,600 BC), was commended for military exploits against Humbaba guardian of the Cedar Mountain, and was later celebrated in many later poems and songs in which he was claimed to be two-thirds god and only one-third human. The later Stele of the Vultures at the end of the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BC), commemorating the victory of Eannatum of Lagash over the neighbouring rival city of Ummais the oldest monument in the world that celebrates a massacre. From this point forwards, warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system. At times a neutral city may act as an arbitrator for the two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states.

When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. King Sargon, for example, conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with northern Syria. Many Assyrian and Babylonian palace walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy either desperately escaping or hiding amongst reeds.  Laws City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes, drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by Kings. The codes of Urukagina and Lipit Ishtar have been found. The most renowned of these was that of Hammurabi, as mentioned above, who was posthumously famous for his set of laws, the Code of Hammurabi (created c. 1780 BC),

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which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia.  Art The art of Mesopotamia rivalled that of Ancient Egypt as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in western Eurasia from the 4th millennium BC until the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on various, fortunately very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay; little painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes, though most sculpture was also painted.

The Protoliterate period, dominated by Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion. A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity, but very few of these have survived. Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, staring eyes and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a Ram in a Thicket, the Copper Bull and a bull's head on one of the Lyres of Ur. From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not. The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th centuries BC, and may also be moulded. Stone stelae, votive offerings, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are also found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them;] the fragmentary Stele of the Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type and the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and solid late one.

The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting; the British Museumhas an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the humanheaded lamassu, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round (and also five legs, so that both views seem complete).

Even before dominating the region they had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined. 

Architecture The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on availablearchaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.

Brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities. The zigguratis the Young Ji International School / College

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most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of which the Ishtar Gate from Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in polychrome brick, is the most famous, now largely in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.

The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit,Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon),Urartian (Tushpa/Va n Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf,Karatepe). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age. What is the legacy of the Ancient Egyptians?     

The mystery of Egypt has captured the imagination of people for thousands of years The Egyptians constructed some of the world's largest monuments without modern technology Egyptian architecture and art has influenced modern architecture and art The Egyptians also made advances in astrology, astronomy, science and medicine The culture of the Egyptians is full of mystery and intrigue

Five thousand years ago the chain of independent city-states lining the River Nile united to form one long, THIN country ruled by one king, or pharaoh. Almost instantly a highly distinctive culture developed. For almost 30 centuries Egypt remained the foremost nation in the Mediterranean world. Then, in 332 BC, the arrival of Alexander the Great heralded the end of the Egyptian way of life.

The unique culture was quickly buried beneath successive layers of Greek, Roman and Arabic tradition, and all knowledge of Egypt's glorious past was lost. Only the decaying stone monuments, their hieroglyphic texts now unreadable, survived as silent witnesses to a long lost civilisation.

"All ancient civilisations have contributed in some way to the development of modern society."

Terms to define 1. jewellery 2. commoner 3. pantheon 4. astrology 5. formidable 6. irrigation 7. jurisprudence 8. ziggurat 9. horoscope 10. sexagesimal 11. settlement 12. nomad 13. immigrant 14. cuneiform 15. edifice 16. aristocrat Young Ji International School / College

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17. secular 18. zodiac Follow up Questions 1. How did the Sumerians rise as a civilization?

2. What do the social classes in Babylonia and the status of their women tell about their kind of society? Elaborate.

3. Is the ziggurat more of a religious edifice or a work of art? Explain your answer.

4. Describe the religions of the ancient civilization in Mesopotamia. Do you find common themes within their various beliefs?

Activity 1. Make groups of five members. Then make a table of the different civilization which flourished in Mesopotamia, the period of their control/influence over the region, their greatest leaders and their contributions.

2. Write an essay about the greatest contribution of Mesopotamia to human advancement. Defend your choice and make a case about how your chosen contribution still makes an impact in the present.

3. Research in the library about the rise and fall of the different civilization of Mesopotamia. Find common conditions that represent in the periods of other rise and fall. What makes empires rise? What makes them fall?

Multiple Choices. Encircle the correct answer.

1. What is the estimated age of the earth? a. 3 billion years c. 5 billion years b. 4 billion years d. 10 billion years 2. What do you call the period when ice covered most of North America and Europe four times during a span of one million years? a. Iceberg Age c. Icicle Stage b. Glacier Domination d. Glacial Age 3. The Paleolithic Era is also called the: a. New Stone Age c. Stone Age b. Old Stone Age d. Cambrian Era 4. The Zinjanthropus erectus is a kind of prehistoric: a. reptile c. rock b. man d. era 5. What do you call the large reptiles that roamed earth about 125 million years ago? a. arcevic species c. dinosaurs b. paleolithis d. caveman 6. Which area in China was considered the cradle of civilization? a. Indus valley c. Takla makan mountains b. Great Wall of China d. Hwang Ho Valley 7. What is the name of the prehistoric monument in Salisbury Plain, England consisting of stone slabs encircling a horseshoe-shaped altar used in sun worship? a. Monolithic monument c. Fracastoro b. Stonehenge d. Dadullar formation 8. What is the name of the prehistoric man whose bones was discovered in a cave in Germany and is believed to have existed about 100, 000 years ago? a. Midnight man c. Bavarian man b. Peking man d. Neanderthal man 9. Who are the aborigines of the Philippines? a. Negritos c. Maguindanaos b. Bicolanos d. Mongolians 10. What was man‘s most important means of livelihood in the Old Stone Age? Young Ji International School / College

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a. hunting c. bartering b. agriculture d. pottery 11. Which valley of an African river was the cradle of Egypt civilization? a. Zambezi c. Congo b. Nile d. Victoria 12. What is the name of the extraordinary stone dug in 1799 which contained important writings about the history of ancient Egypt? a. Behistun Rock c. Zevdbaizerro Stone b. Rosetta Stone d. Zevtidanz Stone 13. From what plant did the ancient Egyptian derive paper for writing? a. papyrus c. bo tree b. bamboo d. eucalyptus tree 14. What does pharaoh mean? a. great ruler c. great house b. mighty conqueror d. wise elder 15. Who was the unifier of Upper and Lower Egyptian who became the first pharaoh during the third millennium B.C.? a. Thutmose I c. Menes b. Ikhnaton d. Rameses I 16. Which pharaoh ordered the building of the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the seven Wonders of the World? a. Khufu c. Hulagu b. Khafre d. Tutankhamen 17. It was about 1700 BC when a chariot-riding tribe from Arabia conquered Egypt and ruled for two centuries. What is the name of this tribe? a. Hittites c. Arameans b. Israelites d. Hyksos 18. Who founded the Egyptian Empire in the 15th century B.C.? a. Thutmose III c. menes b. Amenophis IV d. Hatsepsut 19. This pharaoh of the 14th century B.C. was the first ruler to advocate which worship only one god. Name him. a. Tutankhamen c. Thutmose II b. Nefertiti d. Amenhotep IV 20. This pharaoh ruled Egypt for 67 years during the 13th century B.C. and is famous for his triumphant battles against the Hittites. He has many monuments including the Abu Simbel.

Name him. a. Menes c. Ramses II b. Amenhemet IV d. Tutankhamen 21. Which Egyptian queen is called ―The serpent of the Nile‖? a. Cleopatra c. Barsine b. Rosamunda d. Nefertiti 22. Who is the Egyptian sun god? a. Apis c. Istiklal b. Ra d. Isis 23. What do you call the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers? a. Garden of Eden c. Mesopotamia b. Addamman d. Lebanon 23. Which great king of Akkad founded the world‘s first empire nearly 1000 years before the existence of the Egyptian empire? a. Nabopollassar c. Sargon b. Tiglath Pileser d. Nebuchadnezzar 24. The people of the first military empire were also one of the most cultured in ancient civilization. Who were they? a. Assyrians c. Sumerians Young Ji International School / College

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b. Chaldeans d. Akkadians 25. What do you call the multi-leveled Sumerian temple resembling a modern skyscraper? a. Pagoda c. ziggurat b. Tower of Babel d. Chonsongdae 26. Which ruler composed one of the first codes of law and founded the Babylonian Empire in about 1800 BC? a. Nebuchadnezzar c. Justinian b. Hammurabi d. Sardanalus 27. Which people introduced the use of iron in the ancient world? a. Aramians c. Babylonians b. Akkadians d. Hittites 28. Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos are important cities of which empire? a. Babylonians c. Phoenicia b. Chaldea d. Corinthia 29. Who killed Goliath of Gath for whose act was named successor to King Saul? a. David c. Nehemiah b. Shadrach d. Solomon 30. Nineveh was the capital of which empire? a. Syria c. Sumeria b. Numidia d. Assyria 31. Nebuchadnezzar was the greatest ruler of which empire? a. Achaemenid c. Sumeria b. Macedonia d. Chaldea 32. Who conquered and dissolved the Persian Empire in 331 BC? a. Philip of Macedon c. Gordius b. Cyrus the Great d. Alexander the Great 33. What city in the Fertile Crescent was the site of the famous hanging gardens? a. Jerusalem c. Damascus b. Nineveh d. Babylon 34. The head or supreme god of Babylonians. a. Marduk c. Karduk b. Andok d. Sandok 35. The moon god a. Sin c. Shamash b. Ea d. Singkamsh Identification. Identify the following questions _________________ 1. It is the valley of an African river was the cradle of Egyptian civilization. _________________ 2. What is the name of the extraordinary stone dug in 1799 which contained important writings about the history of ancient Egypt? _________________ 3. From what plant did the ancient Egyptian derive paper for writing? _________________ 4. What does pharaoh mean? _________________ 5. Who was the unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt who became the fist pharaoh during the third millennium B.C? _________________ 6. It is the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. _________________ 7. It was about 1700 BC when a chariot-riding tribe from Arabia conquered Egypt and ruled for two centuries. What is the name of this tribe? _________________ 8. Who founded the Egyptian Empire in the 15th century B.C.? _________________ 9. This pharaoh of the 14th century B.C was the first ruler to advocate religions which worship only one god. Who is he? _________________10. ―The Serpent of the Nile‖ Young Ji International School / College

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Answer the following questions.(5 points each) 1.

2.

3.

4.

Explain the legacy of Akhenaton in modern religious thought.

How did the Sumerians rise as a civilization?

Is the ziggurat more of a religious edifice or a work of art? Explain your answer.

In your opinion, what model of human evolution best explains the manner by which humans evolved?

Enumeration 1-3 Scientific theories 4-10 Continents 11-14 Earth natural resources 15-20 Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilization Lesson 5

THE LEGACY OF EGYPT

What is the legacy of the Ancient Egyptians?  The mystery of Egypt has captured the imagination of people for thousands of years  The Egyptians constructed some of the world's largest monuments without modern technology  Egyptian architecture and art has influenced modern architecture and art  The Egyptians also made advances in astrology, astronomy, science and medicine  The culture of the Egyptians is full of mystery and intrigue Five thousand years ago the chain of independent city-states lining the River Nile united to form one long, THIN country ruled by one king, or pharaoh. Almost instantly a highly distinctive culture developed. For almost 30 centuries Egypt remained the foremost nation in the Mediterranean world. Then, in 332 BC, the arrival of Alexander the Great heralded the end of the Egyptian way of life.

The unique culture was quickly buried beneath successive layers of Greek, Roman and Arabic tradition, and all knowledge of Egypt's glorious past was lost. Only the decaying stone monuments, their hieroglyphic texts now unreadable, survived as silent witnesses to a long lost civilisation.

"All ancient civilisations have contributed in some way to the development of modern society."

Ancient Egyptian Legacies

The Ancient Egyptians were possibly the first civilisation to practice the scientific arts.

Indeed, the word chemistry is derived from the word Alchemy which is the ancient name for Egypt. Where the Egyptians really excelled was in medicine and applied mathematics. But although there is a large body of papyrus literature describing their achievements in

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medicine, there are no records of how they reached their mathematical conclusions. Of course they must have had an advanced understanding of the subject because their exploits in engineering, astronomy and administration would not have been possible without it.

The Egyptians had a decimal system using seven different symbols.

1 is shown by a single stroke.

10 is shown by a drawing of a hobble for cattle.

100 is represented by a coil of rope.

1,000 is a drawing of a lotus plant.

10,000 is represented by a finger.

100,000 by a tadpole or frog 1,000,000 is the figure of a god with arms raised above his head Example

The conventions for reading and writing numbers is quite simple; the higher number is always written in front of the lower number and where there is more than one row of numbers the reader should start at the top.

Pyramids and Mathematics Egypt's magnificent stone buildings - her pyramids and temples - have inspired innumerable artists, writers, poets and architects from the Roman period to the present day.

The pyramid form, in particular, still pays an important role in modern architecture, and can be seen rising above cemeteries and innumerable shopping centres, and at the new entrance to the Louvre Museum, Paris.

They hold the key to understanding the structure of Egyptian society.

The original pyramids serve as a testament to the mathematical skill of the Egyptians, a skill that stimulated Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras, to perfect their work. The Great Pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops) in 2550 BC, for example, stands an impressive 46m (150ft) high, with a slope of 51degrees. Its sides, with an average length of 230m (754ft), vary by less than 5cm (2in). Higher than St Paul's Cathedral, the pyramid was aligned with amazing accuracy almost exactly to true north.

But the pyramids are more than mathematical puzzles. They hold the key to understanding the structure of Egyptian society. The pyramids were built, not by the gangs of slaves often portrayed by Hollywood film moguls, but by a workforce of up to 5,000 permanent employees, supplemented by as many as 20,000 temporary workers, who would work for three or four months on the pyramid site, before returning home.

There are many unanswered questions in Ancient Egyptian history like how were obelisks raised? Who was Nefertiti? Where is the lost capital of Itj-Tawi?

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"Some of these myths passed from Egypt to Rome, and have had a direct effect on the development of modern religious belief."

"While the Egyptians undeniably built the pyramids, the pyramids built Egypt."

Preservation Egypt's rich material legacy is the result of her unique funerary beliefs, which, combined with her distinctive geography, encouraged the preservation of archaeological material. The River Nile flows northwards through the centre of Egypt, bringing much needed water to an otherwise arid part of north-east Africa.

This wealth of objects, of course, creates a highly biased collection of artefacts.

Their total dependence on the River Nile as a source of water and a means of transport had a deep impact on the way that the Egyptians saw the world. Their sun god, the falcon-headed Re, did not cross the heavens in a flaming chariot, he sailed sedately in a solar boat.

Parallel to the Nile on both banks of the river runs the Black Land - the narrow strip of fertile soil that allowed the Egyptians to practice the most efficient agriculture in the ancient world. Beyond the Black Land lies the inhospitable Red Land, the desert that once served as a vast cemetery, and beyond the Red Land are the cliffs that protected Egypt from unwelcome visitor 

Beneath The Bandages The Egyptians were renowned throughout the Mediterranean world for their medical skills, skills that were eventually passed on to the Greek and the Roman doctors that followed them. Unlike those of other ancient societies, the Egyptians were experienced in dissecting corpses because, believing that their souls needed an earthly body, they preserved their dead as mummies. ...full of horrific stories of unwanted mummies being burned as torches...

Their disembowelled , dried and bandaged bodies were once regarded as useless curiosities to be unwrapped, stripped of their jewellery, then discarded, and the archaeological literature is full of horrific stories of unwanted mummies being burned as torches, ground into pigment, processed into brown paper and even dispensed as stomach medicine for the rich and gullible.

Today attitudes to the long-deceased have changed and it is no longer considered appropriate to destroy a mummy out of mere curiosity. However, the countless mummies, already unwrapped, stored in the world's museums and universities offer an incomparable source of ancient human tissue. The Manchester Mummy Project, led by Professor Rosalie David, has worked in close conjunction with Manchester University's medical faculties to develop a multi-disciplinary methodology for the examination of ancient human remembers. 

Mummification Anubis was the god of mummification. He had a human body and the head of a jackal. Anubis was the son of Nephthys. His job was to prepare the bodies of the dead to be received by Osiris.

"This photo of Anubis was taken in the temple of Hatshepsut in Luxor."

The first Egyptian mummies were bodies of people who had been buried in the desert. Their bodies dried out and remained whole. Later rich Egyptians were mummified Young Ji International School / College

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after death. This procedure was a way of preserving the body for the afterlife. The procedure involved CLEANING the body inside and out.

Embalmers of the Old Kingdom hadn't yet learned how to preserve the flesh. In the 4th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom embalmers began experimenting with nation. This is a compound of salts that is a close chemical composition of bicarbonate of soda. When the body was packed in nation crystals, the moisture was drawn out of the skin tissue. The consistent use of nation did not occur until the 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom.

During the Fourth Dynasty Queen Hetepheres was the first royal Egyptian believed to have her organs dried out and preserved. First the body was cut open and the organs were removed. All the major organs were taken out except the heart and the kidneys. The brain was removed through the nose with an iron hook. In her tomb a chest with compartments was found. In the chest were the remains of Queen Hetepheres's stomach and other organs.

In later years the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines were placed in canopy jars. The organs were carefully removed from the body and dried with nation. The brain was not considered an important organ and was not preserved.

Egyptians believed thoughts and reason came from the heart.

Little bit of history  History, archaeology, Egyptology and wonder of Egypt's legacy also lies in her mystery and wealth. Since ancient times, foreigners have been intrigued by the mystery of Egypt, her gods and culture.

When the French conqueror Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798-99, he brought with him hundreds of keen historians and scientists. His soldiers and supporters made detailed notes and drawings of the monuments and inscriptions they found. These discoveries were published in a book called Description de l'Egypte and established modern Egyptology (the study of ancient Egypt) and archaeology. Hieroglyphs were translated by the French linguist Jean Francois Champollion in 1824. Egyptomania took hold of the world. But attention also brought tomb raiders. Mummies were taken from their tombs and used as fertiliser and firewood, tombs were looted for their valuables, and thousands of statues and slabs of WALL PAINTINGS and reliefs were taken to foreign countries and put on display in museums.

In 1922 the archaeologist Howard Carter discovered the tomb of the young pharaoh Tutankhamen. The tomb was packed with gold and gilded items including thrones, chariots, statues, shrines and thousands of religious items.

Egypt's legacy is the story of an ancient and exotic land. The stories told by the WALL PAINTINGS and hieroglyphs tell of intrigue, love, war and faith. 

Art and architecture Egypt also made a mark on the development of art. Egyptian pictures always showed heads from the side, shoulders from the front and arms, torsos, legs and feet from the side.

These angles were considered the most beautiful. The Egyptians did not make their mark on art in this respect, but in sculpture. The Egyptians made life-sized and monumental sculptures. Ancient Egyptian artists used a grid to determine the proportions of the human body. Ancient Greeks travelling in Egypt adopted this form of sculpture and modified it to appear more natural. The Greeks also used the Egyptian grid. The Greek adaptation of Egyptian statuary and proportion has influenced classical and modern art.

The Egyptians also influenced architecture. Their design of doorways and use of obelisks can still be seen today. Obelisks are long, tall pinnacle-shaped monuments that Young Ji International School / College

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stand upright. The Egyptians wrote important inscriptions on obelisks. Egyptian obelisks have been transported around the world as gifts between nations and have been adapted for modern usage. 

Inventions and discoveries The ancient Egyptian culture had a strong impact on other ancient civilisations.

Egyptian priests had invented items that measured time, including the sun dial, water clock and calendar. The Roman politician Julius Caesar used the ancient Egyptian calendar as a model for the Roman calendar, which was used in Western cultures until it was modified slightly in 1582. The ancient Egyptians also developed the basic unit of measuring length, the cubit. They made observations about astrology and astronomy and had a developed understanding of medicine and the human body.

One of the greatest legacies of ancient Egypt was the invention of papyrus, reed paper. Papyrus was highly sought after as paper for writing. It was the first paper and was used for important documents both by the Egyptians and other ancient civilisations. Papyrus was used for thousands of years.

TERMS TO DEFINE 1. thrived 2. obelisk 3. slab 4. infiltration 5. infighting 6. chariot 7. monotheism 8. unrest 9. ruins 10. annihilation 11. papyrus 12. afterlife 13. amulet 14. charm 15. vizier 16. regent 17. inscription 18. charisma Follow up Questions 1. Explain the legacy of Akhenaton in modern religion thought.

2. What ids Egypt‘s greatest contribution as an ancient group of people? Defend your answer.

3. Describe the absolute power of a pharaoh.

4. Why is ancient Egypt‘s economy and livelihood based on agriculture? How is this reflected in their way of life?

Activity 1. Identify the five greatest legacies of ancient Egypt, in your opinion, and determine their effects, if there are any, on modern society.

2. Make a table that compares and contrast the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia in terms of economy, government, and religious thought.

3. Research in the library about the life of a particular pharaoh and report on his achievements during his reign in ancient Egypt.

4. Research on the internet about the pyramids. What are the different theories on how these were constructed? Is some sort of ―energy‖ inherent in a pyramidal structure?

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Lesson 6

Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was a Greek civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. AD 600). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era.[1] Included in ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Classical Greece began with the repelling of a Persian invasion by Athenian leadership. Because of conquests by Alexander the Great, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe, for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture. 

Chronology Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC (around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer) and ended in the 6th century AD. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200 – c. 800 BC), archaeologically characterised by the protogeometric and geometric styles of designs on pottery. This period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of SyroHittite, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent.

Traditionally, the Archaic period of ancient Greece is considered to begin with Orientalizing influence, which among other things brought the alphabetic script to Greece, marking the beginning of Greek literature (Homer, Hesiod). The end of the Dark Ages is also frequently dated to 776 BC, the year of the first Olympic Games.[6] The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, in turn succeeded by the Hellenistic period at the death of Alexander the Greatin 323 BC. 

Ancient Periods Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may thus be subdivided into the following periods:[7] 







The Archaic period (c. 800 – c. 500 BC), in which artists made larger freestanding sculptures in stiff, hieratic poses with the dreamlike "archaic smile". The Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. The Classical period (c. 500 – 323 BC) is characterised by a style which was considered by later observers to be exemplary i.e. "classical", as shown in for instance the Parthenon. Politically, the Classical Period was dominated byAthens and the Delian League during the 5th century, but displaced

by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC, before power shifted to Thebes and the Boeotian League and finally to the League of Corinth led

by Macedon.

In the Hellenistic period (323–146 BC) Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest.

Roman Greece, the period between Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in AD 330.

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



The final phase of Antiquity is the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD, sometimes taken to be complete with the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I in 529.

Historiography The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography, while earlier ancient history or protohistory is known by much more circumstantial evidence, such as annals or king lists, and pragmatic epigraphy.

Herodotus is widely known as the "father of history": his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Written between the 450s and 420s BC, Herodotus' work reaches about a century into the past, discussing 6th century historical figures such as Darius I of Persia, Cambyses II and Psamtik III, and alluding to some 8th century ones such as Candaules.

Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato and Aristotle. Most of these authors were either Athenians or pro-Athenians, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is further limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic and social history.

Archaic period In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. From about the 9th century BC written records begin to appear. Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography: every island, valley and plain is cut off from its neighbours by the sea or mountain ranges.

The Lelantine War (c.710–c.650 BC) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period. It was fought between the important poleis (city-states) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, though Chalcis was the nominal victor.

A mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC. This seems to have introduced tension to many city-states. The aristocratic regimes which generally governed the poleis were threatened by the new-found wealth of merchants, who in turn desired political power. From 650 BC onwards, the aristocracies had to fight not to be overthrown and replaced by populist tyrants. This word derives from the non-pejorative Greek ηύραννος tyrannos, meaning 'illegitimate ruler', and was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike.

A growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city-states. In Sparta, the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and enserfment of the Messenians, beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC, an act without precedent or antecedent in ancient Greece. This practice allowed a social revolution to occur. The subjugated population, thenceforth known as helots, farmed and laboured for Sparta, whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the Spartan Army in a permanently militarized state. Even the elite were obliged to live and train as soldiers; this commonality between rich and poor citizens served to defuse the social conflict. These reforms, attributed to the shadowy Lycurgus of Sparta, were probably complete by 650 BC.

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Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century, again resulting in civil strife. The Archon (chief magistrate)Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC (hence "draconian"), but these failed to quell the conflict. Eventually the moderate reforms of Solon (594 BC), improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power, gave Athens some stability.

By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well.

Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries had resulted in emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), Asia Minor and further afield. The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century by which time the Greek world had, culturally and linguistically, become much larger than the area of present-day Greece. Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities, although they often retained religious and commercial links with them.

The emigration process also determined a long series of conflicts between the Greek cities of Sicily, especially Syracuse, and the Carthaginians. These conflicts lasted from 600 BC to 265 BC when Rome entered into an alliance with theMamertines to fend off the hostilities by the new tyrant of Syracuse, Hiero II and then the Carthaginians. This way Rome became the new dominant power against the fading strength of the Sicilian Greek cities and the Carthaginian supremacy in the region. One year later the First Punic War erupted. 

Greek–Punic Wars In this period, there was huge economic development in Greece, and also in its overseas colonies which experienced a growth in commerce and manufacturing.

There was a great improvement in the living standards of the population. Some studies estimate that the average size of the Greek household, in the period from 800 BC to 300 BC, increased five times, which indicates[citation needed] a large increase in the average income of the population.

In the second half of the 6th century, Athens fell under the tyranny of Peisistratos and then of his sons Hippias and Hipparchos. However, in 510 BC, at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes, the Spartan king Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny. Afterwards, Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other, at which point Cleomenes I installed Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon. Eager to prevent Athens from becoming a Spartan puppet, Cleisthenes responded by proposing to his fellow citizens that Athens undergo a revolution: that all citizens share in political power, regardless of status: that Athens becomes a "democracy". So enthusiastically did the Athenians take to this idea that, having overthrown Isagoras and implemented Cleisthenes's reforms, they were easily able to repel a Spartan-led three-pronged invasion aimed at restoring Isagoras. The advent of the democracy cured many of the ills of Athens and led to a 'golden age' for the Athenians.



Classical Greece



5th century Athens and Sparta would soon have to become allies in the face of the largest external threat ancient Greece would see until the Roman conquest. After suppressing the Ionian Revolt, a rebellion of the Greek cities of Ionia, Darius I of Persia, King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, decided to subjugate Greece. His invasion in 490 BC was ended by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon under Miltiades the Younger.

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Xerxes I of Persia, son and successor of Darius I, attempted his own invasion 10 years later, but despite his larger army he suffered heavy casualties after the famous rearguard action at Thermopylae and victories for the allied Greeks at the Battles of Salamis and Plataea. The Greco-Persian Wars continued until 449 BC, led by the Athenians and their Delian League, during which time the Macedon, Thrace, the Aegean Islands and Ionia were all liberated from Persian influence.

The dominant position of the maritime Athenian 'Empire' threatened Sparta and the Peloponnesian League of mainland Greek cities. Inevitably, this led to conflict, resulting in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). Though effectively a stalemate for much of the war, Athens suffered a number of setbacks. The Plague of Athens in 430 BC followed by a disastrous military campaign known as the Sicilian Expedition severely weakened Athens. Around thirty per cent of the population died in a typhoid epidemic in 430-426 B.C..

Sparta was able to foment rebellion amongst Athens's allies, further reducing the Athenian ability to wage war. The decisive moment came in 405 BC when Sparta cut off the grain supply to Athens from the Hellespont. Forced to attack, the crippled Athenian fleet was decisively defeated by the Spartans under the command of Lysander at Aegospotami. In 404 BC Athens sued for peace, and Sparta dictated a predictably stern settlement: Athens lost her city walls (including the Long Walls), her fleet, and all of her overseas possessions. 

4th century Greece thus entered the 4th century under a Spartan hegemony, but it was clear from the start that this was weak. A demographic crisis meant Sparta was overstretched, and by 395 BC Athens, Argos, Thebes, and Corinth felt able to challenge Spartan dominance, resulting in the Corinthian War (395-387 BC).

Another war of stalemates, it ended with the status quo restored, after the threat of Persian intervention on behalf of the Spartans.

The Spartan hegemony lasted another 16 years, until, when attempting to impose their will on the Thebans, the Spartans suffered a decisive defeat at Leuctra in 371 BC. The Theban general Epaminondas then led Theban troops into the Peloponnese, whereupon other city-states defected from the Spartan cause. The Thebans were thus able to march into Messenia and free the population.

Deprived of land and its serfs, Sparta declined to a second-rank power.

The Theban hegemony thus established was short-lived; at the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BC, Thebes lost its key leader, Epaminondas, and much of its manpower, even though they were victorious in battle. In fact such were the losses to all the great city-states at Mantinea that none could establish dominance in the aftermath.

The weakened state of the heartland of Greece coincided with the Rise of Macedon, led by Philip II. In twenty years, Philip had unified his kingdom, expanded it north and west at the expense of Illyrian tribes, and then conquered Thessaly and Thrace. His success stemmed from his innovative reforms to the Macedon army.

Phillip intervened repeatedly in the affairs of the southern city-states, culminating in his invasion of 338 BC. Decisively defeating an allied army of Thebes and Athens at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), he became de factohegemon of all of Greece, except Sparta.

He compelled the majority of the city-states to join the League of Corinth, allying them to him, and preventing them from warring with each other. Philip then entered into war against the Achaemenid Empire but was assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis early on in the conflict.

Alexander, son and successor of Philip, continued the war. Alexander defeated Darius III of Persia and completely destroyed the Achaemenid Empire, annexing it to Macedon and earning himself the epithet 'the Great'. When Alexander died in 323 BC, Greek power and influence was at its zenith. However, there had

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been a fundamental shift away from the fierce independence and classical culture of the poleis—and instead towards the developing Hellenistic culture. 

Hellenistic Greece The Hellenistic period lasted from 323 BC, which marked the end of the Wars of Alexander the Great, to the annexation of Greece by the Roman Republic in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political independence.

During the Hellenistic period, the importance of "Greece proper" (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great centers of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria respectively.

The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek citystates. It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration, particularly of the young and ambitious, to the new Greek empires in the east. Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake, as far away as what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan, where the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdom survived until the end of the 1st century BC. After the death of Alexander his empire was, after quite some conflict, divided amongst his generals, resulting in the Ptolemaic Kingdom(based upon Egypt), the Seleucid Empire (based on the Levant, Mesopotamia and Persia) and the Antigonid dynasty based in Macedon. In the intervening period, the poleis of Greece were able to wrest back some of their freedom, although still nominally subject to the Macedonian Kingdom.

The city-states formed themselves into two leagues; the Achaean League (including Thebes, Corinth and Argos) and the Aetolian League (including Sparta and Athens). For much of the period until the Roman conquest, these leagues were usually at war with each other, and/or allied to different sides in the conflicts between the Diadochi (the successor states to Alexander's empire).

The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century. Although the First Macedonian War was inconclusive, the Romans, in typical fashion, continued to make war on Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic (by 149 BC). In the east the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated, although a rump survived until 64 BC, whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC, when it too was conquered by the Romans. The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece, and sided with the Seleucids in the Roman-Syrian War; when the Romans were victorious, the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic. Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon, it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC, bringing an end to the independence of all of Greece.

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Roman Greece The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule during the 146 BC conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. Macedonia became a Roman province while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia's prefect; however, some Greek poleis managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation.

The Aegean islands were added to this territory in 133 BC. Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC, and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general Sulla.

The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further, until Augustus organized the peninsula as the province of Achaea in 27 BC.

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Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire, as the Roman culture had long been in fact Greco-Roman. The Greek language served as a lingua franca in the East and in Italy, and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome. 

Regions The territory of Greece is mountainous, and as a result, ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions each with its own dialect, cultural peculiarities, and identity. Regionalism and regional conflicts was a prominent feature of ancient Greece. Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains, or on coastal plains, and dominated a certain area around them.

In the south lay the Peloponnese, itself consisting of the regions of Laconia (southeast), Messenia (southwest), Elis (west), Achaia (north), Korinthia (northeast), Argolis (east), and Arcadia (center). These names survive to the present day as regional units of modern Greece, though with somewhat different boundaries.

Mainland Greece to the north, nowadays known as Central Greece, consisted of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west,Locris, Doris, and Phocis in the center, while in the east lay Boeotia,Attica, and Megaris. Northeast lay Thessaly, while Epirus lay to the northwest. Epirus stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to theCeraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the north, and consisted ofChaonia (north), Molossia (center), and Thesprotia (south). In the northeast corner was Macedonia, originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions, such as Elimeia, Pieria, and Orestis. Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon, the Argead kings of Macedon started to expand into Upper Macedonia, lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the Elmiotae and to the West, beyond the Axius river, into Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, and Almopia, regions settled by Thracian tribes. To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north, the Thracians to the northeast, and the Illyrians, with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict, to the northwest.Chalcidice was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world, while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean, in Anatolia.

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Colonies During the Archaic period, the population of Greece grew beyond the capacity of its limited arable land (according to one estimate, the population of ancient Greece increased by a factor larger than ten during the period from 800 BC to 400 BC, increasing from a population of 800,000 to a total estimated population of 10 to 13 million).

From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. To the east, the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first, followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace, the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea. Eventually Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present day Ukraine and Russia (Taganrog). To the west the coasts of Illyria, Sicily and Southern Italy were settled, followed by Southern France, Corsica, and even northeastern Spain. Greek colonies were also founded in Egypt and Libya.

Modern Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae (Σσρακούσαι), Neapolis (Νεάπολις), Massalia (Μασσαλία) and Byzantion (Βσζάντιον). These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long-distance trading networks between the Greek city-states, boosting the economy of ancient Greece.

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Political structure History of citizenship § Ancient Greece Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred more or less independent citystates (poleis). This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies, which were either tribal or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories.

Undoubtedly the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains, and rivers—contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were "one people"; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. Furthermore, the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city-states by tribe. Yet, although these higher-level relationships existed, they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics. The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, the vast majority of poleisremained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.

Thus, the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were firstly, its fragmentary nature, and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin, and secondly, the particular focus on urban centres within otherwise tiny states. The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout the Mediterranean Sea, which, though they might count a certain Greek polis as their 'mother' (and remain sympathetic to her), were completely independent of the founding city.

Inevitably smaller poleis might be dominated by larger neighbours, but conquest or direct rule by another city-state appears to have been quite rare. Instead the poleis grouped themselves into leagues, membership of which was in a constant state of flux. Later in the Classical period, the leagues would become fewer and larger, be dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes); and often poleis would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). Even after Philip II of Macedon "conquered" the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory, or unify it into a new province, but simply compelled most of the poleis to join his own Corinthian League.

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Government and law Initially many Greek city-states seem to have been petty kingdoms; there was often a city official carrying some residual, ceremonial functions of the king (basileus), e.g. the archon basileus in Athens However, by the Archaic period and the first historical consciousness, most had already become aristocratic oligarchies.

It is unclear exactly how this change occurred. For instance, in Athens, the kingship had been reduced to a hereditary, lifelong chief magistracy (archon) by c. 1050 BC; by 753 BC this had become a decennial, elected archonship; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected archonship. Through each stage more power would have been transferred to the aristocracy as a whole, and away from a single individual.

Inevitably, the domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of families was apt to cause social unrest in many poleis. In many cities atyrant (not in the modern sense of repressive autocracies), would at some point seize control and govern according to their own will; often a populist agenda would help sustain them in power. In a system racked with class conflict, government by a 'strongman' was often the best solution.

Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century. When this tyranny was ended, the Athenians founded the world's first democracy as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power.

A citizens' assembly (the Ecclesia), for the discussion of city policy, had existed since the

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reforms of Draco in 621 BC; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of Solon (early 6th century), but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With the establishment of the democracy, the assembly became the de jure mechanism of government; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly. However, non-citizens, such as metics (foreigners living in Athens) or slaves, had no political rights at all.

After the rise of the democracy in Athens, other city-states founded democracies.

However, many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece, ruled through the whole period by not one, but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of diarchy.

The Kings of Sparta belonged to the Agiads and the Eurypontids, descendants respectively of Eurysthenes and Procles. Both dynasty founders were believed to be twin sons of Aristodemus, a Heraclid ruler. However, the powers of these kings were trammeled by both a council of elders (the Gerousia) and magistrates specifically appointed to watch over the kings (the Ephors). 

Social structure Only free, land owning, native-born men could be citizens entitled to the full protection of the law in a city-state (later Pericles introduced exceptions to the native-born restriction). In most city-states, unlike the situation in Rome, social prominence did not allow special rights. Sometimes families controlled public religious functions, but this ordinarily did not give any extra power in the government.

In Athens, the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth.

People could change classes if they made more money. In Sparta, all male citizens were given the title of equal if they finished their education. However, Spartan kings, who served as the city-state's dual military and religious leaders, came from two families.

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Slavery Slaves had no power or status. They had the right to have a family and own property, subject to their master's goodwill and permission, but they had no political rights. By 600 BC chattel slavery had spread in Greece. By the 5th century BC slaves made up one-third of the total population in some city-states. Between forty and eighty per cent of the population of Classical Athens were slaves. Slaves outside of Sparta almost never revolted because they were made up of too many nationalities and were too scattered to organize.

Most families owned slaves as household servants and labourers, and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome, freedmen did not become citizens. Instead, they were mixed into the population of metics, which included people from foreign countries or other city-states who were officially allowed to live in the state.

City-states legally owned slaves. These public slaves had a larger measure of independence than slaves owned by families, living on their own and performing specialized tasks. In Athens, public slaves were trained to look out for counterfeit coinage, while temple slaves acted as servants of the temple's deity and Scythian slaves were employed in Athens as a police force corralling citizens to political functions.

Sparta had a special type of slaves called helots. Helots were Messenians enslaved during the Messenian Wars by the state and assigned to families where they were forced to stay. Helots raised food and did household chores so that women could concentrate on raising strong children while men could devote their time to training as hoplites. Their masters treated them harshly (every Spartiate male had to kill a helot as a rite of passage), and helots often resorted to slave rebellions.

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Terms to define 1. innovation 2. besieged 3. archatic 4. flourishing 5. fleet 6. statesman 7. undisputed 8. unparalled 9. dramatist 10. serenity 11. regeneration 12. philosophy 13. underlying 14. genuine 15. systematic 16. tyranny 17. metaphysics 18. oracle Follow Up Questions 1. Explain the significance of the Minoan civilization in ancient Greek history.

2. Why is the period from 1000 B.C to 750 B.C called the Dark Age in ancient Greek history?

3. Describe the highlights of the Greek‘s Age. 4. In what manner did the city-state affect the way of government and politics of the ancient Greeks?

Activity 1. Write an essay on how the Greeks practiced their religion and how it affected their practice of sports.

2. Make groups of five members each. Each group will list five parallelisms or similarities between the democracy practices by the ancient Greeks and the democracy practiced today by democratic countries like the Philippines.

3. Research in the library about a Greek hero, leader, philosopher, or deity. Write a one-paragraph description of your chosen personality in your notebook, including his or her contributions to ancient Greek history and culture.

Lesson 7

Other Ancient Civilizations

For most of Greek history, education was private, except in Sparta. During the Hellenistic period, some city-states established public schools. Only wealthy families could afford a teacher. Boys learned how to read, write and quote literature. They also learned to sing and play one musical instrument and were trained as athletes for military service. They studied not for a job but to become an effective citizen. Girls also learned to read, write and do simple arithmetic so they could manage the household. They almost never received education after childhood.

Boys went to school at the age of seven, or went to the barracks, if they lived in Sparta. The three types of teachings were: grammatistes for arithmetic, kitharistes for music and dancing, and Paedotribae for sports.

Boys from wealthy families attending the private school lessons were taken care of by a paidagogos, a household slave selected for this task who accompanied the boy during the day. Classes were held in teachers' private houses and included reading, writing, mathematics, singing, and playing the lyre and flute. When the boy became 12 years old the Young Ji International School / College

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schooling started to include sports such as wrestling, running, and throwing discus and javelin. In Athens some older youths attended academy for the finer disciplines such as culture, sciences, music, and the arts. The schooling ended at age 18, followed by military training in the army usually for one or two years.

A small number of boys continued their education after childhood, as in the Spartan agoge. A crucial part of a wealthy teenager's education was a mentorship with an elder, which in a few places and times may have included pederastic love. The teenager learned by watching his mentor talking about politics in the agora, helping him perform his public duties, exercising with him in the gymnasium and attending symposia with him. The richest students continued their education by studying with famous teachers. Some of Athens' greatest such schools included the Lyceum (the so-called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia. 

Economy Economy of ancient Greece, Agriculture of ancient Greece and Slavery in ancient Greece At its economic height, in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, ancient Greece was the most advanced economy in the world. According to some economic historians, it was one of the most advanced preindustrial economies. This is demonstrated by the average daily wage of the Greek worker which was, in terms of wheat, about 12 kg. This was more than 3 times the average daily wage of an Egyptian worker during the Roman period, about 3.75 kg. 

Warfare Ancient Greek warfare and Army of Macedon At least in the Archaic Period, the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict but conversely limited the scale of warfare. Unable to maintain professional armies, the city-states relied on their own citizens to fight. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns, as citizens would need to return to their own professions (especially in the case of, for example, farmers).

Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. When battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, rarely amounting to more than 5% of the losing side, but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front.

The scale and scope of warfare in ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the Greco-Persian Wars. To fight the enormous armies of the Achaemenid Empire was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of city-states (the exact composition changing over time), allowing the pooling of resources and division of labour. Although alliances between city-states occurred before this time, nothing on this scale had been seen before. The rise of Athens and Sparta as pre-eminent powers during this conflict led directly to the Peloponnesian War, which saw further development of the nature of warfare, strategy and tactics. Fought between leagues of cities dominated by Athens and Sparta, the increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale, and allowed the diversification of warfare. Set-piece battles during the Peloponnesian war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on attritionary strategies, naval battle and blockades and sieges. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society. Athens owned one of the largest war fleets in ancient Greece. It had over 200 triremes each powered by 170 oarsmen who were seated in 3 rows on each side of the ship. The city could afford such a large fleet-it had over 34,000 oars menbecause it owned a lot of silver mines that were worked by slaves. 

Philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. In many ways, it had an important influence on modern philosophy, as well as modern science. Clear Young Ji International School / College

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unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and Islamic scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day.

Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Greeks. Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization.

Some well-known philosophers of ancient Greece were Plato, Socrates, and many others. They have aided in information about ancient Greek society through writings such as The Republic, by Plato. 

Literature and theatre Ancient Greek society placed considerable emphasis upon literature. Many authors consider the western literary tradition to have begun with the epic poems The Iliadand The Odyssey, which remain giants in the literary canon for their skillful and vivid depictions of war and peace, honor and disgrace, love and hatred. Notable among later Greek poets was Sappho, who defined, in many ways, lyric poetry as a genre.

A playwright named Aeschylus changed Western literature forever when he introduced the ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting. In doing so, he essentially invented "drama": his Oresteia trilogy of plays is seen as his crowning achievement. Other refiners of playwriting were Sophocles and Euripides. Sophocles is credited with skillfully developing irony as a literary technique, most famously in his play Oedipus the King. Euripedes, conversely, used plays to challenge societal norms and mores—a hallmark of much of Western literature for the next 2,300 years and beyond—and his works such as Medea, The Bacchae and The Trojan Women are still notable for their ability to challenge our perceptions of propriety, gender, and war. Aristophanes, a comic playwright, defines and shapes the idea of comedy almost as Aeschylus had shaped tragedy as an art form—Aristophanes' most famous plays include the Lysistrata and The Frogs.

Philosophy entered literature in the dialogues of Plato, who converted the give and take of Socratic questioning into written form. Aristotle, Plato's student, wrote dozens of works on many scientific disciplines, but his greatest contribution to literature was likely his Poetics, which lays out his understanding of drama, and thereby establishes the first criteria for literary criticism. 

Music and dance Music was present almost universally in Greek society, from marriages and funerals to religious ceremonies, theatre, folk music and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry. There are significant fragments of actual Greek musical notation as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music. Greek art depicts musical instruments and dance. The word music derives from the name of the Muses, the daughters of Zeus who were patron goddesses of the arts. 

Science and technology Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field ofmathematics, including the basic rules of geometry, the idea of formal mathematical proof, and discoveries in number theory, mathematical analysis, applied mathematics, and approached close to establishing integral calculus. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes, are still used in mathematical teaching today.

The Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system. Archimedes in his treatise The Sand Reckoner revives Young Ji International School / College

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Aristarchus' hypothesis that "the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, while the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle". Otherwise, only fragmentary descriptions of Aristarchus' idea survive.[28]Eratosthenes, using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy. In the 2nd century BC Hipparchus of Nicea made a number of contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of apparent magnitudes.

The Antikythera mechanism, a device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 BC, and was the first ancestor of the astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica.

The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field.

Hippocrates was a physician of the Classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "father of medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably theory and philosophy), thus making medicine a profession.[33][34] 

Art and architecture The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco-Buddhist art, with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the western world. 

Religion and mythology Greek mythology consists of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world and the origins and significance of their religious practices. The main Greek gods were the twelve Olympians, Zeus, his wife Hara, Poseidon, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Athena, Apollo,Artemis, Demeter, and Dionysus.

Other important deities included Hebe, Hades,Helios, Hestia, Persephone and Heracles.

Zeus's parents were Cronus and Rhea who also were the parents of Poseidon, Hades, Hera, Hestia, and Demeter. 

Legacy The civilization of ancient Greece has been immensely influential on language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, and the arts. It became the Leitkultur of the Roman Empire to the point of marginalizing native Italic traditions. As Horace put it, Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes / intulit agresti Latio (Epistulae 2.1.156f.)

"Captive Greece took captive her fierce conqueror and instilled her arts in rustic Latium."

Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture came to be foundational to Western culture in general. The Byzantine Empire inherited Classical Greek culture directly, without Latin intermediation, and the preservation of classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition further exerted strong influence on the Slavs and later on the Islamic Golden Age and the Western European Renaissance. A modern revival of Classical Greek learning Young Ji International School / College

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took place in the Neoclassicism movement in 18th- and 19th-century Europe and the Americas. 

Civilization A civilization (or civilisation in British English) most broadly is any complex state society characterized by a social hierarchy, symbolic communication forms (typically, writing systems), and a perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment. Civilizations are intimately associated with and often further defined by other socio-politico-economic characteristics, including urbanization (or the development of cities), centralization, the domestication of both humans and other organisms, specialization of labor, culturally ingrained ideologies of progress and supremacism, monumentalarchitecture,taxation, societal dependence upon agriculture, and expansionism. Historically, a civilization was an "advanced" culture in contrast to more supposedly barbarian, savage, or primitive cultures. More neutrally, civilization is contrasted with ancient, less stratified societal models, including the cultures of hunter-gatherers, nomadic pastoralists, tribal villagers, and band societies.

Civilizations are organized in densely populated settlements divided into hierarchical social classes with a ruling elite and subordinate urban and rural populations, which, by the engagement in intensive agriculture, mining, small-scale manufacture and trade. Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings.

The emergence of civilization is generally associated with the final stages of the Neolithic Revolution, a slow cumulative process occurring independently over many locations between 10,000 and 3,000 BCE, culminating in the relatively rapid process of state formation, a political development associated with the appearance of a governing elite. This neolithic technology and lifestyle was established first in the Middle East (for example at GÜbekli Tepe, from about 9,130 BCE), and Yangtze and later in the Yellow river basin in China (for example the Pengtoushan culture from 7,500 BCE), and later spread. But similar "revolutions" also began independently from 9,000 years ago in such places as the Norte Chico civilization in Peru and Mesoamerica at the Balsas River. These were among the six civilizations worldwide that arose independently. The neolithic revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of sedentarism, the domestication of grains and animals and the development lifestyles which allowed economies of scale and the accumulation of surplus production by certain social sectors. The transition from "complex chieftains" to "civilisations", while still disputed, seems to be associated with the development of state structures, in which power was further monopolised by an elite Towards the end of the Neolithic period, various Chalcolithic civilizations began to rise in various "cradles" from around 3300 BCE. Chalcolithic Civilizations, as defined above, also developed in Pre-Columbian Americas and, despite an early start in Egypt, Axum and Kush, much later in Iron Age sub-Saharan Africa. The Bronze Age collapse was followed by the Iron Age around 1200 BCE, during which a number of new civilizations emerged, culminating in the Axial Age transition to Classical civilization. A major technological and cultural transition to modernity began approximately 1500 CE in Western Europe, and from these beginning new approaches to science and law spread rapidly around the world. 

History of the concept The word civilization comes from the Latin civilis, meaning civil, related to the Latin civis, meaning citizen, and civitas, meaning city or city-state. Adjectives such as English "civility" developed from this root, but during the 18th century Enlightenment a verb "civilize" came to be commonly used, leading to a new word "civilization" to describe the result. This was used first by authors writing about national and personal improvement such as Victor Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau in France, and Adam Ferguson in Scotland who in his 1767 Essay on the History of Civil Society wrote that, "Not only the individual advances from infancy to manhood, but the species itself from rudeness to civilisation. The word was therefore opposed to barbarism or rudeness, but the thinking behind the new word was Young Ji International School / College

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connected to modernism's active pursuit of progress and enlightenment. As such it has always been coloured by Social Darwinist assumptions about superiority and inferiority.

In the late 1700s and early 1800s, both during the French revolution, and in English, "civilization" was referred to in the singular, never the plural, because it referred to the progress of humanity as a whole. This is still the case in French. More recently however, "civilizations" (the plural) is sometimes used as a synonym for the broader term "cultures" (defined as "the arts, customs, habits... beliefs, values, behaviour and material habits that constitute a people's way of life") in both popular and academic circles. Using the terms "civilization" and "culture" as equivalents is controversial and not generally accepted, so that for example some types of culture are not normally described as civilizations.

Already in the 18th century civilization was not always seen as an improvement. One historically important distinction between culture and civilization stems from the writings of Rousseau, and particularly his work concerning education, Emile. In this perspective, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accordance with human nature, and "human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original prediscursive or rational natural unity". (See noble savage.) From this notion, a new approach was developed especially in Germany, first by Johann Gottfried Herder, and later by philosophers such as Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. This sees cultures (plural) as natural organisms which are not defined by "conscious, rational, deliberative acts" but rather a kind of pre-rational "folk spirit". Civilization, in contrast, though more rational and more successful concerning material progress, is seen as un-natural, and leads to "vices of social life" such as guile, hypocrisy, envy, and avarice. During World War II, Leo Strauss, having fled Germany, argued in New York that this approach to civilization was behind Nazism and German militarism and nihilism.

In his book The Philosophy of Civilization, Albert Schweitzer outlined the idea that there are dual opinions within society: one regards civilization as purely material and another regarding civilization as both ethical and material. He stated that the current world crisis was, then in 1923, due to a humanity having lost the ethical conception of civilization. In this same work, he defined civilization, saying that it "is the sum total of all progress made by man in every sphere of action and from every point of view in so far as the progress helps towards the spiritual perfecting of individuals as the progress of all progress." 

Characteristics Social scientists such as V. Gordon Childe have named a number of traits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society. Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, literacy, and other cultural traits.

All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence. Grain farms can result in accumulated storage and a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as artificial fertilisation, irrigation and crop rotation. It is possible but more difficult to accumulate horticultural production, and so civilisations based on horticultural gardening have been very rare. Grain surpluses have been especially important because they can be stored for a long time. A surplus of food permits some people to do things besides produce food for a living: early civilizations included soldiers, artisans, priests and priestesses, and other people with specialized careers. A surplus of food results in a division of labor and a more diverse range of human activity, a defining trait of civilizations. However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture. It is possible that food surpluses and relatively large scale social organization and division of labor predate plant and animal domestication.

Civilizations have distinctly different settlement patterns from other societies. The word civilization is sometimes simply defined as "'living in cities'".Non-farmers tend to gather in cities to work and to trade.

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Compared with other societies, civilizations have a more complex political structure, namely the state] State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes. The ruling class, normally concentrated in the cities, has control over much of the surplus and exercises its will through the actions of a government or bureaucracy. Morton Fried, a conflict theorist, and Elman Service, an integration theorist, have classified human cultures based on political systems and social inequality. This system of classification contains four categories  Hunter-gatherer bands, which are generally egalitarian.  Horticultural/pastoral societies in which there are generally two inherited social classes; chief and commoner.  Highly stratified structures, or chiefdoms, with several inherited social classes: king, noble, freemen, serf and slave.  Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.

Economically, civilizations display more complex patterns of ownership and exchange than less organized societies. Living in one place allows people to accumulate more personal possessions than nomadic people. Some people also acquire landed property, or private ownership of the land. Because a percentage of people in civilizations do not grow their own food, they must trade their goods and services for food in a market system, or receive food through the levy of tribute, redistributive taxation, tariffs or tithes from the food producing segment of the population.

Early human cultures functioned through a gift economy supplemented by limited barter systems. By the early Iron Age contemporary civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for increasingly complex transactions. To oversimplify, in a village the potter makes a pot for the brewer and the brewer compensates the potter by giving him a certain amount of beer. In a city, the potter may need a new roof, the roofer may need new shoes, the cobbler may need new horseshoes, the blacksmith may need a new coat, and the tanner may need a new pot. These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time. A monetary system is a way of organizing these obligations to ensure that they are fulfilled. From the days of the earliest monetarised civilisations, monopolistic controls of monetary systems have benefited the social and political elites.

Writing, developed first by people in Sumer, is considered a hallmark of civilization and "appears to accompany the rise of complex administrative bureaucracies or the conquest state. Traders and bureaucrats relied on writing to keep accurate records. Like money, writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other.

However, writing is not always necessary for civilization. The Inca civilization of the Andes did not use writing at all but it uses a complex recording system consisting of cords and nodes instead: the "Quipus", and it still functioned as a society.

Aided by their division of labor and central government planning, civilizations have developed many other diverse cultural traits. These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science and technology.

Through history, successful civilizations have spread, taking over more and more territory, and assimilating more and more previously-uncivilized people. Nevertheless, some tribes or people remain uncivilized even to this day. These cultures are called by some "primitive," a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. "Primitive" implies in some way that a culture is "first" (Latin = primus), that it has not changed since the dawn of humanity, though this has been demonstrated not to be true. Specifically, as all of today's cultures are contemporaries, today's so-called primitive cultures are in no way antecedent to those we consider civilized. Anthropologists today use the term "non-literate" to describe these peoples.

Civilization has been spread by colonization, invasion, religious conversion, the extension of bureaucratic control and trade, and by introducing agriculture and writing to Young Ji International School / College

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non-literate peoples. Some non-civilized people may willingly adapt to civilized behaviour.

But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominance that civilization engenders.

Assessments of what level of civilization a polity has reached are based on comparisons of the relative importance of agricultural as opposed to trade or manufacturing capacities, the territorial extensions of its power, the complexity of its division of labor, and the carrying capacity of its urban centres. Secondary elements include a developed transportation system, writing, standardized measurement, currency, contractual and tortbased legal systems, art, architecture, mathematics, scientific understanding, metallurgy, political structures, and organized religion.

Traditionally, polities that managed to achieve notable military, ideological and economic power defined themselves as "civilized" as opposed to other societies or human grouping which lay outside their sphere of influence, calling the latter barbarians, savages, and primitives, while in a modern-day context, "civilized people" have been contrasted with indigenous people or tribal societies. 

Cultural identity "Civilization" can also refer to the culture of a complex society, not just the society itself. Every society, civilization or not, has a specific set of ideas and customs, and a certain set of manufactures and arts that make it unique. Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including a state-based decision making apparatus, a literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion, and complex customs of education, coercion and control associated with maintaining the elite.

The intricate culture associated with civilization has a tendency to spread to and influence other cultures, sometimes assimilating them into the civilization (a classic example being Chinese civilization and its influence on nearby civilizations such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam). Many civilizations are actually large cultural spheres containing many nations and regions. The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity.

Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as discrete units. Early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler, uses the German word "Kultur," "culture," for what many call a "civilization". Spengler believes a civilization's coherence is based on a single primary cultural symbol. Cultures experience cycles of birth, life, decline, and death, often supplanted by a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol. Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as, "...the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable."

This "unified culture" concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian Arnold J. Toynbee in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization processes in his multi-volume A Study of History, which traced the rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five "arrested civilizations." Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a "creative minority", through moral or religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes. 

Complex systems Another group of theorists, making use of systems theory, looks at a civilization as a complex system, i.e., a framework by which a group of objects can be analyzed that work in concert to produce some result. Civilizations can be seen as networks of cities that emerge from pre-urban cultures, and are defined by the economic, political, military, diplomatic, social, and cultural interactions among them. Any organization is a complex social system, and a civilization is a large organization. Systems theory helps guard against superficial but misleading analogies in the study and description of civilizations.

Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges, and political/diplomatic/military relations. These spheres often Young Ji International School / College

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occur on different scales. For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensive trade routes, including the Silk Road through Central Asia and Indian Ocean sea routes linking the Roman Empire, Persian Empire, India, and China, were well established 2000 years ago, when these civilizations scarcely shared any political, diplomatic, military, or cultural relations. The first evidence of such long distance trade is in the ancient world. During the Uruk period Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan. Resin found later in the Royal Tombs of Ur it is suggested was traded northwards from Mozambique.

Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single "world system", a process known as globalization. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began, and what sort of integration – cultural, technological, economic, political, or military-diplomatic – is the key indicator in determining the extent of a civilization. David Wilkinson has proposed that economic and military-diplomatic integration of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations resulted in the creation of what he calls the "Central Civilization" around 1500 BCE. Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century. According to Wilkinson, civilizations can be culturally heterogeneous, like the Central Civilization, or homogeneous, like the Japanese civilization. What Huntington calls the "clash of civilizations" might be characterized by Wilkinson as a clash of cultural spheres within a single global civilization. Others point to the Crusades as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies have expanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recent European colonialism. 

Origins of civilization Historically civilizations were assumed by writers such as Aristotle to be the natural state of humanity, so no origin for the Greek polis was considered to be needed. The Sumerian King List for instance, sees the origin of their civilization as descending from heaven. However the great age of maritime discovery exposed the states of Western Europe to hunter-gatherer and simple horticultural cultures that were not civilized. To explain the differences observed, early theorists turned to racist theories of cultural superiority, theories of geographic determinism, or accidents of culture. After the Second World War these theories were rejected on various grounds, and other explanations sought. Four schools have developed in the modern period.

1. Theories of voluntary development 2. Theories of coercive militarism 3. Carniero's theory of environmental circumscription[ 4. Claesson's Complex Interaction Model (CIM) Early civilizations 

The Neolithic Era The process of sedentarization is first thought to have occurred around 12,000 BCE in the Levant region of southwest Asia though other regions around the world soon followed.

The emergence of civilization is generally associated with the Neolithic, or Agricultural Revolution, which occurred in various locations between 8,000 and 5,000 BCE, specifically in southwester/southern Asia, northern/central Africa and Central America. At first the Neolithic was associated with shifting subsistence cultivation, where continuous farming led to the depletion of soil fertility resulting in the requirement to cultivate fields further and further removed from the settlement, eventually compelling the settlement itself to move. In major semi-arid river valleys, annual flooding renewed soil fertility to be renewed yearly, with the result that population densities could rise significantly. This encouraged a "secondary Young Ji International School / College

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products revolution" where domesticated animals became useful for more than meat production; being used also for milk, wool, and animal traction of ploughs and carts. The 8.2 Kiloyear Arid Event and the 5.9 Kiloyear Interpluvial saw the drying out of semiarid regions and a major spread of deserts. This climate change shifted the cost-benefit ratio of endemic violence between communities, which saw the abandonment of unwalled village communities and the appearance of walled cities, associated with the first civilisations. This "urban revolution" marked the beginning of stable agriculture and animal domestication which enabled economies and cities to develop. It was associated with the state monopoly and violence, the appearance of a soldier class and endemic warfare, rapid development of hierarchies and a fall in the status of women.

The Bronze Age 

The Iron Age The Iron Age is the period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles. The Iron Age as an archaeological term indicates the condition as to civilization and culture of a people using iron as the material for their cutting tools and weapons. The Iron Age is the third principal period of the three-age system created by Christian Thomsen (1788–1865) for classifying ancient societies and prehistoric stages of progress.

Karl Jaspers, the German historical philosopher, proposed that the ancient civilizations were affected greatly by an Axial Age in the period between 800 BCE–200 BCE during which a series of male sages, prophets, religious reformers and philosophers, from China, India, Iran, Israel and Greece, changed the direction of civilizations. William Hardy McNeill proposed that this period of history was one in which culture contact between previously separate civilizations saw the "closure of the oecumene", and led to accelerated social change from China to the Mediterranean, associated with the spread of coinage, larger empires and new religions. This view has recently been championed by Christopher Chase-Dunn and other world systems theorists.

Medieval to Early Modern 

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Ibn Khaldūn's Muqaddimah influenced theories of the analysis, growth and decline of the Islamic civilization He suggested repeated invasions from nomadic people‘s limited development and led to social collapse.

Edward Gibbon's work The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was a wellknown and detailed analysis of the fall of Roman civilization. Gibbon suggested the final act of the collapse of Rome was the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. For Gibbon:

The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness.

Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the cause of the destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest; and, as soon as time or accident had removed the artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure of its own weight. The story of the ruin is simple and obvious; and instead of inquiring why the Roman Empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it has subsisted for so long.[Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 2nd ed., vol. 4, ed. by J. B. Bury (London, 1909), pp. 173–174.-Chapter XXXVIII: Reign Of Clovis.--Part VI. General Observations On The Fall Of The Roman Empire In The West.] 

Theodor Mommsen in his "History of Rome (Mommsen)", suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and he also

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tended towards a biological analogy of "genesis," "growth," "senescence," "collapse" and "decay."

Oswald Spengler, in his "Decline of the West" rejected Petrarch' chronological division, and suggested that there had been only eight "mature civilizations." Growing cultures, he argued, tend to develop into imperialistic civilizations which expand and ultimately collapse, with democratic forms of government ushering in plutocracy and ultimately imperialism.

Arnold J. Toynbee in his "A Study of History" suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen. The cause of the fall of a civilization occurred when a cultural elite became a parasitic elite, leading to the rise of internal and external proletariats.

Joseph Tainter in "The Collapse of Complex Societies" suggested that there were diminishing returns to complexity, due to which, as states achieved a maximum permissible complexity, they would decline when further increases actually produced a negative return. Tainter suggested that Rome achieved this figure in the 2nd century CE. Jared Diamond in his 2005 book "Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed" suggests five major reasons for the collapse of 41 studied cultures: environmental damage, such as deforestation and soil erosion; climate change; dependence upon long-distance trade for needed resources; increasing levels of internal and external violence, such as war or invasion; and societal responses to internal and environmental problems.

Peter Turchin in his Historical Dynamics and Andrey Korotayev et al. in their Introduction to Social Macrodynamics, Secular Cycles, and Millennial Trends suggest a number of mathematical models describing collapse of agrarian civilizations. For example, the basic logic of Turchin's "fiscal-demographic" model can be outlined as follows: during the initial phase of a sociodemographic cycle we observe relatively high levels of per capita production and consumption, which leads not only to relatively high population growth rates, but also to relatively high rates of surplus production. As a result, during this phase the population can afford to pay taxes without great problems, the taxes are quite easily collectible, and the population growth is accompanied by the growth of state revenues. During the intermediate phase, the increasing overpopulation leads to the decrease of per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state. As a result, during this phase the state starts experiencing considerable fiscal problems. During the final pre-collapse phases the overpopulation leads to further decrease of per capita production, the surplus production further decreases, state revenues shrink, but the state needs more and more resources to control the growing (though with lower and lower rates) population. Eventually this leads to famines, epidemics, state breakdown, and demographic and civilization collapse (Peter Turchin. Historical Dynamics. Princeton University Press, 2003:121–127; Andrey Korotayev et al. Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences, 2006).

Peter Heather argues in his book The Fall of the Roman Empire: a New History of Rome and the Barbarians[44] that this civilization did not end for moral or economic reasons, but because centuries of contact with barbarians across the frontier generated its own nemesis by making them a much more sophisticated and dangerous adversary. The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire. Although this argument is specific to Rome, it can also be applied to the Asiatic Empire of the Egyptians, to the Han and Tang dynasties of China, to the Muslim Abbasid Caliphate, and others.

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Bryan Ward-Perkins, in his book The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization,[45] shows the real horrors associated with the collapse of a civilization for the people who suffer its effects, unlike many revisionist historians who downplay this. The collapse of complex society meant that even basic plumbing disappeared from the continent for 1,000 years. Similar Dark Age collapses are seen with the Late Bronze Age collapse in the Eastern Mediterranean, the collapse of the Maya, on Easter Island and elsewhere.

Arthur Demarest argues in Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization, using a holistic perspective to the most recent evidence from archaeology, paleo ecology, and epigraphy, that no one explanation is sufficient but that a series of erratic, complex events, including loss of soil fertility, drought and rising levels of internal and external violence led to the disintegration of the courts of Mayan kingdoms which began a spiral of decline and decay. He argues that the collapse of the Maya has lessons for civilization today.

Jeffrey A. McNeely has recently suggested that "A review of historical evidence shows that past civilizations have tended to over-exploit their forests, and that such abuse of important resources has been a significant factor in the decline of the overexploiting society."

Thomas Homer-Dixon in "The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of Civilization", considers that the fall in the energy return on investments; the energy expended to energy yield ratio, is central to limiting the survival of civilizations. The degree of social complexity is associated strongly, he suggests, with the amount of disposable energy environmental, economic and technological systems allow. When this amount decreases civilizations either have to access new energy sources or they will collapse.

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Future Political scientist Samuel Huntington has argued that the defining characteristic of the 21st century will be a clash of civilizations. According to Huntington, conflicts between civilizations will supplant the conflicts between nation-states and ideologies that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries. These views have been strongly challenged by others like Edward Said, Muhammed Asadi and Amartya Sen. Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris have argued that the "true clash of civilizations" between the Muslim world and the West is caused by the Muslim rejection of the West's more liberal sexual values, rather than a difference in political ideology, although they note that this lack of tolerance is likely to lead to an eventual rejection of (true) democracy. In Identity and Violence Sen Questions if people should be divided along the lines of a supposed 'civilization', defined by religion and culture only. He argues that this ignores the many others identities that make up people and leads to a focus on differences.

Some environmental scientists see the world entering a Planetary Phase of Civilization, characterized by a shift away from independent, disconnected nation-states to a world of increased global connectivity with worldwide institutions, environmental challenges, economic systems, and consciousness. In an attempt to better understand what a Planetary Phase of Civilization might look like in the current context of declining natural resources and increasing consumption, the Global scenario group used scenario analysis to arrive at three archetypal futures: Barbarization, in which increasing conflicts result in either a fortress world or complete societal breakdown; Conventional Worlds, in which market forces or Policy reform slowly precipitate more sustainable practices; and a Great Transition, in which either the sum of fragmented Eco-Communalism movements add up to a sustainable world or globally coordinated efforts and initiatives result in a new sustainability paradigm.

Cultural critic and author Derrick Jensen argues that modern civilization is directed towards the domination of the environment and humanity itself in an intrinsically harmful, unsustainable, and self-destructive fashion. Defending his definition both linguistically and historically, he defines civilization as "a culture... that both leads to and emerges from the Young Ji International School / College

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growth of cities," with "cities" defined as "people living more or less permanently in one place in densities high enough to require the routine importation of food and other necessities of life." This need for civilizations to import ever more resources, he argues, stems from their over-exploitation and diminution of their own local resources. Therefore, civilizations inherently adopt imperialist and expansionist policies and, in order to maintain these, highly militarized, hierarchically structured, and coercion-based cultures and lifestyles.

The Kardashev scale classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently known to exist (see also: Civilizations and the Future, Space civilization).

Terms to Identify 1. ecological 2. animism 3. polytheistic 4. untouchable 5. ascetic 6. divination 7. predominant 8. incarnation 9. karma 10. enlightenment 11. nirvana 12. reincarnation 13. caste system 14. discontent 15. mediation 16. yoga 17. archives Follow up Questions 1. What role did the Aryans have in the early history of the Indus valley? Explain 2. Elaborate on the most important beliefs in Hinduism.

3. In what way is Judaism related to Christianity as religion?

4. How is the contribution of the Chin Dynasty marked in ancient Chinese history?

Lesson 8

The Macedonian Empire and the Hellenistic

Macedonia or Macedon (/ˈmæsɪˌdɒn/; Greek: Μακεδονία, Makedonía;Ancient: maa kedon .aa ) was an ancient Greek[2][3] kingdom. Centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, the kingdom was bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south. The rise of Macedon, from a small kingdom at the periphery of Classical Greek affairs, to one which came to dominate the entire Hellenic world, occurred under the reign of Philip II. For a brief period, after the conquests of Alexander the Great, it became the most powerful state in the world, controlling a territory that included the former Persian empire, stretching as far as the Indus River; at that time it inaugurated the Hellenistic period of Ancient Greek civilization. 

Name The name Macedonia (Greek: Μακεδονία, Makedonía) comes from the ancient Greek word μακεδνός (Makednos). It is commonly explained as having originally meant "a tall one" or "highlander", possibly descriptive of the people. The shorter English name

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variant Macedon developed in Middle English, based on a borrowing from the French form of the name,Macédoine. 

Early history and legend The lands around Aegae, the first Macedonian capital, were home to various peoples. Macedonia was called Emathia (from king Emathion) and the city of Aiges was called Edessa, the capital of fabled king Midas in his youth. In approximately 650 BC, the Argeads, an ancient Greek royal house led by Perdiccas I established their palacecapital at Aegae.

It seems that the first Macedonian state emerged in the 8th or early 7th century BC under the Argead Dynasty, who, according to legend, migrated to the region from the Greek city of Argos in Peloponnesus (thus the name Argead). Herodotus mentions this founding myth when Alexander I was asked to prove his Greek descent in order to participate in theOlympic Games, an athletic event in which only men of Greek origin were entitled to participate. Alexander proved his (Argead) descent and was allowed to compete by the Hellanodikai: ―And that these descendants of Perdiccas are Greeks, as they themselves say, I happen to know myself, and not only so, but I will prove in the succeeding history that they are Greeks. Moreover the Hellanodicai, who manage the games at Olympia, decided that they were so: for when Alexander wished to contend in the games and had descended for this purpose into the arena, the Greeks who were to run against him tried to exclude him, saying that the contest was not for Barbarians to contend in but for Greeks: since however Alexander proved that he was of Argos, he was judged to be a Greek, and when he entered the contest of the foot-race his lot came out with that of the first." The Macedonian tribe ruled by the Argeads, was itself called Argead (which translates as "descended from Argos").

Other founding myths served other agenda: according to Justin's, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Caranus, accompanied by a multitude of Greeks came to the area in search for a new homeland [11] took Edessa and renamed it Aegae.

Subsequently, he expelled Midas and other kings and formed his new kingdom. Conversely, according to Herodotus, it was Dorus, the son of Hellen who led his people to Histaeotis, whence they were driven off by the Cadmeians into Pindus, where they settled as Macedonians. Later, a branch would migrate further south to be called Dorians.

The kingdom was situated in the fertile alluvial plain, watered by the rivers Haliacmon and Axius, called Lower Macedonia, north of the mountain Olympus.

Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon, the Argead Macedonians started to expand into Upper Macedonia, lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the Elmiotae and to the West, beyond Axius river, into Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, and Almopia, regions settled by, among others, many Thracian tribesTo the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north, the Thracians to the northeast, and the Illyrians, with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict, to the northwest. To the south lay Thessaly, with whose inhabitants the Macedonians had much in common both culturally and politically, while to west lay Epirus, with whom the Macedonians had a peaceful relationship and in the 4th century BC formed an alliance against Illyrian raids.

Near the modern city of Veria, Perdiccas I (or, more likely, his son, Argaeus I) built his capital, Aigai (modern Vergina). After a brief period under Persian rule under Darius Hystaspes, the state regained its independence under King Alexander I (495–450 BC). In the Peloponnesian War Macedon was a secondary power that alternated in support between Sparta and Athens.

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Macedon during the Peloponnesian War around 431 BC. Involvement in the Classical Greek world Prior to the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region approximately corresponding to the Western and Central parts of province of Macedonia in modern Greece. A unified Macedonian state was eventually established by King Amyntas III (c. 393–370 BC), though it still retained strong contrasts between the cattle-rich coastal plain and the fierce isolated tribal hinterland, allied to the king by marriage ties. They controlled the passes through which barbarian invasions came from Illyria to the north and northwest.

It became increasingly Atticised during this period, though prominent Athenians appear to have regarded the Macedonians as uncouth. Before the establishment of the League of Corinth, even though the Macedonians apparently spoke a dialect of the Greek language and claimed proudly that they were Greeks, they were not considered to fully share the classical Greek culture by many of the inhabitants of the southern city states, because they did not share the polis based style of government.

Herodotus, one of the foremost biographers in antiquity who lived in Greece at the time when the Macedonian king Alexander I was in power, recorded: "And that these descendants of Perdiccas are Hellenes, as they themselves say, I happen to know myself, and not only so, but I will prove in the succeeding history that they are Hellenes. Moreover the Hellanodikai, who manage the games at Olympia, decided that they were so: for when Alexander wished to contend in the games and had descended for this purpose into the arena, the Hellenes who were to run against him tried to exclude him, saying that the contest was not for Barbarians to contend in but for Hellenes: since however Alexander proved that he was of Argos, he was judged to be a Hellene, and when he entered the contest of the foot-race his lot came out with that of the first."

Over the 4th century Macedon became more politically involved with the southcentral city-states of Ancient Greece, but it also retained more archaic features like the palace-culture, first at Aegae (modern Vergina) then at Pella, resemblingMycenaean culture more than classic Hellenic city-states, and other archaic customs, like Philip's multiple wives in addition to his Epirote queen Olympias, mother of Alexander.

Another archaic remnant was the very persistence of a hereditary monarchy which wielded formidable – sometimes absolute – power, although this was at times checked by the landed aristocracy, and often disturbed by power struggles within the royal family itself.

This contrasted sharply with the Greek cultures further south, where the ubiquitous citystates mostly possessed aristocratic or democratic institutions; the de facto monarchy of tyrants, in which heredity was usually more of an ambition rather than the accepted rule; and the limited, predominantly military and sacerdotal, power of the twin hereditary Spartan kings. The same might have held true of feudal institutions like serfdom, which may have persisted in Macedon well into historical times. Such institutions were abolished by city-states well before Macedon's rise (most notably by the Athenian legislator Solon's famous ζειζάχθεια seisachtheia laws). 

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Rise of Macedon Amyntas had three sons; the first two, Alexander II and Perdiccas III reigned only briefly. Perdiccas III's infant heir was deposed by Amyntas' third son, Philip II of Macedon, who made himself king and ushered in a period of Macedonian dominance in Greece. Under Philip II, (359–336 BC), Macedon expanded into the territory of the Paeonians, Thracians,

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and Illyrians. Among other conquests, he annexed the regions of Pelagonia and Southern Paeonia.

Philip redesigned the Macedon adding a number of variations to the traditional hoplite force to make it far more effective. He added the hetairoi, a well armored heavy cavalry, and more light infantry, both of which added greater flexibility and responsiveness to the force. He also lengthened the spear and shrank the shield of the main infantry force, increasing its offensive capabilities.

Philip began to rapidly expand the borders of his kingdom. He first campaigned in the north against non-Greek peoples such as the Illyrians, securing his northern border and gaining much prestige as a warrior. He next turned east, to the territory along the northern shore of the Aegean. The most important city in this area was Amphiboles, which controlled the way into Thrace and also was near valuable silver mines. This region had been part of the Athenian Empire, and Athens still considered it as in their sphere. The Athenians attempted to curb the growing power of Macedonia, but were limited by the outbreak of the Social War. They could also do little to halt Philip when he turned his armies south and took over most of Thessaly.

Control of Thessaly meant Philip was now closely involved in the politics of central Greece.

356 BC saw the outbreak of the Third Sacred War that pitted Phocis against Thebes and its allies. Thebes recruited the Macedonians to join them and at the Battle of Crocus Field Phillip decisively defeated Phocis and its Athenian allies. As a result Macedonia became the leading state in the Amphictyonic League and Phillip became head of the Pythian Games, firmly putting the Macedonian leader at the centre of the Greek political world.

In the continuing conflict with Athens Philip marched east through Thrace in an attempt to capture Byzantium and the Bosphorus, thus cutting off the Black Sea grain supply that provided Athens with much of its food. The siege of Byzantium failed, but Athens realized the grave danger the rise of Macedon presented and under Demosthenes built a coalition of many of the major states to oppose the Macedonians. Most importantly Thebes, which had the strongest ground force of any of the city states, joined the effort. The allies met the Macedonians at the Battle of Chaeronea and were decisively defeated, leaving Philip and the Macedonians the unquestioned master of Greece.

Empire Philip's son, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), managed to briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states by becoming Hegemon of the League of Corinth (also known as the "Hellenic League"), but also to the Persian empire, including Egypt and lands as far east as the fringes of India. Alexander helped spread the Greek culture and learning through his vast empire. Although the empire fractured into multiple Hellenic regimes shortly after his death, his conquests left a lasting legacy, not least in the new Greek-speaking cities founded across Persia's western territories, heralding the Hellenistic period. In the partition of Alexander's empire among the Diadochi, Macedonia fell to the Antipatrid dynasty, which was overthrown by the Antigonid dynasty after only a few years, in 294 BC. 

Hellenistic era Antipater and his son Cassander gained control of Macedonia but it slid into a long period of civil strife following Cassander's death in 297 BC. It was ruled for a while

by Demetrius I (294–288 BC) but fell into civil war.

Demetrius' son, Antigonus II (277–239 BC), defeated a Galatian invasion as acondottiere, and regained his family's position in Macedonia; he successfully restored order and prosperity there, though he lost control of many of the Greek city-states. He established a stable monarchy under the Antigonid dynasty. Antigonus III (239–221 BC) built on these gains by re-establishing Macedonian power across the region.

What is notable about the Macedonian regime during the Hellenistic times is that it was the only successor state to the Empire that maintained the old archaic perception of Young Ji International School / College

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kingship, and never adopted the ways of the Hellenistic monarchy. Thus the king was never deified in the same way that Ptolemies and Seleucids were in Egypt and Asia respectively and never adopted the custom of Proskynesis. The ancient Macedonians during the Hellenistic times were still addressing their kings in a far more casual way than the subjects of the rest of the Diadochi, and the kings were still consulting with their aristocracy (Philoi) in the process of making their decisions. 

Conflict with Rome Under Philip V of Macedon (221–179 BC) and his son Perseus of Macedon (179–168 BC), the kingdom clashed with the rising power of the Roman Republic. During the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Macedon fought a series of wars with Rome. Two major losses that led to the end of the kingdom were in 197 BC when Rome defeated Philip V, and 168 BC when Rome defeated Perseus. The overall losses resulted in the defeat of Macedon, the deposition of the Antigonid dynasty and the dismantling of the Macedonian kingdom. Andriscus' brief success at re-establishing the monarchy in 149 BC was quickly followed by his defeat the following year and the establishment of direct Roman rule and the organization of Macedon as the Roman province of Macedonia. 

Institutions The political organization of the Macedonian kingdom was a three-level pyramid: on the top, the King and the nation, at the foot, the civic organizations (cities and éthnē), and between the two, the districts. The study of these different institutions has been considerably renewed thanks to epigraphy, which has given us the possibility to reread the indications given us by ancient literary sources such as Livy and Polybius. They show that the Macedonian institutions were near to those of the Greek federal states, like the Aetolian and Achaean leagues, whose unity was reinforced by the presence of the king. 

The King The king (Βαζιλεύς, Basileús) headed the central administration: he led the kingdom from its capital, Pella, and in his royal palace was conserved the state's archive. He was helped in carrying out his work by the Royal Secretary (βαζιλικὸς γραμμαηεύς,basilikós grammateús), whose work was of primary importance, and by the Council. The title "king" (basileús) may have not officially been used by the Macedonian regents until Alexander the Great, whose "usage of it may have been influenced by his ambivalent position in Persia."

The king was commander of the army, head of the Macedonian religion, and director of diplomacy. Also, only he could conclude treaties, and, until Philip V, mint coins.

The number of civil servants was limited: the king directed his kingdom mostly in an indirect way, supporting himself principally through the local magistrates, the epistates, with whom he constantly kept in touch. 

Succession Royal succession in Macedon was hereditary, male, patrilineal and generally respected the principle of primogeniture. There was also an elective element: when the king died, his designated heir, generally but not always the eldest son, had first to be accepted by the council and then presented to the general Assembly to be acclaimed king and obtain the oath of fidelity.

As can be seen, the succession was far from being automatic, more so considering that many Macedonian kings died violently, without having made dispositions for the succession, or having assured themselves that these would be respected. This can be seen with Perdiccas III, slain by the Illyrians, Philip II assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis, Alexander the Great, suddenly died of malady, etc. Succession crises were frequent, especially up to the 4th century BC, when the magnate families of Upper Macedonia still cultivated the ambition of overthrowing the Argaead dynasty and to ascend to the throne.

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

Finances The king was the simple guardian and administrator of the treasure of Macedon and of the king's incomes (βαζιλικά, basiliká), which belonged to the Macedonians: and the tributes that came to the kingdom thanks to the treaties with the defeated people also went to the Macedonian people, and not to the king. Even if the king was not accountable for his management of the kingdom's entries, he may have felt responsible to defend his administration on certain occasions: Arrian tells us that during the mutiny of Alexander's soldiers at Opis in 324 BC, Alexander detailed the possessions of his father at his death to prove he had not abused his charge.

It is known from Livy and Polybius that the basiliká included the following sources of income: 







The mines of gold and silver (for example those of the Pangaeus), which were the exclusive possession of the king, and which permitted him to strike currency, as already said his sole privilege till Philip V, who conceded to cities and districts the right of coinage for the lesser denominations, like bronze.

The forests, whose timber was very appreciated by the Greek cities to build their ships: in particular, it is known thatAthens made commercial treaties with Macedon in the 5th century BC to import the timber necessary for the construction and the maintenance of its fleet of war.

The royal landed properties, lands that were annexed to the royal domain through conquest, and that the king exploited either directly, in particular through servile workforce made up of prisoners of war, or indirectly through a leasing system.

The port duties on commerce (importation and exportation taxes).

The most common way to exploit these different sources of income was by leasing: the Pseudo-Aristotle reports in the Oeconomica that Amyntas III (or maybe Philip II) doubled the kingdom's port revenues with the help of Callistratus, who had taken refuge in Macedon, bringing them from 20 to 40 talents per year. To do this, the exploitation of the harbour taxes was given every year at the private offering the highest bidding. It is also known from Livy that the mines and the forests were leased for a fixed sum under Philip V, and it appears that the same happened under the Argaead dynasty: from here possibly comes the leasing system that was used in Ptolemaic Egypt.

Except for the king's properties, land in Macedon was free: Macedonians were free men and did not pay land taxes on private grounds. Even extraordinary taxes like those paid by the Athenians in times of war did not exist. Even in conditions of economic peril, like what happened to Alexander in 334 BC and Perseus in 168 BC, the monarchy did not tax its subjects but raised funds through loans, first of all by his Companions, or raised the cost of the leases.

The king could grant the atelíē (ἀηελίη), a privilege of tax exemption, as Alexander did with those Macedonian families which had losses in the battle of the Granicus in May 334: they were exempted from paying tribute for leasing royal grounds and commercial taxes.

Extraordinary incomes came from the spoils of war, which were divided between the king and his men. At the time of Philip II and Alexander, this was a considerable source of income. A considerable part of the gold and silver objects taken at the time of the European and Asian campaigns were melted in ingots and then sent to the monetary foundries of Pella and Amphipolis, most active of the kingdom at that time: an estimate judges that during the reign of Alexander only the mint of Amphipolis struck about 13 million silver tetra drachms. 

The Assembly All the kingdom's citizen-soldiers gather in a popular assembly, which is held at least twice a year, in spring and in autumn, with the opening and the closing of the campaigning season.

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This assembly (koinê ekklesia or koinon makedonôn), of the army in times of war, of the people in times of peace, is called by the king and plays a significant role through the acclamation of the kings and in capital trials; it can be consulted (without obligation) for the foreign politics (declarations of war, treaties) and for the appointment of high state officials.

In the majority of these occasions, the Assembly does nothing but ratify the proposals of a smaller body, the Council. It is also the Assembly which votes the honors, sends embassies, during its two annual meetings. It was abolished by the Romans at the time of their reorganization of Macedonia in 167 BC, to prevent, according to Livy, that a demagogue could make use of it as a mean to revolt against their authority.  Council (Synedrion) The Council was a small group formed among some of the most eminent Macedonians, chosen by the king to assist him in the government of the kingdom. As such it was not a representative assembly, but notwithstanding that on certain occasions it could be expanded with the admission of representatives of the cities and of the civic corps of the kingdom.

The members of the Council (synedroi) belong to three categories:  The somatophylakes (in Greek literally "bodyguards") were noble Macedonians chosen by the king to serve to him as honorary bodyguards, but especially as close advisers. It was a particularly prestigious honorary title. In the times of Alexander there were seven of them.  The Friends (philoi) or the king's Companions (basilikoi hetairoi) were named for life by the king among the Macedonian aristocracy.  The most important generals of the army (hégémones tôn taxéôn), also named by the king.

The king had in reality less power in the choice of the members of the Council than appearances would warrant; this was because many of the kingdom's most important noblemen were members of the Council by birth-right.

The Council primarily exerted a probouleutic function with respect to the Assembly: it prepared and proposed the decisions which the Assembly would have discussed and voted, working in many fields such as the designation of kings and regents, as of that of the high administrators and the declarations of war. It was also the first and final authority for all the cases which did not involve capital punishment.

The Council gathered frequently and represented the principal body of government of the kingdom. Any important decision taken by the king was subjected before it for deliberation.

Inside the Council ruled the democratic principles of isegoria (equality of word) and of parrhesia (freedom of speech), to which even the king subjected himself.

After the removal of the Antigonid dynasty by the Romans in 167 BC, it is possible that the synedrion remained, unlike the Assembly, representing the sole federal authority in Macedonia after the country's division in four merides.  Regional districts (Merides) The creation of an intermediate territorial administrative level between the central government and the cities should probably be attributed to Philip II: this reform corresponded with the need to adapt the kingdom's institutions to the great expansion of Macedon under his rule. It was no longer practical to convene all the Macedonians in a single general assembly, and the answer to this problem was the creation of four regional districts, each with a regional assembly. These territorial divisions clearly did not follow any historical or traditional internal divisions; they were simply artificial administrative lines.

This said, it should be noted that the existence of these districts is not attested with certainty (by numismatics) before the beginning of the 2nd century BC.

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Terms to define 1. thrived 2. obelisk 3. slab 4. infiltration 5. infighting 6. chariot 7. monotheism 8. unrest 9. ruins 10. annihilation 11. papyrus 12. afterlife 13. amulet 14. charm 15. vizier 16. regent 17. inscription 18. charisma Activity 1. Identify the greatest legacies of ancient Egypt, in your opinion and determine their effects. if there are any, on modern society.

2. What is Egypt‘s greatest contributions an ancient group of people? Defend your answer.

3. Describe the absolute power of a pharaoh.

4. Why is ancient Egypt‘s economy and livelihood based on agriculture? How is this reflected in their way of life?

True or false: write true if the statement is correct and write false if it‘s not. _______1. Jainism was the religion of the followers of Vardhamana Mahavira. _______2. The Jains claimed that their religion was older than Hinduism. _______3. Hinduism is the oldest sect of all regions. _______4. Religious belief as old as the early civilizations. _______5. Important groups that exerted influence during those times were the Sadducees, priest in the temple of Jerusalem. _______6. Most Buddhists feel that their harmonious relationship within the family and the community are the results of Buddhist teaching and practices. _______7. Taoism has been reflected in Japanese poetry and painting. _______8. In Christianity, the followers learned how to be humble and were made to follow the teachings of Christ. _______9. Religion, as a belief has touched the lives of the people. ______10. Religion has a deep impact upon the people of world. ______11. The Chinese founded different kingdoms in the Indus valley. ______12. Hindus engage in temple work ship and different spiritual cleansing practices such as bathing in the Ganges River. ______13. The Indus Valley civilization has brought not only various major religions, but also philosophies and practices. ______14. Confucius the King of master ______15. Guatama, who was the most respected philosopher in Chinese history.

Multiple choices: encircle the correct answer.

1. A classic work by Homer a. Antogone Young Ji International School / College

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b. Trojan women d. Cyclops 2. War between Troy and Greece a. Sumerian war c. Grecian war b. Trojan war d. Babylonian war 3. Invaded Create in 1450 B.C. a. Assyrians c. Myceneans b. Akkadians d. Chaldeans 4. Thrived in Crete Island around 2200 B.C. a. Minoan civilization c. Persian civilization b. Egyptian civilization d. Babylonian civilization 5. Birthplace of western civilization a. Ancient Rome c. Ancient china b. Ancient Greece d. Aztec 6. A pupil of Socrates a. Plato c. Aristotle b. Xerxes d. Pindar 7. Wrote the great play, The Persians a. Pindar c. Aeschylus b. Sophocles d. Euripides 8. A fortified hill for defense a. Acropolis c. acrobat b. Agora d. dam 9. The Greek god of war a. Venus c. Zeus b. Bacchus d. Ares 10. Period which followed the Greek Dark Age a. Trojan Age c. Stone Age b. Archaic Age d. Golden Age 11. Provided the world‘s first gunpowder a. Phoenicians c. Chinese b. Olmec d. Hebrews 12. Invaded the Indus valley in 1500 B.C. a. Sumerians c. Akkadians b. Assyrians d. Aryans 13. Placed emphasis on a new moral order a. Lao Tzu c. Buddha b. Confucius d. Solomon 14. The process of rebirth a. karma c. yoga b. reincarnation d. meditation 15. Chinese dynasty with strong centralized government a. Zhou c. Chin b. Xia d. Shang 16. One of the oldest Indus valley cities a. Babylon c. Beirut b. Mohenjo-Daro d. Sidon 17. ―Father of many nations‖ a. Lao Tzu c. Buddha b. Confucius d. Solomon 18. River where Chinese civilization developed a. Nile c. Yangtze b. Jordan d. Shang 19. Supreme god of Hinduism a. Shiya c. Bhrama b. Krishna d. Hanuman Young Ji International School / College

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20. Taught the Noble Eightfold Path a. Gautama Buddha c. Abraham b. Confucius d. Lao Tzu 21. Period of Greek and Asian blending a. Macedonian Age c. Hellenistic Age b. Persian Age d. Hellenic Age 22. Summed up Greek mathematics a. Erastothenes c. Aristarchus b. Euclid d. Sophocles 23. Taught acceptance of reality a. Cynics c. Stoics b. Agnostic d. Epicureans 24. Pursued virtue above pleasure a. Cynics c. Stoics b. Agnostic d. Epicureans 25. Defeated by Alexander in India a. Porus c. Gupta b. Olympias d. maurya 26. Founded the League of Corinth in 338 B.C. a. Philip II c. Alexander the Great b. Justinian d. Basil II 27. One of Alexander‘s teachers a. Socrates c. Plato b. Cicero d. Aristotle 28. Revolted against Alexander‘s rule a. Sumer c. Thebes b. Assyria d. Babylon 29. His death made Alexander king of Asia a. Sostracus c. Philip II b. Darius d. Euclid 30. Ruled in Egypt after Alexander a. Seleucids c. Ptolemies b. Antigonids d. Persians 31. The great Carthaginian general a. Darius c. Alexander b. Hannibal d. Octavian 32. Composed of Patricians a. House of Commons c. Senate b. Consul d. Plebeians 33. Mark Anthony, Lepidus, and Octavian a. First Triumvirate c. Senate b. Consul d. Second Triumvirate 34. Conquered Rome in 600 B.C. a. Etruscans c. Egyptians b. Syrians d. Persians 35. Watched by Romans in theaters a. Wars c. Olympus b. Pantomime d. Persians 36. Famous Roman writers a. Romulus and Remus c. Virgil and Horace b. Caesar and Cleopatra d. Brutus and Cassius 37. Legendary funder of Rome a. Romulus and Remus c. Virgil and Horace b. Caesar and Cleopatra d. Brutus and Cassius 38. Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar Young Ji International School / College

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a. First Triumvirate c. Senate b. Consul d. Second Triumvirate 39. Naval power which warred with Rome a. Sumer c. Persia b. Carthage d. Babylon 40. Basis of Roman law a. Twelve tables c. Senate b. Plebian d. Consul 41. Decree which tolerated Christianity a. Edict of Milan c. Edict of Constantine b. Decree of Alexander d. Edict of Rome 42. Became a partner of Constantine a. Licinus c. Augustus b. Cassius d. Octavian 43. Encyclopedia of Byzantine literature a. Suda c. karma b. Odyssey d. lliad 44. Statement of essential Christian beliefs a. Nicene creed c. Old Testament b. New testament d. ten Commandments 45. Collapse of Byzantine Empire‘s period a. 1000s c. 1500s b. 1100s d. 1200s 46. Vision which Constantine saw a. Cross c. star b. Angel d. Diamond 47. Defeated the Bulgarians in 1014 a. Darius c. Augustus b. Basil II d. Theodosius 48. Constantine‘s major rival in the west a. Herodutus c. Licinius b. Justinian d. Maxentius 49. Collected Roman laws under one code a. Eratosthenes c. Justinian b. Julius Caesar d. Euclid 50. Condemned Arianism a. Council of Nicaea c. Council of Trent b. Caligula d. Constantine Identification. Answer the following questions. _____________1. Indigenous religion of India _____________2. Officiate at religious ceremonies and study and teach the Vedas _____________3. The rulers or warriors who protect their subjects _____________4. Engage in trade, tend cattle and till the soil _____________5. The people who belong to this caste are considered outside the Varma _____________6. Unity of individual soul _____________7. Brahman _____________8. The creator _____________9. The preserver _____________10. The destroyer _____________11. Goddess of smallpox _____________12. Goddess of snake _____________13. Goddess of music and arts Young Ji International School / College

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_____________14. The wife of Vishnu _____________15. The monkey helper _____________16. The First Emperor of China _____________17. It was built to protect China from barbarian invasion and some say ―to fence in an entire nation‖ _____________18. Known as the ―martial Emperor‖ _____________19. It is made the caravan routes safe for trade and travel _____________20. Young Venetian trade who traveled with his father and uncle by caravan on the Silk Road Matching Types: Match Column A to Column B. Column A ____1. samurai ____2. minaret ____3. hari-kiri ____4. Bushido ____5. Jupiter ____6. Venus ____7. Kamikaze ____8. Paterfamila ____9. Samurais ___10. Aurelius ___11. Christianity ___12. Gobi ___13. Nirvana ___14. Abraham ___15. Zazen ___16. Jahanger ___17. Antoninus ___18. Akbar ___19. Caligula ___20. Huang Ho

Column B a. divine wind b. the grandnephew of Tiberius c. supreme god d. goddess of beauty and love e. the way of the warriors f. towers where Muslims are called to pray g. the coldest desert in the world h. suicide by means of seppuku i. the center of the Roman family j. Grasper of the world k. fought a series of campaigns against Germanic l. Greatest Mughal ruler m. were the warier who fought for their land n. China‘s Sorrow o. a firm and kind ruler p. main religion o Byzantine Empire q. all pains, selfness, hatred and delusions r. Father of Jews s. to sit and meditate t. one who serves

Enumeration 1-10 Guru Teachers 11-14 Four Nobles 15-20 Five Presents of Buddhism Multiple Choices: encircle the correct answer.

1. Chosen is the ancient name of which Asian country? a. Korea c. China b. Japan d. Thailand 2. Who was the prime minister of the people‘s republic of China from 1949 to 1976? a. Lin Piao c. Mao Tse-tung b. Yuan Shi-kai d. Chou En-lai 3. What parallel divides North Korea and South Korea? a. 19th c. 38th st st b. 21 d. 91 4. Yumjagiyn Tsedenbal was long-time premier of which Asian republic? a. South Korea c. Bhutan b. Sikkim d. Mongolia 5. What is the world‘s only Hindu Kingdom? a. India c. Bhutan Young Ji International School / College

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b. Thailand d. Nepal 6. What federation of Southeast Asian countries was formed in 1976? a. ASEAN c. Djakarta pact b. SEATO d. Association of South Asia 7. When can the headquarters of the ASPAC (Asia and Pacific Council) be found? a. Djakarta c. Melbourne b. Bangkok d. Kuala Lumpur 8. What country is called ‗The land of the Morning Calm‖? a. China c. Korea b. Japan d. Taiwan 9. Ceylon is the old name of which country? a. Pakistan c. Sri Lanka b. Burma d. Bhutan 10. Who is the father of Korean independence/ a. Kim II-Sung c. Shin Dong-pa b. Tao Te-ching d. Syngman Rhee 11. Which Ceylonese leader is the world‘s first woman Prime Minister/ a. Radenia Senanayake c. Sirimavo Bandaranaike b. Briselda Jayawardene d. Petula Ogagbonika 12. What is the capital of Lebanon? a. Damascus c. Trpoli b. Sidon d. Beirut 13. What is the name of the first legendary dynasty of China which was founded

by Emperor Yu? a. Hsia c. tang b. Chin d. Ching 14. Who is the greatest philosopher of China whose name means‖Kung the Scholar‘? a. Confucius c. Kung Fu b. Mencius d. Kang Todo-pong 15. Which Chinese emperor ordered the building of the Great Wall of China? a. Wei Tiang-na c. Feng Tao b. Liu Pang d. Shih Huang-ti 16. Which Venetian traveler lived for 14 years in China and served in the court of Kublai Khan? a. Christopher Columbus c. Ricardo Viareggio b. Marco Polo d. Leonardo Garrondio 17. What is the name of the last royal dynasty that ruled China from 1644 to 1911? a. Ming c. Shang b. Yuan d. Manchus 18. How were the wars fought between China and Britain in the 19th century called/ a. Tai Ping rebellion c. Kowtow Wars b. Opium wars d. Cathay Wars 19. Which Chinese rebellion in 1900 was aimed against foreigners? a. Tai Ping rebellion c. Boxer rebellion b. Kowtow rebellion d. Sunrise rebellion 20. Which great general was the first director of the Whampoa Military Academy? a. Chou En-lai c. Chou Todo-pao b. Mao Tse-tung d. Chiang kai-shek 21. A mandarin is a. a Chinese village c. a custom b. a bear of burden d. a government official Young Ji International School / College

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22. Who was the father of the Republic of China? a. Deng Hsia-ping c. Mao Tse-tung b. Sun Yat-sen d. Tzu His 23. The ―Mukden incident‘ was an attack on China by which country? a. Japan c. Britain b. Russia d. United States 24. Who is the first chairman of the People‘s republic of China/ a. Mao Tse-tung c. Chiang kai-shek b. Yuan Shi-kai d. Hu Yao-bang 25. Japan is the a. Land of the Morning calm c. Land of the rising Sun b. Land of the Kings d. Land of the Cherry Blossoms 26. This religion founded in Japan advocates nature worship. Its name means ―The way of the Gods‖ and is symbolized by the torii or gateway. What is the name of this religion? a. Taoism c. Shinto b. Toriism d. Buddhism 27. This Japanese rule drew up the 17 Article Constitution which simplified the principles of Confucius and Buddha during the 7th century, A.D. who is the ruler who is also the first great reformer of Japan? a. Yoritomo c. Shotoku b. Taniguchi d. Jimmu Tenno 28. These warriors were to the Japanese feudal lords as the knights were to the Europe feudal lords: a. Bushido c. samurai b. Kaminomoto d. gosaimasu 29. What was the title given to the military warlord of Japan during the feudal era (12th to the 19th century)? a. samurai c. chanoyu b. chanoyu d. yokohama 30. What was the term given to the honorable suicide performed by slashing the stomach with a sword? a. Hara kiri c. kamikaze b. Mata hari d. kitakyushu 31. Edo is the old name of which Japanese city? a. Tokyo c. Kyoto b. Osaka d. Nagasaki 32. Which American sea commander opened Japan to the western world when he arrived in Tokyo in 1853? a. Edmund Sperry c. Sir Walter Raleigh b. Walter Frobister d. Matthew Perry 33. Who was the author of the Japanese Constitution of 1889? a. Masatomo Taniguchi c. Hirobumi Ito b. Shigeo Hattori d. Shigeyaki Abe 34. The Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905 ended the war between Japan and which other country? a. Russia c. Bhutan b. China d. United States 35. Which Japanese general became the Prime Minister in 1941, led Japan into World War II, and was executed for his war crimes in 1948? a. Hideki Tomonaga c. Hideki Tojo b. Prince Masahito d. Kishisaburo Nomura 36. In 1972, which American territory was given back to Japan? a. Wake c. Iwo Jima b. Truk d. Okinawa Young Ji International School / College

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37. What is the only country in Southeast Asia that has never been ruled by a Western nation? a. Singapore c. Malaysia b. Thailand d. Indonesia 38. Norodom Sihanouk was king of which Southeast Asian nation? a. Laos c. Vietnam b. Thailand d. Cambodia 39. Siam is the old name of which country/ a. Singapore c. Vietnam b. Thailand d. Burma 40. U Thant, the third secretary-general of the United nations, was a native of which country? a. Singapore c. Indonesia b. Thailand d. Burma 41. Who was the first Prime Minister of Malaysia? a. Tan Abdul Razak c. Chao Handa Nasia b. Datuk Hussein Onn d. Tunku Abdul Rahman 42. Which great Indonesian leaders write the book ―Through Darkness To Light? a. Mak Wotulo c. Hatta Hendrawan b. Bachtiar Ardijansah d. Raden kartini 43. The Angkor Wat, one of the great architectural monuments of Asia can be found in which country? a. Indonesia c. Malaysia b. Kampuchea d. Laos 44. The Dutch east Indies is known today as a. Malaysia c. Sabah b. Laos d. Burma 45. Which Asian country is called the ―Land of Images‖ a. Thailand c. Laos b. Malaysia d. Burma Differentiate the 3 branches of the government.(5 points each) Executive Legislative

Lesson 9

Judiciary

The early Middle Ages-barbaric Invasions

From the time of early man to the formation of groups to civilization to empires, the development of man continued. 

Rome: Total War: Barbarian Invasion Barbarian Invasion is the first expansion for the game Rome which takes the action forward to the period of the decline of the Western Roman Empire. The Rome Total War Young Ji International School / College

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Gold Edition includes both the original game as well as the Barbarian Invasion expansion pack. The campaign begins in 363 AD and ends in 476 AD. If the player has not achieved the campaign goals in 476, an option to quit or to continue the game is presented. The expansion includes simulation of the religious tension of the period, as three major religions (Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Paganism) fought for dominance. Also depicted are the great migrations of the Germanic and steppe peoples (notably the Huns) throughout Europe. However, unlike Rome: Total War, all of the factions that are playable are playable at the start of the game, whereas in Rome: Total War, only three factions are playable and the other playable factions have to be unlocked by either destroying them or winning the campaign. 

Gameplay As Barbarian Invasion takes place 349 years after the end of the original game, factions and provinces are very different. Although the Roman Senate still exists it no longer has significant power, thus playing no role in the expansion. Rome has become an empire, grown and then split into Western and Eastern empires, ruled from Rome (although historically the Imperial Court was situated in Milan from 286 to 402 and, from then on, Ravenna) and Constantinople respectively. The majority of the known world is under the domain of the Roman Empire, from Britannia to Egypt. The subject regions of this empire represent the former factions of the original Rome: Total War game all of which have been absorbed into the Empire. The Seleucid Empire has collapsed and has been absorbed by Rome and former Parthia; the Parthian dynasty itself has been overthrown and replaced with the Sassanid dynasty, which rules the lands beyond the Euphrates. Dacia has been conquered by the Goths, and Numidia has been entirely replaced by Berbers.

The Huns have invaded Europe, and several major Germanic tribes have unified and strengthened to the point where they are now capable of invading the Empire itself.

Hordes are a new feature which is introduced in Barbarian Invasion and is a privilege to some barbarian factions. When such a faction loses its last province (some factions, such as the Huns and Vandals, begin with no provinces), rather than being destroyed it becomes a horde and is forced to settle elsewhere. Hordes are very large armies, representing an entire nation; however, they do not require upkeep. When a horde army successfully seizes a city, they are given the option of sacking the city (which does massive damage to the population and buildings of a city, giving the horde a large amount of money) or of settling in the city which allows the horde to begin anew, with the new city as its capital; the faction then is able to conquer other provinces normally. When the horde settles, a portion of their horde army is disbanded and the population distributed into the city.

Horde factions do not "die out" unless defeated on the battlefield or all family members and generals die; when they have finally found a new homeland and it is successfully conquered by an enemy, the whole faction becomes a horde again and flees, in order to seek a new home. With the concept of a horde the developers tried to reflect the migrations of several "barbarian" peoples of that time especially Huns, Goths, Vandals, Franks, Burgundians and Lombards (with the latter three playing a huge part in the formation of the Holy Roman Empire almost 450 years later). The only way to completely destroy these factions is by slaying all of the family members of the faction.

Victory conditions vary, depending on which faction is played. Each playable faction has its own territory requirement, including specific named territories—adding a layer of strategic complexity. Each faction is listed with a difficulty level relative to the other factions (apart from the game settings difficulty selected by the user). The Western Roman Empire may start the game with a lot of military and economic might—but everybody wants a piece of them, they require the most territories to win, and one of those required territories is the most contested (Northern Italy or Rome). The Saxons start small and do not have access to advanced technology, but they have a much smaller territory requirement — though they still have to contend with neighbours to the south who are crowding north to meet territory requirements.

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

Western Roman Empire In historiography, the Western Roman Empire consists of the western provinces of the Roman Empire at any one time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court, coequal with (or only nominally subordinate to) that administering the eastern half. "Western" and "Eastern Roman Empire" are modern terms describing de facto independent entities; however, at no point did Romans consider the Empire split into two, but rather considered it a single state governed by two separate Imperial courts out of administrative expediency. The view that the Empire was impossible to govern by one emperor was established by Diocletian following the disastrous civil wars and disintegration of the Crisis of the 3rd century, and was instituted in Roman law by his introduction of the Tetrarchy in AD 285, a form of government which was legally to endure in one form or another for centuries. The Western Court was periodically abolished and recreated for the next two centuries until final abolition by the Emperor Zeno in 480, by which time there was little effective central control left in the area legally administered by the Western Court.

A Western Roman Empire existed intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries, after Diocletian's Tetrarchy and the reunifications associated with Constantine the Great and Julian the Apostate (331/2–363). Theodosius I divided the Empire upon his death (in 395) between his two sons. Finally, eighty-five years later, Emperor Zeno of the Eastern Court recognized the reality of the Western Empire's reduced domain (Imperial control had been lost over even the Italian Peninsula) after the death of Western Emperor Julius Nepos, and proclaimed himself sole emperor of the Roman Empire.

The rise of Odoacer of the Foederati to rule over Italy in 476 was popularized by eighteenth-century historian Edward Gibbon as a demarcating event for the end of the Western Empire and is sometimes used to mark the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages.

The ongoing struggle between the rising Papacy and the retreating Eastern Empire (which had reconquered Rome in the 6th century) led the Pope to unilaterally declare the Frankish King Charlemagne to be the successor of the Western Emperors in 800. This new imperial line would evolve in time into the Holy Roman Empire, which revived the imperial title but was otherwise in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions.

As the Roman Republic expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disaster, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be realized in the province of origin. For this reason, provincial governors had de facto rule in the name of the Roman Republic.

Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the Second Triumvirate: Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East: Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus (roughly modern Greece, Albania and the coast of Croatia), Bithynia, Pontus and Asia (roughly modern Turkey), Syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica. These lands had previously been conquered by Alexander the Great; thus, much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, Greek often serving as the lingua franca.

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The Roman Republic before the conquests of Octavian Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: Italia (modern Italy), Gaul(modern France), Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), and Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal). These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though Celtic tribes such as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of Africa (roughly modern Tunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding Sicilia (modern Sicily) to his holdings.

Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. While the Roman Empire featured many distinct cultures, all were often said to experience gradual Romanization. While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines.

Rebellions, uprisings, and political developments Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire.

Conquered tribes or cities would revolt, and the legions would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime, as for example in the Great Jewish Revolt.

In a full-blown military campaign, the legions, under generals such as Vespasian, were far more numerous. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family hostage. To this end, Nero effectively held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis, governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. The rule of Nero ended only with the revolt of the Praetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name of Galba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword of Damocles", were often perceived as being of dubious loyalty. Following their example, the legions at the borders increased participation in the civil wars.

The main enemy in the West was arguably the Germanic tribes behind the rivers Rhine and Danube. Augustus had tried to conquer them but ultimately pulled back after the Teutoburg reversal.

The Parthian Empire, arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent, c. 60 BC The Parthian Empire, in the East, on the other hand, was too remote and powerful to be conquered. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated; similarly, Parthians repelled some attempts of Roman invasion, however, even after successful wars of conquest — such as those implemented by Trajan and Septimius Severus — those

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distant territories were forsaken to prevent unrest and also to ensure a more healthy and lasting peace with the Persians.

Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close and also because of the disunity between the Germanic foes, however, controlling both frontiers altogether during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice-versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. 

Economic stagnation in the West Rome and the Italian peninsula began to experience an economic slowdown as industries and money began to move outward. By the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the economic stagnation of Italia was seen in the provincial-born Emperors, such as Trajan and Hadrian. Economic problems increased in strength and frequency.

The Roman Empire in 268 

Crisis of the 3rd century Starting on 18 March 235, with the assassination of the Emperor Alexander Severus, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year civil war, known today as the Crisis of the Third Century. The rise of the bellicose Sassanid dynasty in Parthia posed a major threat to Rome in the east. Demonstrating the increased danger, Emperor Valerian was captured by Shapur I in 259. His eldest son and heir-apparent, Gallienus, succeeded and took up the fight on the eastern frontier. Gallienus' son, Saloninus, and the Praetorian Prefect Silvanus were residing in Colonia Agrippina (modern Cologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions.

Nevertheless, Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus - the local governor of the German provinces — rebelled; his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known as the Gallic Empire emerged.

Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces and over all of Hispania and Britannia. It had its own senate, and a partial list of its consuls still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the Germanic tribes than other Romans. However, in the reign of Claudius Gothicus (268 to 270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, several eastern provinces seceded under the Palmyrene Empire, under the rule of Queen Zenobia.

In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention was turned to the West, taking the Gallic Empire a year later. Because of a secret deal between Aurelian and Gallic Emperor Tetricus I and his son Tetricus II, the Gallic army was swiftly defeated. In exchange, Aurelian spared their lives and gave the two former rebels important positions in Italy.

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The organization of the Empire under the Tetrarchy. 

Tetrarchy The external borders were mostly stable for the remainder of the Crisis of the Third Century, although, between the death of Aurelian in 275 and the accession of Diocletian ten years later, at least eight emperors or would-be emperors were killed, many assassinated by their own troops.

Under Diocletian, the political division of the Roman Empire began. In 285, he promoted Maximian to the rank of Augustus (Emperor) and gave him control of the Western regions of the Empire. In 293, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinates (Caesars), creating the First Tetrarchy. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions and created separate capitals besides Rome as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. In the West, the capitals were Maximian's Mediolanum (now Milan) and Constantius' Trier. In the East, the capitals were Sirmium and Nicomedia. On 1 May 305, the two senior Augusti stepped down, and their respective Caesars were promoted to Augusti and appointed two new Caesars, thus creating the Second Tetrarchy. 

Constantine the Great The system of the Tetrarchy quickly ran aground when the Western Roman Empire's Constantius died unexpectedly in 306, and his son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Augustus of the West by the legions in Britain. A crisis followed as several claimants attempted to rule the Western half. In 308, the Augustus of the East, Galerius, arranged a conference at Carnuntum which revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the West between Constantine and a newcomer named Licinius. Constantine was far more interested in conquering the whole empire. Through a series of battles in the East and the West, Licinius and Constantine stabilized their respective parts of the Roman Empire by 314, and began to compete for sole control of a reunified state. Constantine emerged victorious in 324 after the surrender and murder of Licinius following the Battle of Chrysopolis.

The Tetrarchy ended, but the idea of dividing the Roman Empire between two emperors had been validated. Very strong emperors would reunite it under their single rule, but with their death the Roman Empire would be divided again and again between the East and the West. 

Second division

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Division of the Roman Empire among the Caesars appointed by Constantine I: from left to right, the territories of Constantine II,Constans I, Dalmatius and Constantius II. After the death of Constantine I (May 337), this was the formal division of the Empire, until Dalmatius was killed and his territory divided between Constans and Constantius.

Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium, Pannonia. He was the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian.

Constantius was made Caesar by his father on 13 November 324.[2]The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, civil war erupted among his three sons, dividing the Empire into three parts. The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the usurper Magnentius; after Magnentius lost the Battle of Mursa Major and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred in 353, with Constantius II. Constantius II focused most of his power in the East and is regarded as the first emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium - only recently refounded as Constantinople - was fully developed as a capital. In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandsonJulian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the Battle of Samarra against the Persian Empire and was succeeded by Jovian, who ruled only until 364. 

Final division Feudalism is a grouping of legal and military customs, prevalent in medieval Europe, which flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, or any similar grouping of legal and military customs. Simply defined, it was a system for structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.

Although derived from the Latin word feodum or feudum (fief),[1] then in use, the term feudalism and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the medieval period. In its classic definition, by François-Louis Ganshof (1944), feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs.

There is also a broader definition, as described by Marc Bloch (1939), that includes not only warrior nobility but all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clerics and the peasantry bonds of manorialism; this is sometimes referred to as a "feudal society". Since the publication of Elizabeth A. R. Brown's "The Tyranny of a Construct" (1974) and Susan Reynolds' Fiefs and Vassals (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society. Abels notes that, "Western Civilization and World Civilization textbooks now shy away from the term 'feudalism'."

Definition There is no commonly accepted modern definition of feudalism, at least among scholars. The adjective feudal was coined in the 17th century, and the noun feudalism, often used in a political and propaganda context, was not coined until the 19th century. By the

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mid-20th century, Gunshot‘s Feudalism, 3rd ed. (1964; originally published in French, 1947), became a standard scholarly definition of feudalism.

Since at least the 1960s, when Marc Bloch's Feudal Society (1939) was first translated into English in 1961, many medieval historians have included a broader social aspect that includes not only the nobility but all three estates of the realm, adding the peasantry bonds of manorialism and the estates of the Church; this is sometimes referred to as "feudal society" since it encompasses all members of society into the feudal system. Since the 1970s, when Elizabeth A. R. Brown published The Tyranny of a Construct (1974), many have re-examined the evidence and concluded that feudalism is an unworkable term and should be removed entirely from scholarly and educational discussion or at least used only with severe qualification and warning.

Outside a European context, the concept of feudalism is often used only by analogy (called semi-feudal), most often in discussions of feudal Japan under the shoguns and sometimes medieval and Gondarine Ethiopia. However, some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing feudalism (or traces of it) in places as diverse as ancient Egypt, the Parthian empire, the Indian subcontinent and the Antebellum and Jim Crow American South.

The term feudalism has also been applied—often inappropriately or pejoratively—to non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to prevail. Some historians and political theorists believe that the term feudalism has been deprived of specific meaning by the many ways it has been used, leading them to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.

Etymology The term "feodal" was used in 17th century French legal treatises (1614) and translated into English legal treatises as an adjective, such as "feodal government".

In the 18th century, Adam Smith, seeking to describe economic systems, effectively coined the forms "feudal government" and "feudal system" in his book Wealth of Nations (1776). In the 19th century the adjective "feudal" evolved into a noun: "feudalism".The term feudalism is recent, first appearing in French in 1823, Italian in 1827, English in 1839, and in German in the second half of the 19th century.

Effects of Barbaric Invasions The barbarian invasions had many effects. Among these were; a. The division of the large Roman Empire into many kingdoms, as the barbarians were loyal only their tribal chiefs. b. Barbarian superstitions, like the trial by ordeal and trial by combat replaced many Roman laws. c. Destruction of most European trades.

However, this was countered by the fact that the Barbarians played a positive role in the spread and diffusion of civilization as their invasion revitalized many stagnant and decaying communities. These world later lead to a new way of life: feudalism, craftsmanship, and chivalry.

Terms to Define 1. deranged 2. precursor 3. focal point 4. subdued 5. barbaric 6. deposed Follow up Questions Young Ji International School / College

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1. What would have happened if the Barbarians did not invade Europe? Elaborate 2. How can you characterize the Barbaraians? Give one adjective that can best describe these people.

3. Describe how the Barbarians established their presence in Europe.

4. Summarize the positive and native effects of the barbaric invasions.

5. Why was the early Middle Ages considered a Dark Age? Explain?

Activity 1. Create a table which included the following information: Barbaric Tribes Period of Invasion and Country/Place Invaded Rise

2. Have the class watch a film or documentary about the Barbaric tribes to show the reality of their rise and fall.

Lesson 17

The Holy Roman Empire and The Growth of Catholicism

Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) Following the death of Jovian, Valentinian I emerged as Emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother Valens.

Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces intensified. In 376, the Visigoths, fleeing before the Ostrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before the Huns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle into the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople, in which Valens also died. After plundering the countryside, they officially became foederati, thus remaining a destabilizing element, as well as a stabilizing element within the Empire.

More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the Emperors in the western half of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successor Gratian declined to wear the mantle of Pontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the pagan altar from the Roman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome. Theodosius I later decreed a ban on the native paganism, further enforcing Christianity as the official state religion.

The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named Magnus Maximus seized power in the West and forced Gratian's halfbrother Valentinian II to flee to the East for aid; the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I promptly restored him to power.

In 392, the Frankish and pagan magister militum Arbogast assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named Eugenius as Emperor.

The rebellion was overcome in 394 by Theodosius I, who then briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last Emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Young Ji International School / College

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Empire; his older son Arcadius inherited the eastern half while the youngerHonorius got the western half. Both were still minors. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the halfRoman/half-barbarian magister militum Flavius Stilicho while Rufinus became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and disagreements between the eastern and western courts regarding ownership of Illyricum were skillfully exploited by the Gothic king Alaric I who again rebelled following the death of Theodosius I. Stilicho ably defended Italy against the invading Goths, but failed to control the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi who invaded Gaul in numbers. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues in Ravenna - where the Western Imperial court resided starting in 402 - and was subsequently executed for high treason in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. 

Economic factors The West, less urbanized with a spread-out populace, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces. Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities) to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East was not so destitute, especially as Emperors like Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent.

Even in major defeats, the East could, certainly not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom.

The political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources remained safe in Constantinople, which was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. In contrast, the Western Empire was more fragmented. Its capital was transferred to Ravenna in 402 largely for defensive reasons, and it had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but was isolated in other aspects as it was surrounded by swamps and marshes. The economic power remained focused on Rome and its hyper-rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After Gallienus banned senators from army commands in the mid3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of—and interest in—military life. In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as the capital of the Empire and many leading Western generals were Barbarians. After the civil war in 394 between Theodosius I and Eugenius, the new Western government installed by Theodosius I increasingly had to divert military resources from Britain and the Rhine to protect Italy. This, in turn, led to further rebellions and civil wars because the Western imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed against the barbarians.

The Western Empire's resources were much limited, and the lack of available manpower forced the government to rely ever more on confederate barbarian troops operating under their own commanders, where the Western Empire would often have difficulties paying. In certain cases deals were struck with the leaders of barbaric mercenaries rewarding them with land, which led to the Empire's decline as less land meant there would be even less taxes to support the military.

As the central power weakened, the State gradually lost control of its borders and provinces, as well as control over the Mediterranean Sea. Roman Emperors tried to maintain control of the sea, but, once the Vandals conquered North Africa, imperial authorities had to cover too much ground with too few resources. The loss of the African provinces might have been the worse reversal on the West's fortunes, since they were among its wealthiest territories and supplied the essential grain imports to Italy. In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, such as Gaul and

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Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption.

The Roman Empire during the reigns of Majorian(west) and Leo I (east) in 460 AD. Roman rule in the west would last less than two more decades, whereas the territory of the east would remain static until the reconquests of Justinian I. 

The Western and the Eastern Roman Empires by 476 Remaining as emperor after the death of Stilicho in 408, Honorius reigned until his own death in 423. His reign was filled with usurpations and invasions. In 410, Rome was sacked by Alaric's forces. This event made a great impression on contemporaries, as this was the first time since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC that the city had fallen to a foreign enemy. Under Alaric's successors, the Goths then settled in Gaul (412–418), from where they operated as Roman allies against the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi in Spain, and against the usurper Jovinus (413). Meanwhile, another usurper, Constantine(406–411), had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by the Picts and then by the Saxons, Angli, and the Jutes who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards.

Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government with the force of arms installed Valentinian III as Western Emperor in Ravenna, with Galla Placidia acting as regent during her son's minority. After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish, Aetius rose to the rank of magister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his Hunnic allies. With their help, he defeated the Burgundians, who had occupied part of southern Gaul after 407, and settled them in Savoy as Roman allies (433). Later that century, as Roman power faded away, the Burgundians extended their rule to the Rhone valley.

Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by Bonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under their king Gaiseric to cross over from Spain in 429.

They temporarily halted in Numidia (435) before moving eastward and capturing Carthage, from where they established an independent state with a powerful navy (439). The Vandal fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean.

In 444, the Huns, who had been employed as Roman allies by Aetius, were united under their ambitious king Attila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Attila then received a plea for help and the ring of Honoria, the Emperor's sister. Threatening war, he claimed half of the Western Empire's territory as his dowry.

Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul and was only stopped in the battle of the Catalaunian Plains by a combined Roman-Germanic army led by Aetius. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to March upon Rome, but an outbreak of disease in his army, Pope Leo's plea for peace, and reports of a campaign of Marcianus directed at his headquarters in Pannonia induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453).

Aetius was slain in 454 by Valentinian, who was then himself murdered by the dead general's supporters a year later. With the end of the Theodosian dynasty, a new period of dynastic struggle ensued. The Vandals took advantage of the unrest and sailed up to Rome, which they plundered in 455.

The instability caused by usurpers throughout the Western Empire helped these tribes in their conquests, and by the 450s the Germanic tribes had become usurpers themselves. During the next twenty years, several Western Emperors were installed by Constantinople, but their authority relied upon barbarian commanders (Ricimer (456– 472), Gundobad (473–475)). Majorian was the last emperor to campaign in Gaul and Spain in 458-460 before being deposed and murdered by Ricimer. From the 460s onwards,

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imperial control was effectively restricted to Italy and southern Gaul as the remaining Western provinces refused to accept Ricimer's appointment of Libius Severus in 461.

In 475, Orestes, a former secretary of Attila, drove Emperor Julius Nepos out of Ravenna and proclaimed his own son Romulus Augustus as emperor. In 476, Orestes refused to grant Odoacer and the Heruli federated status, prompting an invasion. Orestes was killed and Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, installed himself as ruler over Italy and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople. Although isolated pockets of Roman rule continued even after 476, the city of Rome itself was under the rule of the barbarians, and the control of Rome over the West had effectively ended.

Three rump states continued under Roman rule in some form or another after 476: Julius Nepos controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487. Lastly, a Roman-Moor realm survived in north Africa, resisting Vandal incursions, and becoming a part of the Eastern Roman Empire c.533 when Belisarius defeated the Vandals. 

Last Emperor By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, but the historical record calls this determination into question.

Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West, and ruled a rump state in Dalmatia. He was recognized as such by Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno and by Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an exclave in northern Gaul, known today as the Domain of Soissons.

Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with Zeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer patrician status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Julius Nepos. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy.

Political change after the empire's fall 

Theodoric The last hope for a reunited Empire came in 493, as Odoacer was replaced by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Theodoric had been forced to appear subservient to Zeno in order to deal with a dangerous Odoacer. While in principle Theodoric was a subordinate, a viceroy of the Emperor of the East, in fact he was his equal.

Following Theodoric's death in 526, the Western half of the Empire was now fully controlled by Germanic tribes (though many of them continued to recognize Roman law and made claims to continuity), while the Eastern half had established itself under the Justinian dynasty. While the East would make some attempts to recapture the West, the Roman Empire was never reunited. 

Byzantine reconquest The Eastern Roman Empire, by reoccupying some of the former Western Roman Empire's lands, enlarged its territory considerably during Justinian's reign from 527 (red) to 565 (orange).

Throughout Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, laid claims on areas of the West which had been occupied by several tribes. In the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire managed to reconquer large areas of the former Western Roman Empire. The most successful were the campaigns of the generals Belisarius and Narses on behalf of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554. The Vandal-occupied former Roman territory in North Africa was regained, particularly the territory centered around the city of Carthage. Less than a year Young Ji International School / College

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later, Sicily,Sardinia, Corsica, Dalmatia, and the Balearic Islands were easily captured by the invading Roman legions. The campaign eventually moved into Italy and the Byzantines reconquered it completely. Minor territories were taken as far west as the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. But already in 568, three years after Justinian had died, the Lombards had invaded Italy.

Although some eastern emperors occasionally attempted to reconquer some parts of the West, none were as successful as Justinian. The division between the two areas grew, resulting in a growing rivalry. While the Eastern Roman Empire continued after Justinian, the later Eastern Emperors focused mainly on defending its traditional territory. From the 7th century onwards, the East no longer had the necessary military strength to do anything else, spelling the end of any hope for reunification. 

Legacy As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered the provinces upheld many Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of Arianism. They quickly converted to official imperial Christianity, gaining more loyalty from the local Roman populations, as well as the recognition and support of the powerful Bishop of Rome.

Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by Roman Law and gradually incorporated it as well.

Roman Law, particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis collected by order of Justinian I, is the ancient basis on which the modern Civil law stands. In contrast, Common law is based on the Germanic Anglo-Saxon law.

Latin as a language never really disappeared. It combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to many modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, Occitan, and Romansh.

Latin also influenced Germanic languages such as English, German, and Dutch; all surviving Celtic languages, Albanian, and such Slavic languages as Polish and Czech, and even the non-Indo-European Hungarian. It survives in its "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church (the Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until 1969), and was used as a lingua franca between many nations. It remained the language of medicine, law, diplomacy (most treaties were written in Latin), of intellectuals and scholarship.

The Latin alphabet was expanded due to the splits of I into I and J and of U into U, V, and in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish) W; it is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. Roman numerals continue to be used, but were mostly replaced by Arabic numerals.

The ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler continued to seduce many powerful rulers. Under the principle of translatio imperii, the Holy Roman Empire explicitly proclaimed itself as the continuation of the Western Roman Empire.

The title of the Western Roman Emperor was revived when Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Lombards, was crowned as Emperor of the Romans of the West by Pope Leo III in 800. The status of the Holy Roman Emperor as the rightful Western Roman Emperor in the medieval era was further legitimated by the recognition as "co-emperor" from the Eastern Roman Emperor, who was in direct succession to the ancient Roman Emperors.

The Holy Roman Empire continued to regard itself as the successor state of the Western Roman Empire until its downfall in 1806. The French King Louis XIV, as well as French Emperor Napoleon I, among others, also tried to resurrect the Empire, albeit unsuccessfully.

A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Roman Catholic Church.

The Church slowly began to replace Roman institutions in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century. In many cases the only source of law and civil administration was the local bishop, often himself a former governor like St. Ambrose of Milan and St. Germanus of Auxerre. As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c.9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted by the Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ.

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The Rise of Charlemagne and The Holy Roman Empire Upon the death of King Pepin, his sons Charlemagne and Carloman became corulers of the empire. Carloman, however, died in 771 A.D. and Charlemagne became sole ruler. In response to an appeal by the Catholic Church, he conquered Lombardy (774 A.D.) , Saxony, Bavaria (778 A.D.) and Christianized these territories.

Charlemagne ruled very well. He set up an efficient government administration, frequently checking on local conditions. He increased food production and enacted good laws. Charlemagne supported education, building free schools and hiring experts teachers, fostering a Carolinian cultural renaissance, which spread to much of Europe.

The Holy Roman Empire Continues After Charlemagne‘s death in 814 A.D, there was no serious successor to the throne as his sons were incompetent. At the Treaty of Verden in 834 A.D, Charlemagne‘s empire was divided into three parts, which further disunited the empire. Otto I, the king of Germany, arose out of this division and effectively re-established the Holy Roman Empire in 962 A.D., upon his crowing as emperor at Rome.

The Holy Roman Empire grew to its zenith in the 10th and 11th centuries, where its influence extended to all lands in present-day Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and the low countries; and parts of France and Italy. The empire was seen as the temporal or civil counterpart of the papacy. From the 11th to 13th century, however, it continually clashed with the papacy for supremacy in Europe. The continuing rivalry between the empire and the papacy led to the weakening of the empire‘s power. The papacy emerged as the acknowledge leader of the western world.

Catholic beliefs.

Roman Catholics believed in many fundamental Christian tenets, but they have their own set of particular doctrines and dogmas, among the following.  The focus on the mass or Eucharist‘s as the primary ritual of liturgical life. The mass is both a ceremony to remember Jesus‘ Last Supper with his apostles and a ritual to transform bread and wine into the body an blood of Jesus in a process called transubstantiation.  The supreme jurisdiction of the Pope, or the Bishop of Rome, over the whole Roman Catholic Church in the world, as well as his infallibility in matters of faith.  Obligation of Catholics to hear mass and do various other duties on Sundays and important feast days; as well as to participate in various Roman Catholic sacraments such as baptism and Holy orders.  The special emphasis and important on the role played by the Blessed virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus, on the salvation of mankind.

Terms to Define 1. Patriarch 2. Resurrection 3. Spectacle 4. Temporal 5. Schism 6. Aggravated 7. Sects 8. Papacy 9. Irreconcilable Follow up Questions 1. Describe Charlemagne‘s role in the rise of Holy Roman Empire.

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2. Why do you think the Holy Roman Empire frequently clashed with the papacy for supremacy? What were the results of these clashes?

3. What were the events that led to the emergency of Christianity as one of the world‘s major religions?

Activity 1. Research about the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. Compare and contrasts their rituals an organized structure.

Lesson 18

The Feudal, Age, Knights, and Crusades

The later Middle Ages from the 19th to the 13th century saw the Feudal Ages, the rise of the Knights, and the coming of the crusades. Its main features included the period of feudalism and chivalry, when power went to the landlord and to the mighty.

FEUDALISM: A UNIQUE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEM Feudalism was the political and military system of Western Europe during the Middle Ages. As there was no strong central government, feudalism arose to fulfil the basic need for justice and protection.

After Charlemagne‘s death, there was a leadership void and may nobles and rich people grabbed power. Though kings were still control of many lands in Europe, the nobles, in fact, held more poor. This was because the people of Europe then sought the protection of the nobles.

The Role of the Church in Feudalism The Roman Catholic Church played an important role in the continued existence of feudalism as a system. Fiefs were usually enclosed in castles, and every castle had a chapel where a priest or a monk stayed. The chapel served as a kind of asylum for all those who were being cruelly punished or mistreated by their lords or by knights. The priest also serves as a conduct of information about supposed abuses of vassals which may then be replayed to the king.

THE CRUSADES: THE RELIGIOUS WARS Another series of events which colored the later Middle Ages was the Crusades, a number of wars launched by the Roman Catholic Church against non-Catholic‘s and heretics, which was sanctioned by popes.

The notable crusades which happened in history are the following:  The First Crusade (1096-1099)- this happened when Caliph Hakim, a Muslim leader, destroyed a Christian sanctuary in Jerusalem in 1010. When the Seljuk Turks tool Jerusalem, Christian pilgrimage became even more difficult.  The Second Crusade (1147-1149)- as the Christian grip on the Holy land became weaker, the estates they occupied became threatened, in 1144, the country of Edessa was conquered by the Turks, causing fear to the other Christian countries.  The Third Crusade (1189-1192)- the Muslims continued attacking Christian fronts, and from 1183 to 1187, Saladin, the famous sultan of Syria, had conquered almost all the Holy land.  The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)- as the Third Crusades was failure, another attempt was made to recapture Jerusalem. This started the fourth Crusade. However, the crusades, composed mostly of French nobles, became involved in different affairs.  The Children’s Crusade (1212)- this was a special but a tragic event during this peropd in history, as several thousands of children from 10 to 18 years old were

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allowed to go on a crusade. Most of them were convinced that they could recapture Jerusalem because God would help them as they were children.

Other Crusades  Fifth Crusade (1217-1221)- when Andrew of Hungary led Christians against Muslims in Egypt.  Sixth Crusade (12280- which was more of peace talk than a crusade, as Emperor Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire regained Jerusalem using diplomacy.

Frederick negotiated a peace treaty with the Muslim sultan, who gave Jerusalem to the Christians, which remained with them until 1244.  Seventh Crusade (1248-1254) Eight Crusades (1270)- were headed by King Louis IX of France to get back Jerusalem. These crusades, however, were disorganized and suffered from many places, and Louis himself died on the way to Egypt.

RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES a. They were not able to achieve their goal to capture the Holy land b. The losses contributed to the decline in the prestige of the popes and church c. The crusades led to much needless slaughter.

On the other hand, the crusades were successful in the following terms: a. Despite differences in doctrine, eastern and western Christians united; b. It increased trade between Asia and Europe, furthering economic growth especially in cities like Venice and Pisa c. The rise of monarchies in Western Europe brought about by the great commercial expansion; d. Western Europe learned how to build better ships and maps, and to use compasses derived from technology in the east e. It influenced the intellectual life of Europe in terms of literature and music; works of prose or verse on the history of the crusades were made.

The Decline of Feudalism The Crusades had big effect on the decline of feudalism. It sent the best knights, warriors, and vassals into wars and battles where they died, leaving the leadership and defence of the fiefs. The lords then began to depend on monarchs or kings, who had the power defend their lands.

Terms to Define 1. artisans2. page3. vassals4. asylum5. prestige6. piety7. crusades8. squire9. valor10. imploredFollow-up Questions 1. Describe feudalism as a socio-economic system. How different is it from other economic system you know/ 2. What is chivalry and who are the knights?

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3. Why is code of gallantry very important for knights to uphold?

4. How did the crusades shape history during the Middle Ages?

Activity 1. Create a table that includes the following information: name of crusade, date of the crusade, its causes and effects/results.

Evaluation Multiple choices: Choose the best answer. ______1. A young trainee in the basics of weaponry a. Squire b. Lord-Knight c. Page d. Knight ______2. Appealed for the protection of the pilgrims in 1905 a. Pope II b. Pope Paul VI c. Pope John XXII d. Pope Conrad III ______3. A unique but tragic crusade a. Fifth Crusade b. Sixth Crusade c. Children‘s Crusade d. Fourth Crusade ______4. Given different test by the lord – knight a. Squire b. Lord- knight c. Page d. Knight ______5. The famous Sultan of Syria a. Alexius b. Frederick II c. Conrad II d. Saladin ______6. Invention that diminished the power of the knights a. Firearms b. Helmet c. Sword d. Bows ______7. Political and military system in the Middle Ages a. Knighthood b. Vassals c. Serfs d. Feudalism ______8. Lands granted to nobles a. Castle b. Fiefs c. Chapel d. Hectares ______9. War launched to reclaim Jerusalem a. Crusades b. Battle of the knights c. Battle of Countries d. Feudal Wars Young Ji International School / College

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_____10. Engages in tournaments or jousts a. Squire b. Lord –Knight c. Page d. Knight LESSON 19 THE RISE OF MEDIEVAL TOWNS AND GUILDS With the fall of the vassals and the knight, the towns and the people became independent and were able to engage in their own businesses. These people became the Medieval Age‘s middle class or bourgeois, the group which would give rise to towns and guids.

TOWN: THE TRADE CENTERNS OF THE MIDDLE AGES The businessmen, artisans and craftsmen of the 12th century honed their crafts and increased their productivity. The increased production needed new markets, and for this, the people held fairs, which were occasional centres of business and trade setup during holidays. 

The Fairs. The Fairs served as market festival where merchant from all over Europe came to buy and sell wares. Some fairs were held for the sale of a particular product or merchandise, such as horse or clothes, while others were held for trading in general merchandise.

THE RISE OF THE GUILDS  Merchant Guilds. These were composed of all the merchants or businessmen in a particular area. As merchants travelled in different locations and markets, they needed mutual protection against dangers, anti-business rules or laws, and government meddling in the different localities. Frequently, merchants from the same city or town banded together and formed caravans, with them choosing a leader for their own business or group.  Craft Guilds. The artisans and craftsmen noted the success of the merchant guilds, and decided to unite and form their own group for their own mutual benefit. The craft guilds were composed of those who belonged to the same craft or trade. There was a bakers‘ guild and a shoemakers‘ guild. Each craft had its own guild; a some large towns had as many as 30 crafts guilds. The craft guilds also purchased from the government the right to control its branch of industry.  Being a Guild Member. A person could become a guild member in any of these three ways: by succeeding a parent, under a guild member. To be an apprentice, one

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must have the desire to learn a particular trade or craft, and is willing to spend years of reining under a guild member.

THE DECLINE OF GUILDS AND THE COMING OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE  The Money Economy. It also gave rise to the money economy, which was based on money as the convenient medium of exchange. Whereas the former agricultural system based wealth on the products of the land, the new system was based on money, with people required to have it to buy something. With the influx of products coming from the guilds, people were not able to depend on just the products of land anymore, necessitating the adaptation of the money economy by Europe.  Money, Credit, and Banking. As many guild member became rich, and as money became the foremost medium of exchange, many of them grew rich and just lent excess money to other craftsmen, with interest and security, such as real estate or jewels WAY OF LIFE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES The way of life during the middle Ages can be characterized by the following: Romanesque

Gothic style

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The Rise of Universities. As Arab and Byzantine civilizations came into increasing contacts, much increased learning was brought back to Europe. Many students gathered in cathedrals where men of learning lectured, and these students and scholar created associations and organizations which were later called universities.

The Power of the Church. The Catholic Church touched every person‘s life during the Middle Ages. It was present at birth (during baptism), at the wedding of the person, and at his burial. The decisions of the church also had a big impact as it became the largest landholder in Western Europe. It threatened people with the prospect of excommunication, which is to separate the person from the church, resulting to the denial of blessing for the lord and for his subjects as well.

Ups and Down of Progress. The economics and social development of Europe during the high Middle ages suffered a setback in the 1300`s Wars, naturals disasters, and diseases all contributed to the decrease in population and slowdown in business. The

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

Hundred Years War from 1337 to 1453 depleted the economies of both England and France; the demise of feudalism caused strife as peasants rose to be free from their lords, white the Black Death, a form of bubonic plague, killed a fourth of Europe‘s population from 1347 to 1350.

Literature, Arts, and Music. Various developments in literature, arts, and music began during the middle Ages. National literature flourished: popular epics were sung by wandering ministers, such as the: 1. Song of Roland (France), which chant the exploits of one of Charlemagne‘s‘ best knights.

2. El Cid (Spain) 3. Beowulf (England) 4. Divine Comedy 5. The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer 6. Le Morte D‘Arthur

By the early 1500‘s Europeans culture was no longer medieval and changes were fast coming in the political, cultural, and economic arena. The growing emphasis on humanism and the rise of the thinking class in the universities would pave the way for one of the greatest social revolutions in the history of man- the Renaissance.

Terms to Define 1. Caravan 2. Commercialism 3. Fairs 4. Many economy 5. Liveries 6. Capitalism 7. Guilds 8. Urbanization 9. Wedding Follow-up Questions 1. How did the holding of fairs lead to the emergence of towns? Explain 2. Describe the events that led to the rise of guilds.

3. Compare and contrast merchant guilds from craft guilds.

4. How significant was the role of the Catholic Church in the rise of the towns and guilds.

Activity 1. Have a feel of the Middle ages by doing the following: a. Research on Middle Age art, including the Romanesque styles and gothic styles of architecture. Bring pictures and examples of churches and building showing these architectural forms as well as the different art forms. b. listen to samples of Middle Age music such as the Gregorian Chant. Share a musical piece with the class 2. Describe the Middle Ages as a period, its low points and high notes of achievements.

Write it on a paper.

LESSON 20

THE RENAISSANCE

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Just at the end of the Middle Ages came a new period in Europe history called the Renaissance which began in Italy around the 1400`s and in Germany, France, England, and in other parts of Europe by the 1500`s to the 1600`s.

The Renaissance is a series of literary and cultural movements during those periods.

It was called Renaissance because it heralded the birth of a new age in culture, the arts, education, and in almost all other aspects of life, with its central theme –humanism.

HUMANISM AND THE RENAISSANCE. The Middle Ages, the period prior to the Renaissance, emphasized following the rules or dictates of God, or a deity, as to by accepted prophets like the pope or the bishop.

This can be seen in the Crusades or holy wars, where people sacrificed their lives for the sake of religion, or of their duty to their God. The knights, who excelled in warfare and chivalry, also did the same for a code of honor. As the Crusades and the feudalistic system ended, and with the rise of towns and guilds, people began to shift their thinking towards a word where man would be given more importance-as an individual and as respectable member of society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance period as a particular era in history showed the following characteristics.

1. Revival of Classical Arts- People from walks of life- from kings to commonersstudied and created classical works of arts and literature. These works were made not mainly only to earn money, but to create beautiful works of art for its own sake.

2. Curiosity and Objective- People began to be interested in their own physical characteristics, the workings of their mind, and nature of the world and their part in it.

3. Individualism- People started to focus on the unique and remarkable talents of the individual, and the development of the human potential, which brought new emphasis on education scholarship.

THE RENAISSANCE`S LITERARY GIANTS 

Giovanni Boccaccio.

An Italian writer and poet who led the rediscovery of classical literature by writing great tragic and comic narrative .

THE GREATNESS OF RENAISSANCE ART

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LEONARDO da VINCI (1452-1517).

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  

He is considered as one of the greatest figures of the Renaissance and is a famous painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, and scientist.

Michelangelo (14750-1564).

A note sculptor, painter, architect, and poet, he set a new standard in male sculpture through his work David in marble.

Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520).

A painter and architect considered as one of the greatest Renaissance artist after Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.

Bram ante Dona to (1444-1514).

He is an architect and artist who is known for the circular Tempietto, a great architectural masterpiece in Rome, and for his frescoes at the dome of the Church of Santa Maria.

POLITICAL THOUGHT IN THE RENAISSACE Political ideas also enjoyed development during the Renaissance as great political thinkers made their works, such as Leonardo Bruni, who wrote the History of the Florentine People: and Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote The Prince (published in1532),a work of unique political discussion, that is still followed by many political leaders today.

Machiavelli sought to explain politics in a realistic manner, based on his concepts about human nature.

DISCOVERIES DURING THE RENAISSANCE During the Renaissance, both men and nations wanted to grow and develop in every way positive. a. The development of the compass, astrolabe and navigational knowledge during the Renaissance would enable explores to later venture into the new world. b. Johannes Gutenberg- invented printing in Europe in the 1440s, making it possible for written works to be disseminated more easily, thereby multiplying knowledge. It was also used to print maps to avoid to aid navigation.

THE RENAISSANCE SPREADS Renaissance ideas began in Italy, but its spread throughout Europe. Among the Renaissance men in other parts of Europe are Erasmus, who developed scholarships for northern Europe, the Dutch painters Albertcht Durere and Hans Holbein; the French writer Francois Rabelais and Joaquin Du Bellaz, Miguel de Cervantes of Spain.

EFFECTS OF THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance was such a revolution in the history of man that it had effects not only in Europe, but also in the rest of the world, and not only from the 14 to the 16 century, but also through the rest of human history after that, and into the present age. a. It sparkled the intellectual revolution that will come centuries later, aided by the invention of printing and writings of humanism. b. It enriched world civilization through an intellectual and artistic heritage that is still important today, especially in the fields of education, arts, literature, and humanistic inquiry. c. It contributed to exploration and voyages to new lands. Some of the greatest explorer swore Italians who were exposed to the Renaissance such as Christopher Columbus and Amerio Vespucci. d. It paved the way for the Reformation, as humanist thinking revealed the many abuses of the clergy within the Catholic Church. e. It nurtured the growth of national states, such as England, France and Spain, as the weakening papacy and middle class contributed to the strength o kings.

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Terms to Define 1. Sonnets 2. Symphony 3. Astrolabe 4. Humanism 5. Renaissance 6. Frescoes Follow-up Questions 1. How important was humanism in the advent of the Renaissance? Explain.

2. What is Machiavellies idea of the state?

3. Why is the Renaissance considered as one of the main revolutions in the history of man?

4. Describe the Renaissance as a period in history. Elaborate on its characteristics.

Activity 1. Divide the class into 10 groups. Each group will research on a particular Renaissance artist: a short biography and sample of works shall be included in the group‘s report to the class.

2. List down your five most notable achievements/results of the Renaissance, and your explanation on why you picked your choice

LESSON 21

REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION

The revolution spurred by the Renaissance was not limited to the cultural and literary fields, but rolled over to the religious sector as well, with the coming of the Reformation in the 16th century that aimed to reform the Roman Catholic Church.

CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION Although the Reformation was ignited by the German monk Martin Luther in1517 through hi 95 thesis or complaints against the Catholic Church, there were many underlying causes which promoted this movement. a. Decline of the Papacy.

The Roman Catholic Church lorded it over the government and territories of Europe during the Middle Ages. This church traced its roots to the Christian church founded by Jesus Christ in the 30s A.D, after which it grew to carry the torch of temporal and spiritual power in the western world. b. Need for Reform in the Catholic Church.

By the 16th century, the Roman Catholic Church was such in a state of corruption and decay that it was in dire need of reforms. Many members of the clergy were more concerned with wordy affairs and showed little spiritually. c. The Rise of Strong National States.

The rise of town which later became cities and nations- states inculcated in the people that there is life and development outside the influence of the church. The continuous contest for political supremacy between popes and emperors led to animosity between Rome and various empires in Europe, especially with the rise of nationalist sentiment within their territories.

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d. The Renaissance and Technological Advancement.

These movements had a great effect on the Reformation, with Renaissance humanists demonstrating that documents establishing papal supremacy were spurious.

FORERUNNERS OF THE REFORMATION Even before the time of Martin Luther, there were already leaders and groups of people who opposed some or most of Roman Catholic doctrines, with some directly separating from Rome. a. John Wycliffe (1328-1384). Wycliffe believed that the authority of the popes and bishops is based on falsehood, and that clergy and lay people are equal. b. John Huss (1369-1415). Huss was an early reformer. After becoming a priest in 1400, he began attacking the morals of the clergy. c. Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498). An Italian friar and reformer who was a highly emotional preacher.

MARTIN LUTHER AND THE BIRTH OF REFORMATION But while there were many forerunners of the reformation, the major split from Rome would be started by Martin Luther, Roman Catholic German Monk.

THE DISSATISFACTION OF MARTIN LUTHER Martin Luther was born in Saxony in 1483.

As Luther studied theological and philosophical concepts, he found no comfort in acts of penitence and the sacraments.

In Rome, Luther, instead of finding the strength to cling to church doctrine, found abhorrent practices that he could not take.

In 1517, Luther posted his now famous Ninety-five Theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg.

The church ordered Luther to retract his statement, but Luther all the more became zealous in his quest for church reform.

THE BATTLE CONTINUES. In 1520, Luther published his three greatest work: Address to the German Nobility, where he appealed to the German nobility to write against papal exploitation: On Christian Liberty, where he clarified the nature of Christian faith: On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, where he rejected five of the Catholic Church‘s seven sacraments, accepting only baptism and communion as valid.

PROTESTANTISM IN OTHER COUNTRUIES Protestantism and its concepts spread into many parts of Europe  Scandinavia. From Germany, Lutheranism spread northward to Scandinavia.  Switzerland. Church reforms in Switzerland were led Huldreich Zwingli, who also influenced the reformation in the Netherlands.  France. The reformation in France was led by John Calvin, who conformed to early Reformation leaders on such issues as importance of faith over good works: universal priesthood of believers: and Christian social ethics.  Scotland. John Knox led the Reformation is Scotland; He made the Church of Church of Scotland adopt a declaration of faith and liturgy.

PROTESTANTISM AS A FAITH

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Protestantism as a faith is still largely Christian, and though it largely resulted from the Reformation, most of the Christian sects today that are not under the fold of Catholicism are considered as Protestant churches.

RESULTING OF THE REFORMATION The Reformation was able to effect many changes in life and society from the medieval times up to now: 1. The Roman Catholic Church lost much prestige and power People, countries, and leagues which should have supported the church began supporting and giving donations to their Protestant counterparts 2. .Various regions in Europe gained and cultural independence, and national language and literature advanced.

3. Different forms of Protestant churches arose in Europe and other territories.

THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION Waiting to stop the imminent fall of the Roman Catholic Church, papal authorities created the Catholic Reformations (also known as the Counter-Reformation), which sought to revitalize/invigorate the church and oppose the spread of Protestantism in many territories.

Terms to Define 1. Instituted 2. Meager 3. Decline 4. Penitents 5. Dissemination 6. Excommunicated 7. Papa bull 8. Strained 9. Severed 10. Wield Follow-up Questions 1. In what way did the rise of nation-states lessen the influence of the papacy?

2. Who were the forerunners of the Reformation? Elaborate on their contribution to the movement.

3. What steps did the church make to counter the influence of the Reformation?

Activity 1. Make a flowchart showing the different stages of the Reformation its causes, forerunners, Luther‘s action and the Counter-Reformation, and the results 2. Research on one of the leaders of the Reformation and one of the leaders of the Counter-Reformation. Report on their life story and struggles.

LESSON 22

THE EMERGENCE OF KINGDOM AND GOVERNMENTS

After the Middle Ages came a period of absolute monarchy in Europe, researching its peak in the reign of monarchy in France, especially King Louis IV. Absolute monarchy is a kind of government where one person inherits or is appointed to a throne and rules for life.

The monarchs descendents also have the right to inherent the throne later on. In any case, the power of the monarch is absolute and unlimited. He can decree almost anything as long as his or her subjects can afford it. 

THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS.

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The idea of the divine‖ divine right of king‘ is that the monarch‘s rule is divinely appointed, or that their right to rule comes directly from Go, instead of from the trust of the people. The concept argues that since God has given the king the right to remove or replace a bad king. In effect, no king can do any wrong. This idea will be challenged by those who will oppose monarchical rule later on.

THE POWER OF THE FENCH MONARCHY Absolute monarchy would reach its height in France, starting with the reign of Hugh Cape. Who was appointed by French nobles as King of France on 987 A.D. he would start the Capetian Dynasty, along with the line of kings who would rule until 1328 A.D.  The hundred year’s wars (1337-1453). King Edward III landed an army in Normandy, which then started the war between France and England for more than a hundred years. a. French kings attempts to control Gascony, an English-controlled province in southwestern France. b. Quarrel over the rights to the English Channel by French and British seafarers and fisherman. c. Fears of French invasion of Scotland, which England was trying to vanquish.  The Rise and Fall of Joan of Arc. Joan was a simple girl born in Dormery, France, who grew up as a devout Catholic. She might have been a clairvoyant at an early age, and began having religious visions by the age of 13. As France was almost being annihilated by England, Joan came to see King Charles VII to tell him about her mission to save France.

AGE OF ABSOLUTION IN FRANCE From the 1500s to the 1700s, the power of the kings and their ministers grew and France became a strong nation, largely through the efforts of these leaders. 

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Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642). He became the actual ruler of France for almost two decades, and strengthened the France monarchy. After becoming bishop in 1606, he rose to become one of the ablest clergies in France and by 1614 he was made a trusted friend of the mother of King Louis XIII. As the king grew suspicious of his growing influence, he was ordered deposed in 1617.

Louis XIV (1643-1715). After Louis III came his son Louis XIV, who was declared as of the age in 1651.

PARIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT IN ENGLAND  The English Kings. The Tudors became the founders of absolute monarchy in England.  The Puritan Revolution. James I‘s son and successor, Charles I, was also a despot and ruled with an iron hand.  The Glorious Revolution. After Cromwell‘s death, the starts restored their claim to power, but the parliamentary composed of upper and middle class politicians encourage Mary II, elder daughter of James II who was the last Stuart king, and her husband William Orange to became co-rulers of England.

Terms to Define 1. clairvoyant2. impacted3. deposed4. rout5. pomp6. tact7. brink-

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8. annihilated9. monarchy10. revolutionFollow-up Questions 1. How did the Reformation lead to the revival of the power of the monarchy?

2. Describe extend and power of the monarchy during the Age of Absolutism in France.

3. Explain the concept of the ―divine right of kings‖. How was this idea challenged later?

4. What role did King Louis XIV play in the history of France?

Evaluation Multiple choices: Choose the best answer.

1. Led the Puritan Revolution a. Oliver Cromwell b. Cardinal Richelieu c. Louis XIV d. Joan of Arc 2. Ruled in England‘s Golden Age a. James I b, . Henry VIII c. Queen Elizabeth I d. Francis Bacon 3. Ended with a decisive French victory in 1453 A. Hundred Years War B. French Revolution C. Puritan Age D. War with the Huguenots 4. The clairvoyant French military leader A. Oliver Cromwell B. Cardinal Richelieu C. Louis XIV D. Joan of Arc 5. Government where the king‘s power is unlimited A. absolute monarchy B. parliamentary monarch C. aristocracy D. democracy 6. Last king of the Captain Dynasty A. Hugh Capet B. Charles IV C. Louis IV D. Edward III 7. The first Stuart king A. Louis XIV B. Charles I C. James II D. James I 8. He reign saw France as the mightiest power in Europe.

A. Oliver Cromwell B. Cardinal Richelieu C. Louis XIV D. Joan of Arc 9. Idea that the king‘s rule is from God A. monarchy B. ―I am the state‘ C. Divine Right of Kings D. Iron hand10 10. Strengthened the French monarchy A. Oliver Cromwell B. Cardinal Richelieu C.Joan of Arc D. Louis XIV

LESSON 23

THE COMING OF COLONIALISM

The towns and cities grew into strong nation-states headed by kings with absolute authority. In time, the competition for new markets and new locations drove the states to venture past their territoriesREASONS FOR EUROPEAN COLONIALISM 

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Economic motives.

As the different European nation-states prospered, there was a need to find new markets for the products and surpluses brought about by businesses. There were also those who want venture into new lands to finds riches or loot that they can bring home. Kings especially wanted new riches and wealth to finance their wars and other ventures.

Strategic motives.

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

The colonizers of Europe were also motivated by the desire to conquer lands to display their naval and military power. They could use these territories to gain entry into under unknown realism. They could also use these to deny access or routes to other countries wanting passage.

Religious motives.

Catholicism and Protestantism, wanting to propagate their own brand of religion, went on with these colonizing missions and even motivated kings to find new territories. This way they can obey their religions call to evangelize and characterize the so called ―pagans‘ and ― gentiles.

COLONIALISM`S FIRST VENTURES 1. The Portuguese.

Even before the 1400s, Portugal has already amassed great knowledge of the seas and was already able to build great ships for long voyages.

2. The Spaniards.

Spain became the fiercest rival of Portugal in territorial expansion during those times. Their conquests began with Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator who was denied funding and support by Portugal for his travel proposals and ideas.

3. Papal Division of the World.

The competition between Spain and Portugal for territorial expansion grew to such extend that Pope Alexander VI, in 1493, drew demarcation lines to settle land right between the two countries. The line ran from the North Pole to the South Pole, with all lands west of the line awarded to Spain and all lands east of the line awarded to Porugal.

4. English Exploration.

John Cabot, a Venetian mariner under the services of King Henry VII, made the first English voyage to North America that would give England a claim to North America. He landed in parts of Canada and the eastern coasts of what is now the United States. His son, Sebastian Cabot, also sailed to North America.

5. French and Dutch Exploration.

Giovanni Verrazano, an Italian in the service of King Francis I of France, was able to reach and explore Newfoundland. He was followed by Jacques Cartier who explored the St. Lawrence River.

TERMS TO DEFINE 1. Gentiles2. Propagate3. Conquistadores4. Colonialism5. Venture6. Route7. Demarcation Lines8. Loot9. RealmsFOLLOW-UP QUESTION 1. What is colonialism? How did it take root in Europe?

2. How did Prince Henry the Navigator spark colonial ventures?

3. Elaborate on Spain colonial objectives. Why do you think it came into conflict with Portugal‘s goal?

4. Why did the papacy divide the world between Spain and Portugal?

5. Besides Spain and Portugal, what other European nations ventured into other territories? What are their stories?

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Activity 1. Make a table showing the colonialist countries, their famous conquistadores, and the territories they colonized.

2. Create an artwork showing your feeling or perception on colonialism. Be creative.

LESSON 24

THE MAKING OF COLONIES AND COLONIAL EMPIRES

As the explorations of European countries continued, it gave rise to colonial empires.

Kingdoms became bigger, and the wealth of nations.

COLONIALISM CONTINUES  Portugal’s Colonies. As settle, soldiers, and missionaries followed Portugal‘s colonizers, they established many colonies around the world.

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Portugal‘s downfall as a colonizing power was further quickened by the seizure of Portugal‘s throne by Philip II of Spain in 1580, and it became a Spanish territory until 1640.

The Spanish Colonial Empire. Spain continued its colonization‘s efforts well after Columbus discovered American, and soon founded settlements in South and Central American, and the West Indies.

They also built colonial strongholds in Asia, with Miguel Lopez de Legazpi creating permanent settlement in the Philippine islands. The Spanish colonial empire extended to Borneo, the Moluccas, and the Marianas.

English, French, and Dutch Territories. English explorers founded Jamestown in 1608 in Virginia, as well as the 13 original English colonies in North America. In wars with Spain, it acquired Canada and various territories such as Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and India. It also acquired Australia, New Zealand, and other South Pacific islands.

THE DIFFERENT COLONIES As Europe colonialism spread throughout, various types and forms of colonialism emerged, depending on the arrangements made by the colonizers on their subjugated territories 1. Colonies of Settlement. These resulted when a significant number of citizens of a foreign country (the colonizing country) migrated to and eventually took control of the new area. Examples of these are the English colonies in parts of America, Canada and Australia.

2. Colonies of Exploitation. These resulted when the citizens of the colonizing countries went to the new territories as merchants, administrations, or military personnel. Examples of these are former colonies like Indonesia, the Philippines‘, Nigeria, and Ghana.

3. Contested Settlement. These resulted when different Europe settlers took up permanents residences and created their own governments. Examples of these are former colonies like Algeria and Southern Rhodesia.

EFFECTS OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM Colonialism had its good and adverse effects 1. It‘s brought progress Western civilization coming into new territories: new infrastructure, technology, and breakthroughs were introduced. However, the traditional cultures of the occupied territories were undermined.

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2. Colonized territories were stripped of their natural resources, and colonized people were often stripped away of their freedom to govern themselves. However, it ended many local wars and fostered the nationalism needed to make the colonized territories‘ growth as a nation possible.

TERMS TO DEFINE 1. Subjugated2. Breakthroughs3. Landholdings4. Vastness5. Infrastructure6. SeizureFOLLOW-UP QUESTIONS 1. Give the types of colonies. Different each one 2. Where did Spain and Portugal establish their empire? How about the English, French and the Dutch?

3. Compare and contrast colonies of settlement with colonies of exploitations.

4. What would have changed in history if the Europeans did not colonizing new territories? Give you‘re your opinion on the matter.

5. What goods and resource did the colonizers get from their subjugated territories?

Activity Make a table incorporating all colonized territories, the colonizers, and the type of coloy, as follows.

Colony Philippines

LESSON 25

Colonizer Spain

Type Colony of Exploitation

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

The Enlightenment is an intellectual movement in Europe that reached a high point in the 16th to the 18th century, consisting of advances in philosophy, the sciences, literature, and social and political system. The writers of the period called it the Enlightenment because of the beliefs that were coming from centuries of ignorance and moving towards a new age of reason and science. It was also called the Age of Reason or Age of Rationalism, a time when philosophers stressed the importance of raisin as the best method of knowing the truth.

CAUSES OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Age of Reason was spurred by various factors, among them the increased attraction to Humanism resulting from the Renaissance: the increased in the number of universities and intellectual centers: the dissemination of printed books and newspapers brought about by the invention of the printing press: the arrival of many rich patrons of learning, the sciences, and the arts who provided funding for intellectual pursuits.

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LEADERS OF THE ENGLIGHTENMENT Various personalities headed for the kind of thinking during the Enlightenment. 

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Rene Descartes (1596-1650) He was a French mathematician, philosopher, and scientist, who was often called the father of modern philosophy. He established the science of optics and was the first to apply geometry to algebra.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784).

A French photosphere and editor of the Encyclopedia, an encyclopedia of 35 volumes on social and political thought. His work extended beyond philosophy and included writings in fiction, drama, art, and literacy criticism.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).

He has a French social philosopher and writing who believe that government is justified only if sovereignty stay with the people. He proposed changes in French society influenced the French Revolution.

Voltaire (1694-1778).

Voltaire, whose original name is Francis Marie Arouet, was a French writer and philosopher who wrote books in story, philosophy, and plays and poetry. His clear style and keen intelligence made him famous.

John Locke (1632-1704).

Locke was an English philosopher whose political theories exerted much influence in America and France. He taught empiricism, claiming that experience is the only source of knowledge, and contented that universe was a mechanical system of material bodies composed of ―invisible particles‖.

ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS The Emphasis on Reason. Most thinkers of the enlightenment created their ideas using the scientific method, specifically experimentation and observations. 

Laws in the Arts.

Even the artists in the Enlightenment emphasized the value of laws.

Deism. Philosophers during the Ages of Reason believed that after God created the universe, he left it alone. 

Deism Philosophers during the Age of Reason believed that after God created the universe, he left it alone. Thus, the universe would run mechanically according to set rules. Man, therefore, can predict future events based on earlier events.

Science was regarded as the keynotes to knowledge, and experience was given preference rather than received knowledge. Because of this new discipline were given the impulse which they need-such as economies and public administration.

EFFECTS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT The enlightenment or Age of Reason had the following effects a. It influenced political and social events that would come later, such as the American and French revolution, and other revolutions in Asia and in Europe: b. Human right of the common people began to be respected: c. Scientific institutes, such as the Royal Society in England, were founded d. Knowledge was compiled, organized, and gathered in encyclopedias: e. Acceptance of the criticism of established institutions such as the church and government

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Towards the end of the 1700s, began to dismiss discipline and order as the primary movers of their lives and began to embrace spontaneity.

TERMS TO DEFINE 1. Despotism2. Empiricism3. Spontaneity 4. Classicism5. Axioms6. Satirical7. Treatises8. Rationalism9. FictionFOLLOW-UP QUESTION 1.

2.

3.

4.

How did the Enlightenment shape European history? Elaborate.

What were the main ideas espoused during the Enlightenment?

Describe each of the leaders of the Enlightenment and their contributions.

Give the events and ideas that led to the Enlightenment. Explain how these contributed to the advent of the movement.

5. Compare and contrast the Enlightenment and the Renaissance. In what ways are they similar? In what ways are they different?

LESSON 26

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Renaissance and the Enlightenment led to many improvements in the way man acts out in his world. One of these is in the way he works. Centuries ago, most work was done manually and with use of hands tools. But beginning in the 18th century, man began to find ways making work easier, making machines to help him in his work, and finding new sources of energy for these machines. These fast changes in the ways man work is termed as the Industrial Revolution. This Revolution continues up to the present time.

WAYS OF LIVING BEFORE THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Man is a tool-using creature, and has been using tools as far as history can remember. But there were no advancements in the tools he used for thousands of years.

Until about the 17th century, man continued to work as much as his ancestors. But later on the crude tools he used will be replaced by faster machines.

Most people then loved in the rural areas, and were farmers. They grew few surpluses, as they only sold extra produce in nearby towns. They were self-sufficient, and made most of their food, clothing, and other needs from the farms or forest.

THE COMING OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The Industrial Revolutions began in Britain due to the following reason: 1. It had large amounts of natural resources, especially coal and iron, which were needed for powering machines: It had many colonies which provided raw materials as well as market for new product: 2. The Textile Industry. To make cloth, people then used the spinning wheel, run by just one person, producing just one thread at a time.

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British merchants capitalized on these advantages and developed machines that spurred the Industrial Revolution. This developed industries and new sources of power.

The Textile Industry To make cloth, people then used the spinning wheel, run by just one person, producing just one thread at a time. But machines were later developed to produce more threads in less time, advancing the textile industry. These include the following: Developments in spinning machines: 

In 1738, Lewis Paul and John Wyatt created improved roller-spinning stronger strands of uniforms tightness.

In 1764, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, producing eight threads at one  In 1770s, a weaver named Samuel Crompton from Lancashire developed the spinning mule, which produced high-quality cloth.

Developments in weaving machines:   

Hand weaving was improved in the early 1733 when John Kay, a Lancashire clockmaker, invented the flying shuttle.

In 1785, Edmund Cart wring invented the power loom, which was a real machine.

In 1793, Eli Whitney, an American, invented the cotton gin, which separated the cotton fiber to feed the power looms.

The Need for New Power Sources and Materials The new machineries necessitated the need for new sources of power. James Watt, a Scottish engineer, improved the steam engine in 1769. The steam engine, however, derived its power from coal. Thus, technologies were invented to utilize oil for power. Oil was resource which many nations had. Electricity was also generated through many scientific researches.

Advancements in Transportation Transportation advanced during the Industrial Revolution. Roads improved from macadamized (reinforced by clay and gravel) to concrete one, which were reinforced mainly by cement. Steam engines were applied to water vehicles such as the steamboat. The Clermont was the first steamboat to sail in New York. This was followed by the first steam locomotive, the Rocket, in 1825. Railroads were constructed running in lengths of up to hundreds of thousands of miles.

The automobile or horseless carriage was first introduced by Gottlied Daimler of Germany in 1887. Henry Ford (U.S) then mass produced it, providing thousands of people with the opportunity to ride the land vehicle.

The Revolution in Communication Communications is a very important factor in the development of human communities.

In 1811, Friedrich Koenig, a German printer, began to use a steam engine to power a press, enabling the printing the large number of copies for newspapers and other materials Advancement in transportation, such as the coming of locomotive, increases the frequency and speed by which people communicate.

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   

In1832, American inventor Samuel F.B. Morse and his partner, Alfred Vail, invented the electric telegraph, enabling communication over long distances and at great speed.

In 1868, three American, Carlos Glidden, Christopher Sholles and Samuel Soule, devised the first practical typewriter, enabling messages to be coded or typewritten.

Advancements in transportation, such as the coming of locomotive, increased the frequency and speed by which people communicate.

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented a kind of telephone, a device that transmits human voice over wires. Bell‘s first words over the first telephone were; ―Mr. Watson, come here. I want you.‖

The Agriculture Revolution  



Crop-growing and farming methods Farmers began to use a four-crop rotation system in their fields to utilize their lands. This method greatly increased crop yields on farmlands.

Livestock breeding By breeding animals with desirable traits, offspring with the best traits can be produced. An English farmer named Robert Bakewell first showed this by raising a breed of sheep that fattened quickly, reducing the age by which the sheep could be ready for slaughter. As the result, sheep meat became very popular.

Farm machines Jethro Tull, an English farmer, developed a drill that dug the soil and deposited seeds in them, thereby eliminating this work by hand and reducing farming time. Other advances include the cotton gin invented by Eli Whitney, which made large-scale cotton production possible; the harvesting machine, or reaper, invented by Cyrus McCormick in 1834; the thresher patented in 1834 by Americans John and Hiram Pitts; and the steel plough invented by John Deere in 1837.

EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION      

Division of Labor Unions and Corporations Rise of Cities Contrasting Standards of Living Growth of Information The Development of New Polite Economic System: Capitalism and Communism

Terms to Define 1. macadamized 2. textile3. spinning wheel4. telegraph5. corporation6. power loom Follow-up Questions 1. Describe the causes of the Industrial revolution in Britain.

2. In your opinion, how did advancements in transportation contribute to the development of business and industry?

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3. Why did the Industrial Revolution necessitate the need for new power sources and materials?

4. Give the effects of the Industrial Revolution. In why ways did these change society?

5. What were the developments in the textile industry during the period? Elaborate.

Activity 1. Make a table describing the way of life before and after the Industrial Revolution.

2. Research on one invention during the Industrial Revolution.

Get a picture of this innovation and make a description. Then share it with the class.

Evaluation Multiple choices: Choose the best answer.

1. First steamboat that sailed in New York a. power loom c. spinning wheel b. Clermont d. rocket 2. An effect of the Industrial revolution a. division of labor c. guilds b. colonialism d. manual labor 3. Invented the spinning jenny a. Samuel Crompton c. John Kay b. Eli Whitney d. James Hargraves 4. Improved the steam engine in 1769 a. Eli Whitney c. Samuel Morse b. Wilburg Wright d. James Watt 5. Invented the cotton gin a. Samuel Crompton c. John Kay b. Eli Whitney d. James Harreaves 6. Mass produced the automobile a. Henry Ford c. Gottlieb Daimler b. Edmund Cartwright d. Orvile Wright 7. Developed the spinning mule a. Samuel Crompton c. John Kay b. Eli Whitney d. James Hargreaves 8. Device invented by Bell in 1876 a. telegraph c. radio b. telephone d. locomotive 9. Derived its power from coal a. automobile c. telegraph b. airplane d. steam engine 10. Invented the flying shuttle a. Samuel Crompton c. John Kay b. Eli Whitney d. James Hargreaves

LESSON 27

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL REVOLUTIONS

The Enlightenment, the Reformation, and various revolutions in industry and technology promoted the concepts of humanism, liberalism, and democracy in various parts of the world.

THE UNITED STATES- FROM COLONY TO SUPERPOWER Young Ji International School / College

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  

Beginnings. The North America continent, where the United States is located, had been originally populated by Eskimos and American Indians.

Start of the Rift. The various colonies began to proper, and England started believing that it should benefit from the wealth being produced from these territories.

Causes of the American Revolution. The American Revolution, also known as the War for Independence or the American Revolutionary War, happened because of the following:

1. British Economic Exploitation England implemented various economic policies, which angered the colonies.

2. British Abuse of Political and Human Rights The British colonies were not given proper political rights. For example, they were not represented in the British Parliament but were taxed. The colonies also had anti-monarchy sentiments, and believed that power should not be concentrated in the hands of one man.

3. The Dawn of the Revolution As these events were happening, the leaders of the colonies were already talking about being free from Britain.

4. The War for Independence As the initial battles between the colonies and Britain raged on, the leaders of the colonies began planning to declare their independence from Britain.

5. The United States Grows As the United States grew as a nation, it went through various phases and challenges in its history.  Expansion of Territory U.S. territory expanded through a series of purchases and battles for control.

The Lousiana Purchase in 1803 of territories, held by France, doubled U.S. territory, while Florida was purchased from Spain in 1819  The American Civil War With an increase in U.S. territory, wealth, and population came a rift between its northern and southern territories. The North is America‘s industrial giantrepresented by businessmen, capitalists, and entrepreneurs.  International Leader From then on, the United States began its rise as a world power. By the turn of the 20th century, the US has acquired many colonies, including the Philippines and Guam, and has played a role in various battles, wars and international disputes. Presently, the US is still one of the leading superpowers in the World.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE FRENCH EMPIRE The French Revolution is an important European event that changed the political landscape of the continent. It was mainly caused by the a. tyranny and extravagance of the French monarchy b. The rise of ideas on liberty, democracy, and progress as given in the writings of Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu, as shown in the American Revolution c. Poverty and oppression of the French people, especially the Thrid estate made up of the commoners. 

The Tennis Court Oath

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The three estates were locked in debate and cannot agree on the new taxes, and the Third estate tried asking for a constitution. The time, the other two estates began to support the third. 

War With Other Nations and Insurrection As the events in France continued, other nations such as Prussia and Austria became afraid of the growing revolution in the country. As relations deteriorated, war ensued. The French leaders of the assembly hoped that the war would bring unity.

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The Reign of Terror Results of the French Revolution The National Convention opened with two major rival groups: that of the radical Montagnards, and that of the moderate Girondists. The convention acted swiftly by formally abolishing the monarchy in September 1792.

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Napoleon Bonaparte and the French Empire Although the French Revolution was quite chaotic and discovery, it fostered French nationalism and brought ideas of democracy and three societies to Europe.

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Napoleon Bonaparte and the French Empire The Convention later turned its back against Robespierre, and he himself was sentenced to death and executed. All the Convention groups such as the Montagnards and Girondists were stripped of their powers, which were given to the new Dictionary



The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 After Napoleon‘s fall, the Bourbon dynasty, an earlier line of French kings, returned to power. King Charles X tried to impose the type of monarchy that was present in France before the French Revolution.

THE LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS Territories in North America and in parts of South Americans that were colonized by the Europeans also had their revolutions with the goal of becoming independent. The main causes for these revolutions included the general poverty and oppression of the colonized peoples, as well as the inspiration of the American and French revolutions. 

Haiti This was the first country to be free of colonial rule in South America. Their colonizers were the French, who had the natives as slaves. These slaves revolted in 1791, destroyed towns, and started a revolution. The finally defeated the French army in 1803 and became independent in 1804.



Mexico.

In 1820, a military officer named Agustin de Iturbide was tasked to crush Vicente Guerrero, the last remaining rebel leader, but instead he walked up to him and they united against Spain. They made Mexico independent by 1821. But Iturbide made himself emperor of Mexico, which people did not like.



Venezuela, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia The struggle for independence of these countries was aided by the great liberator Simon Bolivar. Columbia was later divided into Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia, and Venezuela.

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

Argentina, Chile, and Peru These countries were helped in their pursuit of independence by the able revolutionary leadership of General Jose de san martin.



Brazil Brazil became free without bloodshed. In 1804, France invaded Portugal, bringing its monarch, King John, to escape to its colony of Brazil. As the royal family returned to Portugal in 1821, the administration of the colony was left to its prince, Pedro.



Cuba Cuba‘s independence was achieved through a revolution led by Jose Marti.

This was aided by the Spanish-American war in 1898, caused by American protection of its interest in Cuba. As the Spaniards were defeated, Cuba became independent, with only a brief rule by the United States.

Terms to Define 1. imposition2. resound3. provisional4. chaotic5. Intrude6. rift7. bombardment8. ousted9. secededFollow-up Questions 1. What were the reasons for the American Revolution? Elaborate.

2. Compare and contrast the American and French revolutions in terms of causes and results.

3. Do you think it is right for the people of any nation to clamor for life, liberty, and equality? Are you enjoying these rights presently?

4. Describe how the Latin American countries fought for their independence.

Activity 1. Research and get a copy of the text of the U.S. Declaration of independence. Find a line or sentence in the Declaration that inspires you most. Share with the class your thoughts on why it inspired you.

2. Write an essay about the fact that the need of fight for one‘s freedom and rights is universal, as seen in the various revolutions around the world.

Evaluation Multiple choices: Choose the best answer.

1. Early British settlement in America a. St. Augustine c. Jamestown b. Florida d. Mexico 2. War between North and South a. War for Independence c. World War b. French Revolution d. Civil War Young Ji International School / College

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3. The Great Liberation a. Simon Bolivar c. Jose de San Martin b. Pedro d. Louis Napoleon 4. Military leader of the American forces against Britain a. Thomas Jefferson c. George Washington b. Christopher Columbus d. Abraham Lincoln 5. Helped Argentina achieve independence a. Hammurabi c. Samsuiluna b. Sargon d. Sennacherib 6. Main conflict during the Civil War a. slavery c. territory b. assassination d. food shortage 7. Composed of French commoners a. Third Estate c. First Estate b. Estate-General d. Second Estate 8. Headed the committee on Public Safety a. Maximilien Robespierre b. Napoleon c. Louis XIV d. Leif Ericsson 9. Surrendered to Washington a. Charles Comwallis b. Jefferson Davis c. Thomas Jefferson d. James Monroe 10. British economic exploitation a. Navigation Act b. Boston Massacre c. Boston Tea Party d. Continental Congress LESSON 28

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY

The different revolution reverberated across the globe and affected the course of history of many nations. Nationalism, the people‘s sense of belonging together as a nation, grew in many countries as a consequence of oppressive policies and subhuman conditions in the colonies. Democracy, on the other hand, was chosen for its ideals on truth, freedom, and form of governance.

NATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY IN EUROPE Growth of Democratic Policies in Britain. Many democratic policies started in Britain beginning in the 19th century. Among these are the following: 1. Democratic Acts. Such as the Reform Act of 1832 passed by parliament thought the leadership of Earl Gray, which gave most middle-class men the right to vote; the Municipal Corporation Act of 1835 which set up town councils presided over by a mayor; 2. Universal Suffrage. As shown by the abolition of property qualification to vote in 1884, and by giving British women over 21 the right to vote in 1921, making them equal with British men; 3. Changes in Cabinet Structure. Such as the assumption to power of Britain‘s first Prime Minister, Robert Walpole, affected easing out the King to ceremonial function

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only; and the Parliamentary Act of 1911, which denied the veto power to the House of Lords, effectively giving more power to the House of Commons.

Empires versus Republic in France France had much more difficult time adjusting to the ideals of democracy. In the time between the chaos, various strongmen would come out and establish their empires, such as that of Napoleon and the fist French Empire. France would go on to have succeeding empires as well.

The Unification of Germany NATIONALISM IN ASIA AND THE COLONIES Various countries in Asia also experienced the growth of nationalism and the pursuit of democracy. Among these are the following: 1. India.

Because of harsh British rule, Indian nationalism flourished. A.O. Hume founded the Indian National Congress in 1885. The Congress served as the forum for debates and complaints. A radical section of the Congress, however, resorted to attacks on the British. This made the British stricter in the enforcement of their laws.

Example: Mahatma Gandhi 2. Philippines The second half of the 19th century saw the Philippines struggling to free itself from Spain, Its colonial master. A group of young, educated Filipinos would meet in Spain to petition its government to provide reforms in the administration of the Philippines. Among these leaders are Jose Rizal, a bright doctor, artist and writer, and the equally adept writers Marcelo H. Del Pilar and Graciano Lopez Jaena.

In 1892, Andres Bonifacio founded a secret revolutionary group called katipunan, which will spearhead the Philippine Revolution against the Spaniards in 1896. This cultivated the proclamation of the Philippine Independence in 1898. This would be short-lived, however as the United States would colonize the islands at the beginning of the 20th century.

3. French Indochina.

The countries of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam were colonized by France since the 1800s and the territories were termed the French Indochina. France asserted and fought on, leading to protracted wars. In time, they were able to gain independence from France.

TERMS TO DEFINE 1. Reverberated 2. Suffrage 3. Miscalculation

4. subhuman 5. nationalism 6. parliament

7. strongmen 8. civil liberties 9. veto

FOLLOW-UP QUESTIONS 1. What is your concept of nationalism? How can you apply it in our present situation?

2. Describe the various events that furthered democratic ideals in Britain 3. In your option, did nationalism take root in the Philippines during the time of Rizal., Del Pilar, and the other propagandists in Europe?

4. Defend your answer.

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5. Why was Gandhi‘s nonviolent movement affected in India?

ACTIVITY 1. Create an artwork expressing your own meaning of the concept of nationalism. You may use cutouts, illustration, paintings, and the like. Be creative.

2. Compare and contrast the Philippine revolution on 1896 with the American Revolution. Write an essay on the matter.

Evaluation Multiple choices: Choose the best answer.

1. Britain‘s first Prime Minister a. Earl Gray c. Wilhelm I b. Adolphe thiers d. Robert Walpole 2. Led the nonviolent movement in India a. Jawaharlal Nehru c. A.O Hume b. Adolphe Thiers d. Mahatma Gandhi 3. India first Prime Minister a. Jawaharlal Nehru c. A.O Hume b. Adolphe Thiers d. Mahatma Gandhi 4. Establish the second French Empire in 1852 a. Wilhelm I c. Louis Napoleon b. Napoleon I d. James II 5. Denied the veto power of the House of Lords a. Reform Act of 1832 b. Democratic Act c. Municipal Corporation Act d. Parliamentary Act of 1911 6. Appointed Bismarck as Prussian Prime Minister a. Wilhelm I c. Louis Napoleon b. Napoleon I d. James II 7. Sense of belonging together as a nation a. democracy c. nationalism b. suffrage d. veto power 8. Founded the Indian National Congress a. Jawaharlal Nehru c. A.O Hume b. Adolphe Thiers d. Mahatma Gandhi 9. Gave British middle-class men the right to vote a. Reform Act of 1832 b. Democratic Act c. Municipal Corporation Act d. Parliamentary Act of 1911 10. President of third French Republic a. Earl Gray c. Wilhelm I b. Adolphe Thiers d. Robert Walpole

LESSON 29

THE WORLD WARS

The rise and growing strength of nation-states would result conflict of their various interests. While previously they were just involved in petty wars with one or two nations, the time came when conflict would arise involving many countries. In 1914 came the First World War, a war between several European powers on one side and Britain, United States, and Young Ji International School / College

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their allies on the other. This war would cost millions of live and would severely damage the economies of many countries. This would be followed by another World War, which would have worse consequences.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918)

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Causes – The First World War happened due to several factors. Among these are the following: The Rise of Nationalism – Many European countries developed and grew their own brand of nationalism in the early part of the 20th century. Because of the competition for colonies and imperial territories and because of the need for new markets, tensions arose between countries. These resulted to trade barriers, embargos, and economic competition flavored by nationalistic sentiments.

German Ambitions – In the decade before World War I, Germany grew in terms of military and commercial power. Top military men became involved in German politics and business, resulting to policies with a militaristic slant.

Outbreak of the War – On June 28, 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, Heir of the Austro-Hungarian emperor, was assassinated by Gavrilo Prinzip, a Bosnian student, backed by Serbian nationalism. This made worse the growing tension between Austria-Hungary and serbia, with the latter being blamed for nationalistic movements and unrest in the former.

The War Continues – On August 4, 1914, Britain entered the war in support of France and Belgium. A stalemate developed between German advances and French defenses, and the Allies defeated the German in the first Battle of the marine in September 1914.

By 1918, the German forces were already weakening, and by March, it launched its final offensives on the Western Front. The Allies countered with their final offensive by September. By November 1918, the Germans were severely defeated, and accepted the conditions demanded by the Allies.

Results of World War I – The First World War resulted in the following. 1) death of about 10 million soldiers and wounding of 21 million men; 2) an estimated 337 billion dollars of damage to property, facilities, businesses, and people; 3) The shaking of the foundation of societies and governments, such as the toppling of Czar Nicholas II of Russia in 1917, Kaiser Willhelm II of Germany, Emperor Charles of AustriaHungary in 1918, and the Ottoman sultan, Muhammad Vi in 1922.

THE WORLD BETWWEN THE WARS The world was shocked with the effects of World war I, and during the period from 1919 to 1939, it was involved in trying to achieve world peace. Various notable events developed during this period. 

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Creation of the League of Nations. This was an international association of countries established in 1919. Although the U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had the main idea of establishing the league, he was not able to persuade his own country to join it. The member countries agreed to submit to a League Covenant that made them pledge to preserve the independence sand territory of other members. It also has a Council, which is the principal peacekeeping agency; an Assembly that controls the league budget; and a Secretariat, which provides the administrative needs of the league. In time, the league would be a failure, lacking the necessary political clout to be respected by sovereign states.

The Russian Revolutions. Russia has been led leaders called czars since the 16th century. Their rule saw the backwardness of Russia as a nation, and the country frequently lagged behind in technology. By the 1890‘s, many groups were already working for political changes in Russia.

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Territorial Changes. Various changes in the territories of countries and in the composition of nations took place during this period. Among these are: 1. The establishment of the British Commonwealth of nations, declaring all parts of the British Empire such as Canada, Australia, new Zealand and others as ―equal in rank and united only by a common allegiance to the Crown‖ and 2. The birth of new states such as Turkey, Poland, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yugoslavia, Hungary and others.

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Rise of New Leaders and Nations. Among the new leaders and nations that rose from among the ashes of world War I were: 1. Adolf Hitler and Germany, who would be the main antagonist of the net world war.

Hitler rose from the ranks with the aid of war veterans and inspired the Germans to resurrect the German nation.

2. Japan and its military. Japan‘s military took over the reins of power in the 1930‘s because of their belief in Japan‘s destiny to be the conqueror of the world. Japan‘s resources were utilized for the militarization of the country, leading to their participation in World war II. THE COMING OF WORLD WAR II Just about 20 years after the end of World War I came another devastating conflict between many nations. This time, more people would be killed, more properly would be destroyed, and more far reaching consequences would result. This war is known as World War II. Causes of the War 1. Unresolved Problems of the World War I. Many problems, such as the continued animosity between the countries and boasted division of territories were left unresolved, leaving many countries to find their own solutions.

2. The Rise of Dictatorship. Many fiery leaders took advantage of the devastated economies of their countries to steer their nations as dictators. They resorted to concepts of nationalism to further discontent among the people. Among these dictators were Adolf Hitler of Germany and Benito Mussolini of Italy. These dictators had grand plans to expand the territories of their countries.  Prelude to the War. During the 1930‘s, Japan, Italy, and Germany became aggressive and invaded weak lands. Italy conquered Ethiopia in Africa by May 1936.

German forces went into Austria and united that country with Germany.  Adolph Hitler. Hitler was the main architecture of Germany‘s expansion plans which ultimately led to World War II. As a young man, he was well off and regarded himself as an artist. However, he failed to qualify in the Academy of Fine Arts. His political observations led him to develop an ultra-nationalistic viewpoint and hatred of nonGermans, most especially the Jews.  The War Stars. In September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, precipitating World War II. Because of this, Britain and France immediately declared war on Germany.  The Battle Continues. By 1943, German forces were beginning to weaken, as the Germans failed to conquer Stalingrad, while Axis forces in northern Africa surrendered.  The End of the War. As the German forces continued to crumble Hitler took his life on April 30, 1945. 

Results and Effects of the War. World War II resulted to about 17 million dead soldiers and combatants and a lot more civilian casualties. Millions of Jews were also killed in concentration camps on order of Hitler. It divested the economies of most of the protagonist and invaded economies.

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The two world wars showed what lust for power and greed could do to lives and property. The wars and conflicts, however, did not end here. Many more conflicts would ensure in the latter half of the 20th century.

Terms to Define 1. animosity2. aggressor3. culminated4. augment5. embargo6. militarization7. offensive8. allegiance9. cessation10. soldiersFollow-up Questions 1. What were the causes of the World War I and World War II? In what ways are they similar and different?

2. Describe the protagonist of the two world wars. Elaborate on the roles of each main country involved in the country.

3. How would you explain the motives of Adolf Hitler? What should be done to prevent the rise of ambitious leaders like him?

4. In your opinion, what is the greatest lesson that could be derived from the two world wars?

Activity 1. Conduct an interview with a World War II veteran. Ask him about this life and that of his family during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in the 1940s. Make a report about the interview.

2. Create flowcharts detailing the events of the World War I and World War II, from the causes to the battles to the effects.

Evaluation Multiple choices: Choose the best answer.

1. Inspired the British forces. a. Adolf Hitler c. Francis Ferdinand b. Woodrow Wilson d. Winston Churchill 2. Italian dictator a. Benito Mussolini b. Francis Ferdinand c. Adolf Hitler d. Franklin Delano Roosevelt 3. Resulted to the entry of the U.S. in World War II a. Ethpopian Invasion b. Assyrians c. Bombing of Pearl Harbor d. Bombing of Hiroshima 4. The German dictator a. Adolf Hitler c. Francis Ferdinand b. Woodrow Wilson d. Winston Churchill 5. Established by the Russian communist government in 1992 a. U.S.A c. Nazi b. U.S.S.R. d. Axis 6. Hitler‘s was machine Young Ji International School / College

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a. Nazi c. League of Nations b. Axis Powers d. United Nations 7. Created to promote world peace after World War I a. Nazi c. League of Nations b. Axis Powers d. United Nations 8. His assassination ignited World War I a. Adolf Hitler c. Francis Ferdinand b. Woodrow Wilson d. Winston Churchill 9. Leader of Bolsheviks a. Nicholas c. Vladimir Lenin b. Woodrow Wilson d. Gavrilo Prinzip 10. Conceptualized the League of Nations a. Adolf Hitler c. Francis Ferdinand b. Woodrow Wilson d. Winston Churchill

LESSON 30

A CONTEMPORARY HISTORY OF THE WORLD

The period after the two world wars, specifically the second half of the 20th century (1950s to 1990s), saw a rapid pace in the development and interaction of nations and communities. It saw the goodness of unity and the vanity of conflict, with the world‘s attempt to unite as one, and the seemingly innumerable small-scale wars and conflicts that followed.

A number and happenings stood out during this period.

THE COLD WAR The Cold War is the post-war economic and political struggle between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) and its communist allies on one side, and the United States of America (USA) and other western nations on the other during the 1950s to late 1980s. 

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Roots of the Cold War – the mistrust between the USSR and the West, which began with Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, grew worse after World War II, as the West favored self-determination for the losing nations, while the USSR insisted on keeping territories as declared in earlier 1939 Hitler-Stalin pact.

Creation of Military Alliances – as the tension intensified, the two sides created military alliances to support their purposes. On April 4, 1949, the US and its allies, including France, the United Kingdom, Norway, and Portugal signed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) The Cuban Missile Crisis – in October 1962, Soviet rockets were sighted in Cuba.

John F. Kennedy, then President of the United States, used a combination of threat, diplomacy, and negotiation to force the soviet to dismantle the missiles. For a moment, the world looked on the brink of another world war, but reason prevailed.

The Arms Races The End of the Cold War

THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT  Origins  First Arab- Israeli War(May1948-March 1949)  Second Arab-Israeli War (October-November 1956)  Third Arab-Israeli War or Six-Day War (June 5-10, 1967)  Fourth Arab- Israeli War or the Yom Kippur War( October 1973)  Fifth Arab-Israeli War War ( June 1982- February1985)

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THE COLLAPSE OF THE USSR AND THE REUNIFICATION OF GERMANY The Reunification of Germany The Collapse of the Soviet Union CHANGES IN ASIA Two Chinas  The Division of Korea. Korea was divided into two zones right after World War II. Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia: Communist States. Vietnam was also divided between two sides: North Vietnam with a communist republic headed by Ho Chi Minh; and South Vietnam with a democratic republic headed by its President Ngo Dinh Diem.  The Rise of Japan. After Japans failed bid to occupy the whole of Asia capped by the devastating bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan went on to struggle slowly until it reached its present status as a world economic giant.

The Rise and Struggle of the South East Asian region- Southeast Asia, which includes the Philippines, suffered terribly as a region during the Second World War with the Japanese invasion.

THE PERSIAN GULF WAR (JAN- FEB 1991) Another major world event which happened in the second half of the 20th century was the Persian Gulf War, or simply the Gulf War. Causes of the Gulf War. Iraq, under the strong rule of Saddam Hussein, went to war with neighboring country Iran from 1980 to 1988 due to a border dispute.

The Occupation of Kuwait. On August 2, 1990, Iraq suddenly invaded Kuwait.

The War’s Aftermath. The war took a great toll on both Iraq and Kuwait.

The Rise of A United Europe.  Europe, which figured prominently in the annals of history as the birthplace of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and other notable events, began to rise as a Continent and as a community of nations after the Second World War Beginning of a United Europe. A divided Europe was not able to prevents the creation of a council or grouping of nations in the continent , with the economy spurring the need for more unity.

AFRICA: STRUGGLES  Africa as continents has been at the losing end of colonialism Various countries have been conquered and exploited by European countries during the era of colonialism.

THE WAR AGAINTS TERRORISM  Terrorism is the use of threat or violence to create fear and alarm.  The Attack on the World Trade Center. The united State has particularly been vulnerable to terrorist attacks because of its actions and principle in international politics, which is usually frowned upon by other countries and extremist groups.  The Attacks on Afghanistan. As various evidences pointed to the Taliban as the protector of the AI-Qaeda group of Osama Bin Laden, the US prepared itself to launch attacks against the Taliban of Afghanistan.

THE NEW WAR VERSUS IRAQ. As the war against terrorism continued, the battleplace shifted to Iraq, a longtime enemy of the United States, which is being charged with keeping weapons of mass destruction.

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Terms to Define 1. Glasnost2. Embargo3. Partition4. Stewardship5. Adamant6. Antagonism7. Dismantle8. Zionism 9. Coup10. DownsizingFollow-Up Questions 1. Describe the events the divided Korea during the 1950s.What long- term effects did these have on two states?

2. Compare and contrast the Persian Gulf War with the two world wars. In your analysis, what would have happened if all the Arab nations sided with Iraq?

3. Why is Taiwan not recognized as a sovereign state? How do you think this would affect future peace in the region?

Activity 1. Have a formal debate on the following issue: ―The United State is justified in launching the war on terrorism‖ 2. Write an essay about your own clan on how to established peace in the Middle East.

LESSON 31

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

The First World War has resulted in Worldwide damage not only in terms of human casualties, but also in the slowdown, and complete breakdown of the economies of the different countries which participated in the conflict.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS: FIRST TRY Immediately after the World War, countries formed the League of Nations an international organization whose main aim is the preservation of world peace, with the function to solve international disputed through arbitration.

Intern THE UNITED NATIONS The United Nation (UN) was established in 1945 by 51 countries as a replacement of the League of nation.     

General Assembly- is the biggest body of the (UN).

Security Council-this body is the powerful UN body, which is responsible for maintaining international peace.

The Secretariat- headed by the Secretary-General, who has under him/her various staff to the organization and not to any country.

The Economic and Social Council-this council coordinates the economic and social program of the organization.

The International Court of Justice-serves as the main judicial arm of the organization.

MEMBER AND OPERATIONS

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Almost all countries in the world are member of the United Nations, and by the turn of the millennium, there have been 185 member countries.

1. International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA) – promotes the peaceful uses of atomic energy 2. Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) – develops nutrition levels, living standards and Improvements in food production 3. World Trade Organizations (WTO) - oversees international trade.

4. International Bank for reconstruction and Development (IBRD)- assist in reconstruction and development of the members‘ economies through investments and loans. This is popularly known World Bank.

5. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) - studies problems and establishes standards and regulation with regard to international civil aviation.

6. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) - mobilizes funds for agricultural and rural development countries.

7. International Labor Organization (ILO) - promotes social justice and improves labor conditions through international action.

8. International Maritime Organization (IMO) - gives advisory and consultative help and encourages the highest standards maritime safety and navigation.

9. International Monetary Fund (IMF) - promotes international monetary cooperation, expansion of international trade, and money exchange stability.

10. International Telecommunication Union (ITU) - extends technical assistance, standardizes communication equipment, and promotes telecommunication technology.

11. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) promotes educational, scientific, and cultural collaboration among countries in the furtherance of justice and freedom.

12. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) - promotes the 13 13. Universal Postal Union (UPU) - helps governments modernize and speed up mailing procedures.

14. World Health Organization (WHO) - promotes the attainment of the highest possible level of health of health for all people in the world.

15. World Intellectual property Organization (WIPO) - promotes legal protection of intellectual property and works.

16. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) – promotes international exchange and maximum standardization of weather observations.

THE UN MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS  Ensure that all boys and girls complete a full course of primary schooling  Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005 and at all levels by 2015;  Reduce by two-thirds the mortality rate among children under five;  Reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio;  Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS;  Reduce by half the proportion of people living or less than a dollar a day  Reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.  UN Secretary- General Kofi Annan has stressed the need for countries to work together to achieve to achieve these goals.

OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 1. International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

2. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 3. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 4. Organization of America States (OAS)

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5. Organization of African Unity (OAU) 6. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Terms to Define 1. hostilities2. trafficking3. curbing4. apartheid5. superbody6. arbitration7. transient8. narcotics9. gridlock10. citizenFollow-up Questions 1. Why the United Nations is more successful than the League of Nations? Prove your answer.

2. Why did the League of Nations fail? Elaborate.

3. Describe the structure of the United Nations. What do you think is the U.N.‘s most effective agency? Explain.

4. What is the role played by ASEAN in the region?

Activity 1. Research on one international organization or a specialized UN agency. List its functions and its achievements.

2. Cut out an article from a newspaper about an international organization or a specialized UN agency. Share it with the class.

Evaluation Multiple Choices. Choose the best answer.

1. Develops living standards a. IMO c. ILO b. FAO d. UNESCO 2. Helps the wounded a. AEAN c. International Red Cross b. WMO d. OAS 3. The biggest body of the United Nations a. Secretariat b. Security Council c. International Court of Justice d. General Assembly 4. Promotes educational collaboration among countries a. IMO c. ILO b. FAO d. UNESCO 5. One of the problems of the UN a. lack of funds c. lack of dialogue b. lack of members d. lack of wars 6. The failed international organization a. United Nations c. League of Nations b. ASEAN d. OAS 7. One of the more famous UN secretary-generals a. Jean Henri Dunant c. Kofi Annan b. Bill Clinton d. Helmut Kohl Young Ji International School / College

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8. Improves labor conditions a. IMO c. ILO b. FAO d. UNESCO 9. Promoted by UNIDO a. health care c. legal protection b. industrialization d. agriculture development 10. One of the main ASEAN issues a. cyber crime c. botanical information b. weather d. sports LESSON 32

GLOBALIZATION AND WORLD MARKETS

As empires and nations throughout the world interacted, the socio-political territories became one giant landscape.

GLOBALIZATION: ONE GIANT WORLD MARKET As the international economy continued to develop politically and economically, countries began to interconnect in more ways than one.

THE GATT AND THE WTO The general Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is an international, multilateral treaty or agreement which aimed to promote free trade between nations by reducing tariffs, subsides, and quotas that discriminate against imported products.

PROS AND CONS OF THE WTO The World Trade Organization and its policies generated both support and condemnation from different sectors.

The transfer of goods from one part of the world to another would be a waste of energy and will create unnecessary pollutions.

Developing countries would not be able to compete with the industrialized nations in terms of production capacity and other factors.

Terms to Define 1. Multilateral 2. impoverishment3. quotas4. globalization5. tariffs6. proponentFollow-up Questions 1. Why did the supporters of capitalism began to proclaim that they were‖ victorious?

How was true their claim?

2. What is globalization? What are he effects on trade and business?

3. Differentiate the GATT from the WTO. Activity 1. Research on the internet about the structure, objectives, and programs of the WTO. Make a report using the information.

Choose the correct answer.

1. What are the three key ‗components‘ of the WTO? Young Ji International School / College

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(a) A Senate, a Judiciary and a Directorate (b) A Trade Commission, a Dispute Settlement Body and a Council of Ministers (c) An Executive apparatus, a Legislative apparatus and an Enforcement apparatus (d) A Board of Governors, the Assembly of Member States and a Steering Committee 2. Does the WTO apply its framework in exactly the same fashion throughout the world? (a) Yes, the WTO applies its framework in exactly the same way throughout the world (b) Yes, the WTO applies its framework in exactly the same way around the world, unless it deals with trade blocks (c) No, the WTO makes allowance for regional variation (d) No, the WTO makes allowance for variation in the case of economically stronger countries 3. What are the two main functions of the WTO? (a) The promotion of free trade and economic liberalism (b) The administration of the WTO agreements and the resolution of international trade disputes (c) The promotion of world peace, economic stability and financial co-operation (d) The administration of the WTO‘s institutional framework and the promotion of economic co-operation amongst its members

LESSON 33

ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY AND SPORTS

Along with the advancement of human interactions from communities to town to nation-states to global village, came advancements in various fields, particularly in science and technology, the arts, sports, and various other fields.

ADVANCES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY General Science- Since the dawn of mankind, the knowledge of science and scientific methods in doing many things has increased through time.

Power and Energy- The world‘s energy needs began with the Industrial Age. Alternative Energy Sources Hydroelectric power- electricity generated by moving water, such as those in falls; and wave power.

Wind energy- the power of the wind is utilized using wind turbines in windmills.

Solar energy- energy derived from the sun‘s radiation using solar cells (photovoltaic cells).

Geothermal energy- this is generated from natural steam, hot water, or hot dry rocks.

ASTRONOMY AND SPACE EXPLORATION October 4, 1957- Sputnik I, the first artificial satellite, orbited the earth.

April 12, 1961- Yuri Gagarin, a Russian cosmonaut, became the first human to orbit the earth.

July 20, 1969- Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin in Apollo 11.

January 28, 1986- the US space shuttle Challenger was destroyed in an accident shortly after its launch, killing all seven crew members.

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Computers have come a long way since the turn of the century, Now, these machines are being used in practically all fields from businesses to government offices.

CLONING Much advancement came in the field of biotechnology.

THE WORLD OF SPORTS Sports became one of the favorite pastimes and hobbies of people in modern times.

The Olympics- these games were established in 1896 to foster international cooperation, although it can be traced to ancient Greece.

THE WORLD TODAY: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS The world as it stands today is a world of complexities.

THE PROBLEM OF POPULATION One of the biggest problems facing nations and the world at large today is overpopulation and under population.

POVERTY Only a small percentage of people are living comfortably while the largest percentage lives in poverty, sometimes going without food for today‘s.

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRAGATION Man has not been able to take care of his environment. He has instead used and abused it, and the environment is now on the brink of destruction.

WARS AND CONFICTS Wars and conflicts among different religions, nations, and groups have continued unabated Terms to Define 1. carbon monoxide2. meningococcemia3. degradation4. chlorofluorocarbons5. sewage6. SARSFollow-up Questions 1. Why is overpopulation a problem? What are the effects of overpopulation in nation?

2. How wills the degradation of our environment be solved? What steps should be done to prevent this devastation?

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