Bilan des publications scientifiques du Programme PSDR3 en Midi-Pyrénées by PSDR4 Occitanie

BILAN DES PUBLICATIONS SCIENTIFIQUES Programme PSDR3 en Midi-Pyrénées (2007-2012)

Pour citer ce document Kouzmine Y., 2013 : Bilan des publications scientifiques du Programme PSDR3 en Midi‐Pyrénées, INRA, 87p. © INRA 2013

Sommaire 4 // Le bilan scientifique en quelques chiffres 7 // Articles classés par thématiques 8 / Compétitivité des territoires ruraux et des firmes 20 / Environnement et gestion des ressources naturelles renouvelables 38 / Gouvernance des territoires ruraux et politiques publiques 44 / Qualité, produits, filières et territoires 52 / Systèmes de production, petites entreprises et exploitations agricoles 80 // Liste des articles soumis ou en cours de publication 84 // Index alphabétique des auteurs

Le bilan scientifique

en quelques chiffres

68 articles scientifiques publiés entre 2008 et 2013

32 articles soumis ou en cours de publication

71 revues scientifiques investies dont 47 (66%) non francophones, quasiexclusivement anglophones

Liste des revues scientifiques mobilisées pour diffusion des productions scientifiques PSDR3 Midi‐Pyrénées

Agribusiness Agricultural and Forest Entomology Agricultural Economics Agricultural systems Agriculture and Forest entomology

Fourrages Géographie, Economie et Sociétés Industry and innovation Ingénieries International Food and Agribusiness Management Review International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Information Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment Systems (IJAEIS) Agronomy for Sustainable Developmen International Journal of Remote Sensing American Journal of Agricultural Economics Journal of Agriculture Economics Animal Journal of Sustainable Agriculture Animal Behaviour Science Land Use Policy Animal Genetic Resources Landscape and Urban Planning Annals of Forest Sciences Landscape Ecology Applied Animal Behaviour Science Mappemonde Applied Vegetation Science Natures Science Société (NSS) Basic and Applied Ecology Norois Cahiers Agricultures Oecologia Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics Options Méditerranéennes Canadian Journal of Regional Science Organization Studies Climatic change Plos One Computers and Electronics in Agriculture Productions animales Crop & Pasture Sciences Recma, Revue Internationale de l’économie sociale Crop Science Regional Environmental Change Développement Durable et Territoires Regional studies Ecological Modelling Review of Agricultural and Environmental Studies Ecology & Society Revue d’Anthropologie des Connaissances Economie et Société Revue d’Economie Régionale et Urbaine Economie Rurale Revue d’Etude en Agriculture et Environnement Environment and Planning A Revue d'économie industrielle Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design Revue Forestière Française Environmental Management Revue Innovations Agronomiques Environmental Modelling & Software Ruralia European Journal of Agronomy Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research European Journal of Entomology Sud Ouest Européen European Planning Studies The Learning Organisation Finance, Comptabilité, Stratégie Theory & Décisions Forest Ecology and Management

Articles classés par thématiques

Thématique 1.

Compétitivité des territoires ruraux

et des firmes

Barraud‐Didier V., Henninger M.C. 2009. Les déterminants de la fidélité des adhérents de coopératives agricoles. Recma, Revue Internationale de l’économie sociale, 314 : 47‐62 Résumé La relation entre l’agriculteur‐adhérent et sa coopérative semble avoir changé de nature. Les adhérents de première génération adhéraient à la coopérative locale et pour la totalité de leur production. Aujourd’hui, ils adoptent des comportements beaucoup plus opportunistes et, bien qu’adhérents d’une coopérative, n’hésitent pas à rechercher l’offre la plus avantageuse. Ce comportement de l’adhérent est d’autant plus fréquent dans le secteur approvisionnement‐céréales, caractérisé par un accroissement de la volatilité des prix des matières premières. Les dirigeants de coopératives agricoles doivent donc être capables de retenir leurs adhérents. Cet article montre que la fidélité de l’agriculteur à sa coopérative dépend certes de caractéristiques individuelles ou liées à son exploitation agricole, mais aussi de variables psychologiques sur lesquelles les dirigeants peuvent agir : l’implication de l’agriculteur et la confiance qu’il témoigne à l’équipe dirigeante.

Abstract The nature of the relationship between member‐ farmers and their cooperative appears to have changed. First‐generation members joined the local cooperative and were members for everything they produced. Nowadays, they behave much more opportunistically, and many cooperative members do not hesitate to look for the best deal. This kind of behavior by members is even more common among grain producers, who are affected by increasingly volatile commodity prices. Agricultural cooperative managers therefore have to be able to retain members. This article shows that farmers’ loyalty to their cooperative depends of course on individual characteristics and characteristics related to members’ farms but also on psychological variables that managers can act on, e.g. the farmer’s involvement and the trust that the farmer shows to the managing team.

Barraud‐Didier V., Henninger M.C., El Akremi Assâad, 2012. The relationship between members' trust and participation in the governance of cooperatives: the role of organizational commitment. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 15(1) : 63‐86. Abstract This paper aims to explain the participative behavior of farmers‐members of agricultural cooper‐atives in the governance of the latter. The study introduces two concepts from the organizational behavior literature: trust and organizational commitment. It tests a mediator effect of commit‐ment in the relationship between the trust a farmer has in the cooperative and his/her participa‐tive behavior in its governance. Based on a sample of 259 members of French agricultural coop‐eratives, results showed that affective commitment had a mediating role in the relationship be‐tween trust and participation in the governance of cooperatives, notwithstanding the cognitive or affective nature of trust.

Keywords Organizational commitment, cooperative members

Filippi M., Triboulet P. 2010. Alliances et partenariats dans l’activation des compétences des coopératives agricoles. Canadian Journal of Regional Science, 33(1) : 115‐132. Résumé Peu de travaux se sont intéressés à l’influence de l’espace sur les processus de création et de circulation des compétences entre les organisations. L’objectif de cet article est d’examiner le rôle joué par les modalités de mise en relation des acteurs dans la construction des compétences au niveau local. Mobilisant la littérature sur les alliances stratégiques, nous analysons des études de cas de projets innovants donnant lieu à la création d’une société jointe et impliquant des coopératives agricoles de Midi‐ Pyrénées (France). Nous proposons une grille d’analyse des partenariats selon le type d’activités et mettons en évidence les différents facteurs liés à l’activation de la proximité géographique et aux compétences mises en jeu aux différents stades du projet. Les résultats montrent l’usage différencié de la proximité géographique selon les objectifs de l’alliance et la diversité des partenaires ainsi que le rôle important des relations inter‐personnelles dans les dynamiques organisationnelles.

Mots‐clés Alliances, compétences, coopératives agricoles, proximité géographique, innovation, Midi‐Pyrénées

Abstract Little research has been conducted on the influence of space on competency‐building between organizations. The aim of this paper is to investigate the role of partnership arrangements in building competencies at the local level. Based on the literature of strategic alliances, we use case studies on innovation projects with joint venture development involving agricultural co‐operatives in the Midi‐Pyrénées region (France). We propose an analysis grid of partnerships in line with the nature of activities (Research and Development, production or commercialization) and reveal several factors which can explain when geographical proximity between actors is relevant according to the nature of competencies and to the stage of the project. The importance of geographical proximity depends on the objectives of the joint venture and on the diversity of partnerships. It goes from traditional partnerships between co‐operatives which search for combining capacities and risk sharing to strengthen local agricultural production areas and to enhance the value‐added of the final product, to more diverse partnerships where the issue is to mobilize “leader” private groups to promote local agri‐food “filières”. Our research underlines also the importance of interpersonal relations on the organizational dynamics and on partnership building at the different stages of the innovation project.

Keywords Alliances, competencies, agricultural co‐operatives, geographical proximity, innovation, Midi‐Pyrénées

Filippi M., Triboulet P. 2011. Alliances stratégiques et formes de contrôle dans les coopératives agricoles. Revue d’Economie Industrielle, 133: 57‐78. Résumé Les coopératives agricoles, acteurs majeurs de l’agriculture française, se sont profondément transformées ces vingt dernières années en recourant à la filialisation dans des sociétés de droit commercial et en développant les partenariats entre entreprises. Pour mieux comprendre ces transformations, nous mobilisons une approche en terme d’alliances stratégiques, définies comme une coordination de moyens, compétences et ressources entre des entreprises concurrentes. Nous analysons les alliances nouées entre les groupes coopératifs agricoles formalisées dans une structure juridique et identifiées à partir des bases de données nationales LIFI et EAE en 2003. Les résultats obtenus révèlent d’une part que les alliances entre coopératives visent à une concentration du pouvoir économique qui s’exprime différemment selon qu’une coopérative domine ou non l’alliance et d’autre part, que la dimension spatiale joue un rôle prépondérant dans ces jeux de concentration.

Mots‐clés alliances stratégiques, ancrage territorial, contrôle d’entreprise, frontières actionnariales, groupes coopératifs, réseau

Abstract Agricultural co‐operatives, the main actors of French agriculture, have undergone some drastic transformations since the 1990’s with the development of « private » subsidiaries and partnerships. These raw changes show that co‐operatives need to increase production by investing in the processing stages. For a better understanding of these changes, we look after strategic alliances defined as coordination of assets, resources and competencies between concurrent firms. We analyse alliances between agricultural groups of firms, which lead to a formal business structure and are identified in the national statistical databases in 2003. Main results are firstly that alliances between co‐operatives aim at a concentration of economic power with different patterns according to the presence or not of a « leader » co‐operative and secondly that the spatial dimension plays leadership role in the concentration and partnership strategies.

Keywords Cooperative Groups, Network Analysis, Strategic Alliances, Territorial Anchorage Strategies

Galliano D., Magrini M.B., 2012. Agglomeration economies, firms' spatial organization and innovation performance: some evidence from the French industry. Industry and innovation, 19(7) : 607‐630. Abstract There is a consensus in economic geography concerning the positive influence of agglomeration economies on innovation. Usually this is captured through the type of area in which a firm's head office (HO) of the firm is located. But the location of the firm's other units could also have an impact on innovation. This article proposes to construct different spatial profiles of firms, based on the location of their HOs and other units in three distinct types of areas, defined according to their degree of agglomeration. The influence of these firms' spatial profiles on their propensity to innovate and innovation intensity is estimated, controlling for other determinants related to structural characteristics, the firms' relations with outsiders and with their competitive environment. This study uses a sample representative of the French manufacturing firms for the year 2006. The econometric results show various effects of multi‐location on firms' innovation and highlight the importance of the units in the overall technological dynamic of firms.

Keywords agglomeration externalities, innovation, multiunit firm, French industry

Galliano D., Orozco L. 2011. Les déterminants industriels et spatiaux du processus d’adoption de technologies : Le cas de la traçabilité dans les firmes industrielles françaises. Géographie, Economie et Sociétés, 13(2) : 135‐163. Résumé L’objectif de cet article est d’analyser les facteurs qui influencent le comportement d’adoption d’un système informatisé de traçabilité par les firmes industrielles françaises et plus spécifiquement le rôle respectif de leurs environnements industriels et spatiaux. La traçabilité des produits, ou capacité d’identifier l’évolution des produits le long des filières industrielles, est devenue un important outil de gestion de la qualité mais également un puissant instrument de codification des informations entre les firmes, porté par le développement des TIC. Un modèle d’adoption de technologies est testé sur une base de données originale représentative de l’industrie française. L’objectif est de mettre en évidence le rôle respectif des logiques industrielles et spatiales dans le comportement des firmes et de tester l’existence de spécificités sectorielles. Les résultats montrent que le processus d’adoption dépend de l’interaction entre leurs caractéristiques organisationnelles et celles de leur environnement. Des profils sectoriels d’adoption sont mis en évidence, basés notamment sur les formes très différenciées de mobilisation de l’environnement spatial.

Mots‐clés traçabilité, organisation de la firme, adoption des technologies, externalités spatiales, firmes industrielles françaises

Abstract The aim of this paper is to analyze the factors influencing firms’behavior, with regards to the adoption of electronic traceability systems in the French industrial firms, by taking into account the firm’s sectoral and geographic environment. Traceability, or the capacity to trace a product through all stages of a supply chain, has become an important instrument to ensure quality, as well as an interesting tool for the codification of information between firms, carried by the development of ICT. A model of technology adoption is tested using original data representative of the entire French industrial sectors. The objective is to show the role played by industrial and spatial dynamics on a firm’s behaviors, and to test the existence of sectoral specificities. The results evidence that the firm’s adoption process depends on the complementarities between their organizational and environmental characteristics. Different adoption profiles are shown, depending on the firm’s sector and on the different ways in which firms interact with its spatial environment.

Keywords traceability, firm’s organization, technology adoption, spatial externalities, French industrial firms

Galliano D., Orozco L. 2011. The determinants of electronic traceability adoption: a firm‐level analysis of French agribusiness. Agribusiness, 27(3): 379‐397. Abstract This paper aims to understand what factors influence firms to adopt electronic traceability systems (ETS) and notably the respective effects of the firm's internal characteristics, its vertical relations and its external environment. Traceability systems based on information and communication technologies (ICT) allow firms to collect, track, stock and transfer information on a range of product attributes. This study contributes to further understand traceability adoption by applying ICT adoption models to the case of ETS, and by using an original dataset, the 2002 ICT Survey, representative of all French agribusiness. The results suggest that a firm's degree of complexity (growing size, belonging to a group) and the development of its information system play a significant role in its adoption behavior. Moreover, they show that ETS adpotion is more driven by a firm's narrow relations with specialized suppliers and downstream processors than by retailers

Galliano D., Roux, P., Soulié N. 2011. ICT intensity of use and the geography of firms. Environment and Planning A, 43(1) : 67‐86. Abstract This paper investigates the relationship between the geography of firms and the intensity of use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). Our approach to the geography of firms is multifaceted, in relation to the various characteristics of their location area(s), to their organisational fragmentation, and to their spatial organisation at a national scale. Making use of a single cross‐section dataset drawn from the ‘ICT and e‐commerce’ survey for the French industry, we examine firms’ decisions to use the Internet more or less intensively. We find that firms’ internal fragmentation lead to important variations in the intensity of Internet use. Moreover, we find that firms benefit from urbanisation economies through the location of their headquarters and also through that of their units in the case of multiunit firms. Finally, we observe a strong positive effect of competitive pressure at both national and international levels as well as geographical and sectoral epidemic effects on the intrafirm diffusion of the Internet.

Magrini M.B., Fares M., Filippi M 2011. La signalisation de la qualité chez les petites coopératives agricoles française. Revue d’Economie Régionale et Urbaine, 4 : 705‐734. Résumé Cet article propose de caractériser les déterminants du choix de signalisation par les petites coopératives de la qualité de leurs produits, à travers l’adoption d’un signe officiel et/ou d’une marque. Les estimations économétriques menées sur l’ensemble des données nationales permettent d’attester d’effets attendus du secteur d’activité, de la structure organisationnelle et du nombre d’adhérents. Elles mettent en avant des résultats originaux concernant l’influence du champ géographique d’exportation et l’importance du circuit de distribution. En particulier, il ressort que le secteur d’activité et le marché d’exportation sont des déterminants majeurs du choix d’une stratégie de surimposition d’une marque et d’un signe officiel.

Mots‐clés coopérative agricole, qualité, signe officiel, marque, économétrie des modèles de choix

Abstract This paper aims to characterize the determinants of the quality signaling choice by small cooperatives, when they adopt a public label and / or a private brand. Our econometric results confirm the expected effects of the organizational structure and membership. We also show original results about the influence of the geographical export and the importance of the marketing channel. In particular, we find that the industry and the export markets are major determinants of a complementary effect between brand and public labels.

Keywords agricultural cooperative, quality, public label, brand, qualitative choice model

Magrini M.B., Bonneu F., Thomas‐Agnan C., Coelho S. 2011. Educational planning: a simulation approach for the creation or closure of school classes. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 38(4) : 595‐615. Abstract In this paper we deal with the problem of the creation or closure of school classes from the perspective of a distance indicator seldom found in the literature: the time needed to travel by road from the family home to the training establishment. Unlike classical deterministic schemes, the originality of this work lies in the use of simulations which take into account the randomness of students’ locations to provide an indication of the variability of the optimal positions for the classes’ creation or closure solutions. We illustrate this with two case studies on postcompulsory education in France.

Reynaud A., Couture S., 2012. Stability of risk preference measures: results from a field experiment on French farmers. Theory & Décisions, 73 : 203–221. Abstract We compare two different elicitationmethods formeasuring risk attitudes on a sample of French farmers.We consider the lottery tasks initially proposed by Holt and Laury (2002) and by Eckel and Grossman (2002 ; 2008). The main empirical result from this within‐subject study is that risk preference measures are affected by the type of mechanism used.We first show that this risk preference instability can be related to non‐expected utility preferences of farmers. Using a risk‐taking psychometric questionnaire, we then demonstrate that risk preferences of farmers are context‐dependent. This may be another explanation of the observed risk preference instability.

Keywords Risk preferences, Psychological economics, Field experiment

Thématique 2.

Environnement et gestion des ressources naturelles renouvelables

Aggeri F., Labatut J., 2009. La gestion au prisme de ses instruments : une analyse généalogique des approches par les instruments en gestion. Finance, Comptabilité, Stratégie, 13 (3) : 5‐37. Résumé L’intérêt pour les approches par les instruments connaît aujourd’hui un renouveau qu’il est difficile d’ignorer. Par ce terme, nous désignons les travaux qui proposent d’étudier l’action organisée et stratégique, non pas à travers sa substance, ses discours ou les intentions des managers, mais à travers les instrumentations, techniques, scientifiques ou gestionnaires qui sont mises en place pour conduire l’action collective et produire de nouvelles capacités. Etudier l’action organisée à travers son instrumentation ne constitue pas une nouveauté. Ces approches s’inscrivent dans une longue tradition de recherche qui, selon différentes perspectives, a investi cette problématique pour comprendre le foisonnement des instruments et des technologies dans les entreprises à partir de la moitié du XXe siècle et leurs effets sur la dynamique des organisations. Ainsi nous proposons d’analyser les problématiques, les fondements et les apports de ces multiples travaux, au travers d’une approche généalogique nous permettant de replacer ces travaux dans les contextes à la fois théoriques et pratiques dans lesquels ils ont émergé. A partir des années 1960, apparaissent des travaux qui trouvent leur origine au croisement de deux cultures : la modélisation et l’étude des organisations (behaviorisme, approche foucaldienne des organisations). Dans ces premiers travaux, les approches par les instruments visent à expliquer la stabilité des comportements organisationnels. La question de la transformation conjointe des instruments et des organisations apparaît dans les années 90. Nous analysons ici trois approches contemporaines ayant investi cette problématique : l’étude des vagues de rationalisation et des techniques managériales ; l’instrumentation située ; les routines organisationnelles et la « sociomatérialité ». Nous mettons en perspectives ces différents travaux afin d’en expliquer les convergences et les divergences, et d’en proposer une discussion critique. Nous terminons en proposant un agenda de recherche sur une approche du management stratégique par les instruments autour de deux pistes : la conception d’instruments dans une conception de l’agir stratégique et l’articulation de différentes formes d’instrumentation au sein de dispositifs stratégiques cohérents.

Alignier A., Deconchat M., 2011. Variability of forest edge effect on vegetation implies reconsideration of its assumed hypothetical pattern. Applied Vegetation Science 14 (1) : 67–74. Abstract Question: How do descriptors of forest vegetation (species richness and composition) respond to edge influence and do these response patterns fit to the two‐zone pattern theoretically predicted and empirically observed? Location: District of Aurignac, southwestern France. Methods: We surveyed all understory forest vegetation along 28 transects pertaining to seven contrasted boundary types. Boundary types were a combination of adjacent land cover, orientation and topography classes. Response patterns to edge influence of two vegetation descriptors, species richness and composition (summarized by an ordination), were analysed using the two‐phase linear regression method . Data for each transect were divided into all possible pairs of adjacent groups of successive plots, and a linear regression was computed on both groups of plots. Regression parameters were interpreted by comparison with the two‐zone theoretical pattern and related to boundary types. Results: We have shown for nearly half of the transects that vegetation responses deviate from the two‐zone pattern. There was no significant relationship between regression coefficients for richness and boundary characteristics whereas regression coefficients for composition were partly related to adjacent land cover. Conclusions: Our results demonstrate a high variability of forest vegetation response patterns to edge that contrasts with the theoretical pattern usually reported in the literature. Forest history and edge dynamics are invoked to explain the observed vegetation patterns. We have shown the need for a review of factors affecting the edge influence for better management and conservation of forest plant species.

Keywords Boundary type, Composition, Edge influence, Response pattern, Species richness

Andrieu E., Du Bus de Warnaffe G., Ladet S., Heintz W., Sourdril A., Deconchat M., 2008. Cartographier l’historique des coupes forestières dans les petits bois. Revue Forestière Française LX (5) : 667‐676. Résumé La reconstitution de l’historique des coupes forestières est utile pour mieux comprendre comment les actions anthropiques passées influencent la biodiversité actuelle. La caractérisation et la cartographie de l’histoire de la gestion sylvicole des petites forêts privées posent des difficultés du fait du manque de données fiables. Nous présentons les grandes étapes d’une méthode utilisant une analyse régressive puis progressive de photographies aériennes multidate qui limite les artéfacts induits par la digitalisation des anciennes photographies, comme l’incertitude due à leur géoréférencement. Les cartes obtenues peuvent apporter des informations nouvelles et jusqu’à présent difficiles à produire, comme la forte hétérogénéité spatiale à une échelle fine, consécutive à la succession des coupes, qui peut avoir une influence forte sur la biodiversité de ces bois. Cet exemple illustre la nécessité d’améliorer les procédures de traitement des données spatialisées pour répondre à des questions d’écologie du paysage appliquées au contexte forestier.

Abstract Reconstruction of felling history is useful to better understand how past human activity impacts current biodiversity. Characterization and mapping of the history of silvicultural management in private small‐sized woodlands is difficult due to the lack of reliable data. The article describes the main steps of a method that uses regressive and then progressive analysis to digitize multidate aerial photographs, thereby limiting the artefacts arising from digitisation of old photographs, as well as the uncertainty connected with referencing them. The maps thereby obtained can provide new data that was previously difficult to produce, such as strong spatial heterogeneity on a fine scale resulting from a succession of fellings, which may have a strong influence on biodiversity in these woodlots. This example illustrates the necessity to improve the processing of spatial data to answer landscape ecology questions that arise in relation to forests.

Andrieu E., Ladet S., Heintz W., Deconchat M., 2011. History and spatial complexity of deforestation and logging in small private forests. Landscape and Urban Planning, 103 (2) : 109‐117. Abstract Despite awareness of the importance of taking historical factors into account to understand drivers of present biodiversity, few studies have considered long‐term forest historical data because of the difficulty involved in reconstructing forest management history. Our aim was to trace the management history of small private forests, which are the most frequent type of woodlands in France, as they play a major ecological role. We analyzed forest continuity and logging history of a group of small private forests that formed a continuous forest before 1771. Thanks to two old maps (Cassini’s map – dating from around 1771 – and Napoleon’s cadastral map – from around 1825) and aerial photographs (1942–2006), we were able to reconstruct forest continuity for 235 years and logging history after 1942 at a fine scale by adapting a regressive photo interpretation method in a GIS. Between 1771 and 1942, we detected both fragmentation and a decrease in total forest area following the conversion of forest land into agricultural land. However, the selection criteria of deforested areas changed over time. After 1942, the situation was reversed due to rural depopulation. Traditional logging activities continued after 1942, resulting in a complex mosaic of stands with different logging histories. The only change in logging modalities was a decrease in the quantity of wood harvested (smaller cuttings) after the 1980s. We discuss how such temporally and spatially complex management modalities could affect plant biodiversity in these farm forests.

Keywords Forest management, Farm forestry, Spatial organization, Multi‐temporal GIS, Disturbance regims, Historical records

Balent G., Deconchat M. 2008. Le paysage à l'interface des activités agricoles et forestières: Une introduction. Revue Forestière Française LX (5) : 515‐524. Résumé Les IVes Journées de la branche française de l’Association internationale d’écologie du paysage (IALE‐France) ont été organisées à Toulouse par l’UMR DYNAFOR sur le thème de l’étude des interfaces agriculture‐forêt au niveau des paysages. Cet article présente le contenu des communications sélectionnées à cette occasion pour constituer ce numéro thématique de la Revue forestière française. Les articles sont regroupés en quatre thèmes principaux qui concernent la présentation des cadres théoriques et méthodologiques mobilisés dans l’écologie du paysage, la caractérisation de la multifonctionnalité des paysages, les dynamiques des paysages spécifiques aux interfaces agriculture‐forêt, les outils et techniques utilisés pour décrire et caractériser ces dynamiques. Dans une deuxième partie, en confrontant les travaux actuels à un premier état des lieux des recherches sur la forêt paysanne rurale établi par l’INRA en 1996, nous présentons les principales évolutions observées dans les thèmes de recherches qui concernent ces forêts.

Abstract The 4th Days of the French branch of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE‐France) were organised in Toulouse by the DYNAFOR Joint Research Unit on the theme of the study of farm/forest interfaces in respect of landscapes. This article presents the contents of a selection of papers given that are the topic of the special issue of the Revue forestière française. The articles are grouped under four major themes ‐ the theoretical and methodological frameworks applied in landscape ecology, the characterisation of the multifunctionality of landscapes, the dynamics of particular landscapes at the farm/forest interface and the instruments and techniques used to describe and characterise those dynamics. The second part compares current efforts with an initial overview of the research on rural agro‐forestry carried out by INRA in 1996. The main developments in the areas of research relating to those forests are presented.

Bonthoux S., Barnagaud J.Y., Goulard M., Balent G. Contrasting spatial and temporal responses of bird communities to landscape changes. Oecologia, online. Abstract Quantifying the impact of land‐use changes on biodiversity is a major challenge in conservation ecology. Static spatial relationships between bird communities and agricultural landscapes have been extensively studied. Yet, their ability to mirror the effects of temporal land‐use dynamics remains to be demonstrated. Here, we test whether such space‐for‐time substitution approaches are relevant for explaining temporal variations in farmland bird communities. We surveyed 256 bird communities in an agricultural landscape in southwest France at the same locations in 1982 and 2007, and quantified the same seven landscape descriptors for each period. We compared the effects of spatial and temporal landscape changes over this 25‐year period on bird species distributions and three community‐level metrics: species richness and two community indices reflecting birds’ specialisation regarding local vegetation structure (local CSI) and landscape composition (landscape CSI). Landscape heterogeneity decreased between 1982 and 2007 and crop area increased sharply at the expense of grassland as a result of agricultural intensification. We found that the correlations between temporal changes in bird distributions or community metrics and landscape components were less consistent than their spatial relationships in each year. This result advocates caution when using a space‐for‐time substitution approach to assess the effects of landscape changes on biodiversity. Additionally, community metrics showed contrasted responses to landscape changes. Species richness and local CSI for each period were negatively related to the area of crops and positively related to landscape heterogeneity. Conversely, the landscape CSI was positively related to the area of crop and negatively to landscape heterogeneity. To understand the ecological processes linked to changes in farm landscapes, our study underlines the need to develop long‐term studies with bird and habitat data collected during several periods, and particularly to consider multiple community indices in monitoring change.

Keywords Land‐use change, Space‐for‐time substitution, Specialisation, Birds

Bonthoux S., Baselga A., Balent G., 2013. Assessing Community‐Level and Single‐Species Models Predictions of Species Distributions and Assemblage Composition after 25 Years of Land Cover Change. Plos One, 8 (1) : e54179. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054. Abstract

To predict the impact of environmental change on species distributions, it has been hypothesized that community‐level models could give some benefits compared to species‐level models. In this study we have assessed the performance of these two approaches. We surveyed 256 bird communities in an agricultural landscape in southwest France at the same locations in 1982 and 2007. We compared the ability of CQO (canonical quadratic ordination; a method of community‐level GLM) and GLMs (generalized linear models) to i) explain species distributions in 1982 and ii) predict species distributions, community composition and species richness in 2007, after land cover change. Our results show that models accounting for shared patterns between species (CQO) slightly better explain the distribution of rare species than models that ignore them (GLMs). Conversely, the predictive performances were better for GLMs than for CQO. At the assemblage level, both CQO and GLMs overestimated species richness, compared with that actually observed in 2007, and projected community composition was only moderately similar to that observed in 2007. Species richness projections tended to be more accurate in sites where land cover change was more marked. In contrast, the composition projections tended to be less accurate in those sites. Both modelling approaches showed a similar but limited ability to predict species distribution and assemblage composition under conditions of land cover change. Our study supports the idea that our community‐level model can improve understanding of rare species patterns but that species‐level models can provide slightly more accurate predictions of species distributions. At the community level, the similar performance of both approaches for predicting patterns of assemblage variation suggests that species tend to respond individualistically or, alternatively, that our community model was unable to effectively account for the emergent community patterns.

Gibon A., Sheeren D., Monteil C., Ladet S., Balent G. 2010. Modelling and simulating change in reforesting mountain landscapes using a social‐ecological framework. Landscape Ecology, 25 (2) : 267–285. Abstract Natural reforestation of European mountain landscapes raises major environmental and societal issues. With local stakeholders in the Pyrenees National Park area (France), we studied agricultural landscape colonisation by ash (Fraxinus excelsior) to enlighten its impacts on biodiversity and other landscape functions of importance for the valley socio‐economics. The study comprised an integrated assessment of land‐use and land‐cover change (LUCC) since the 1950s, and a scenario analysis of alternative future policy. We combined knowledge and methods from landscape ecology, land change and agricultural sciences, and a set of coordinated field studies to capture interactions and feedback in the local landscape/land‐use system. Our results elicited the hierarchically‐nested relationships between social and ecological processes. Agricultural change played a preeminent role in the spatial and temporal patterns of LUCC. Landscape colonisation by ash at the parcel level of organisation was merely controlled by grassland management, and in fact depended on the farmer’s land management at the whole‐farm level. LUCC patterns at the landscape level depended to a great extent on interactions between farm household behaviours and the spatial arrangement of landholdings within the landscape mosaic. Our results stressed the need to represent the local SES function at a fine scale to adequately capture scenarios of change in landscape functions. These findings orientated our modelling choices in the building an agent‐based model for LUCC simulation (SMASH–Spatialized Multi‐Agent System of landscape colonization by ASH). We discuss our method and results with reference to topical issues in interdisciplinary research into the sustainability of multifunctional landscapes.

Keywords European mountains, Land use and cover change, Landscape multifunctionality, Agricultural land use, Integrated landscape assessment, Landscape scenario, Agent‐based model, Transdisciplinarity, Rural development

Gonzalez M., Deconchat M., Balent G., Cabanettes A. 2008. Diversity of woody plant seedling banks under closed canopy in coppice‐with‐ standards fragmented forests. Annals of Forest Sciences, 65 (5) : 511. Résumé Peu d’études ont porté sur les banques de semis de ligneux installés sous canopée fermée dans des taillis, malgré leur importance potentielle pour la régénération naturelle. Nous avons exploré le lien entre l’abondance et la richesse des semis de ligneux, et la composition de la canopée et la distance à la lisière la plus proche, dans 68 peuplements gérés en taillis. Les semis ont été regroupés en fonction de leur âge, et les espèces en fonction de leur mode de dispersion et de leur place a priori dans la succession forestière. Nous avons trouvé des semis dans 67 peuplements, appartenant à 19 espèces distinctes. Huit espèces présentes sous forme de semis plus âgés, manquent sous forme de semis de l’année, suggérant une variabilité temporelle du recrutement des espèces. L’abondance des semis des espèces à dispersion limitée est corrélée à celle des adultes. L’abondance des semis des espèces post‐pionnières nomades, capable de s’installer en pleine lumière, est négativement corrélée à la distance à la lisière, tandis que celle des semis des espèces post‐pionnières, plus sciaphiles présente le patron opposé. Nos résultats indiquent que plusieurs espèces de plantes ligneuses sont capables de s’établir fréquemment sous canopée fermée dans ces taillis fragmentés, formant ainsi une banque de semis potentiellement utilisable pour la régénération naturelle de ces forêts.

Mots‐clés banque de semis de plantes ligneuses, Quercus spp, lisière forestière, Sud‐Ouest de la France, taillis

Abstract Seedling banks of woody species established under closed canopy have received little consideration in coppice forests despite their potential importance for natural regeneration. This study aimed to evaluate the influences of canopy composition and of distance from the nearest forest edge on the abundance and species richness of the seedling bank, for different ecological groups of seedlings (age, successional status and dispersal vector) in 68 fragmented coppice stands. Seedlings were found in 67 stands, with 19 species identified. Eight species present as older seedlings were lacking as first‐year old seedlings, suggesting temporal variability of species recruitment. Seedling abundances of species with low‐dispersal ability were positively correlated with the abundances of their conspecific adults. Seedling abundance of mid‐ successional species was negatively correlated with the distance from the nearest forest edge, while mid‐to‐late successional species seedling abundance presented the opposite pattern. Our results showed that woody species were able to establish frequently under closed canopy in these fragmented coppices and form a seedling bank which may be used for natural regeneration.

Keywords woody seedling bank, Quercus spp, forest edge, Southwest France, coppices

Gonzalez M., Ladet S., Deconchat M., Cabanettes A., Alard D., Balent G. 2010. Relative contribution of edge and interior zones to patch size effect on species richness: an example for woody plants. Forest Ecol Manage, 259 (3) : 266‐274. Abstract In order to understand the capacity of habitats to conserve species, many authors have searched for a species–area relationship (SAR) to evaluate the effect of patch size on species richness in habitat fragments. However, a range of different processes may underlie or obscure this relationship. For woody plant species in forest fragments, as for other taxa, considering forest edges separately in the investigation of SAR is particularly relevant. The objective of our study was to evaluate edge influence on SAR in a fragmented forest landscape in south‐western France. To achieve this objective, we considered SAR in two separate spatial portions of the forest fragment: the edge and the forest interior. We also considered SAR for different ecological groups of species based on their shade tolerance and their mode of dispersal, as species can respond differently to habitat reduction depending on their ecological characteristics. In 40 woodlands in an agricultural landscape, we observed the presence/absence of all woody species along parallel walking transects 20‐m wide to inventory the total number of species in each woodlot. Vegetation surveys resulted in the identification of 53 woody species, with a total of 23 trees and 30 shrubs, and a number of species per woodlot ranging from 18 to 44. The species richness found in a given woodlot was significantly correlated with its area. When considering the edge and the interior parts of the woodlot separately we found a steeper increase in species richness with area for the part we considered as the edge, compared with the increase found in the interior part of the forest. Our results confirm the contribution of forest edge to forest fragment SAR. Results also underlined the importance of two additional processes that may contribute to SAR: a possible extinction debt of shade‐tolerant species in forest edge zones and colonisation by light‐demanding species in forest interior zones probably due to disturbances. This approach underlines the importance of taking the edge effect into account when studying the influence of patch size on species richness and the dynamic of species richness pattern.

Keywords Species–area relationship, Patch shape, Edge effect, Shade tolerance, Forest fragments, Agricultural landscapes

Magda D., Chambon‐Dubreuil E., Agreil C. , Gleizes B., Jarry M., 2009. Demographic analysis of a dominant shrub (Cytisus scoparius): prospects for encroachment control. Basic and Applied Ecology, 10(7) : 631‐639. Abstract Shrub encroachment in pastoral areas subsequent to land‐use changes has become a major problem for biodiversity and pastoral resource conservation. Controlling encroachment by grazing is the most promising prospect at this time, but the impact of small domestic ruminants on the population dynamics of dominant shrubby species is still poorly understood. To control the rapid densification of dominant shrub populations means that we have to focus on the early stages of shrub colonisation. In this paper, we present a modelling approach that includes deterministic matrix modelling to understand demography strategy at the very beginning of shrub population growth and to identify potential targeted life stages for control. We collected demographic data over a period of 5 years on the European dominant shrub, Cytisus scoparius (Scotch broom; Fabaceae), which is often part of the heathlands that establish themselves on former permanent grasslands in Europe. Our results reveal a very high variation in flowering frequency between years and a large contribution of the seed bank to the total number of seedlings that emerge each year. Modelling shows that population growth is very vigorous and is not stopped by repeated “bad years” for seed production. Sensitivity analyses indicate that early life stage survival (seedling, juvenile) has the greatest impact on population growth. These results make it possible to identify juveniles as one of the best targets for control since they combine a high degree of sensitivity in terms of population demography, good palatability for domestic herbivores and easy accessibility within a management schedule.

Keywords Population demography, Matrix models, Sensitivity analysis, Control, Juvenile

Pelosi C., Goulard M., Balent G. 2010. The spatial scale mismatch between ecological processes and agricultural management: do difficulties come from underlying theoretical frameworks?. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 139 : 455‐462. Abstract The difficulty to spatially link the process levels of organizing agricultural management with those of investigating biodiversity preservation creates a spatial scale mismatch which affects the effectiveness of agri‐environmental policies. Starting from a literature review this study offers a panorama of the ways authors approach spatial scale mismatch and the solutions they propose to resolve it. We made the hypothesis that the authors rely, sometimes implicitly, on theoretical frameworks to propose their solutions. Only 15% of the references in which the authors examine the question of spatial scale mismatch show a systemic approach to the question, taking into account simultaneously ecological and managerial processes. We identify two major types of theory linked to the solutions proposed by the authors: those that refer to “multi‐ scale/multi‐level” management for which hierarchy theory and landscape ecology are referred to explicitly; those that imply collective management and coordination, which refer to the theory of organization of biological systems and to social–ecological systems. These theories and their properties imply a change of paradigm which could allow for a better articulation between biodiversity and agricultural management. Based on this literature search we suggest that the problems in resolving spatial scale mismatch could be due to the fact that: (1) authors generally do not have a systemic approach since they consider ecological and managerial processes separately, and (2) terminology and theoretical frameworks are used inaccurately. While there are socio‐economic difficulties in the implementation of biodiversity conservation programs in agricultural zones, there are also shortcomings linked to the theoretical representation framework. These shortcomings may hinder the articulation between ecological and managerial processes, this is why approaches are suggested here allowing for a better match between the representations of ecological and managerial processes.

Keywords Agri‐environmental policy, Biodiversity, Hierarchy theory, Landscape ecology, Level of organization, Theoretical framework

Reynaud A., 2009. Adaptation à court et à long terme de l’agriculture au risque de sécheresse : une approche par couplage de modèles biophysiques et économiques, Review of Agricultural and Environmental Studies, 90(2) : 121‐154. Abstract In this article, we analyse the impact of drought risk on agriculture. We use a biophysical crop growth model (STICS) in order to simulate crop yield under various climatic scenarios. A micro‐economic model which optimises, under climate uncertainty, land allocation across crops and irrigation is developed to reflect farmer's behaviour. This framework is used to assess the impact of drought risk on a representative French farmer located in the Midi‐Pyrénées region (South‐West of France). We first show that, on the short run, the private cost of a drought can be high. On the long run, farmers can however significantly reduce this cost by modifying their cropping systems. We finally demonstrate that French farmers may benefit from the implementation of early drought alert mechanisms.

Keywords Adaptation, Agriculture, Climate change, Drought risk

Reynaud A., 2010. Regulating intra‐annual agricultural water use under climate and price uncertainty. Options Méditerranéennes,Série A. Séminaires Méditerranéens, n°95 (2) : 159‐168. Résumé Nous proposons un modèle permettant d'optimiser les choix d'assolement et d'irrigation intraannuelle d'un agriculteur dans un contexte d'incertitude climatique et d'incertitude sur les prix agricoles. Les technologies de production sont représentées par des fonctions de production qui dépendent des aléas climatiques. Ces fonctions sont estimées à partir de sorties d'un modèle de croissance de plante et sont ensuite intégrées dans un modèle microéconomique de décision en univers incertain. Une application empirique est développée pour une région située dans le sud‐ouest de la France. Nous analysons en particulier comment le timing de la résolution de l'incertitude climatique affecte les décisions optimales de l'agriculteur.

Mots‐clés Gestion de l'eau, Agriculture, Risque, Tarification de l'eau

Abstract We propose a framework allowing to optimize land allocation across crops and intra‐annual water use for a farmer facing both climate and price uncertainty. Agricultural production technologies are represented through climate‐contingent crop yield functions estimated using data generated by a biophysical crop growth model. These crop yield functions are then integrated into a decision model under uncertainty. An empirical application is developed for a region located in Southwest of France. We analyze in particular how the timing of climatic uncertainty modifies farmer's optimal decisions.

Keywords Water management, Agriculture, Risk, Water pricing

Roume A., Deconchat, M., Raison L., Balent G., Ouin A. 2011. Edge effects on ground beetles at the woodlot–field interface are short‐range and asymmetrical. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 13 (4) : 395‐403. Abstract Boundaries between woodlots and agricultural habitats are numerous in temperate agricultural landscapes and influence ecological processes in both woodlots and agricultural habitats. We aimed to determine how far the species assemblage of ground beetles in woodlot and open habitats was influenced by the presence of the woodlot–field boundary. We studied the distribution of ground beetles on both sides of the boundaries of four woodlots along transects of pitfall traps (n = 140). The depth of edge influence (i.e. the distance from the boundary at which the presence of the boundary has no more significant influence) on the species assemblage of ground beetles in each woodlot and in each agricultural habitat was determined with nonlinear canonical analysis of principal coordinates, an ordination method that is followed by nonlinear regression of the principal coordinates on distance from the boundary. The depth of edge influence on the species assemblages of ground beetles was asymmetrical relative to the boundary: it was generally higher and had higher variability in open habitats (14.4 ± 12.3 m) than in woodlots (4.9 ± 2.3 m). Species assemblages of ground beetles in edges were a mix between both adjacent species assemblages. Edge effects in woodlots were deeper in the woodlots exhibiting a deeper penetration of open habitat species. Symmetrically, edge effects in open habitat were deeper in the open habitats with a deeper diffusion of forest species into the open habitat. Forest ground beetles were not threatened by edge effects. Rather, edge effects are likely to benefit agriculture, mostly through the dispersal of predatory forest species into agricultural fields.

Keywords Beneficial insects, Carabidae, Coleoptera, depth of edge influence, forest–agriculture interface, nonlinear canonical analysis of principal coordinates, temperate rural landscape

Roume A., Ouin A., Raison L., Deconchat M. 2011. Abundance and species richness of overwintering ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) are higher in the edge than in the centre of a woodlot. European Journal of Entomology 108(4): 615–622. Abstract Semi‐natural habitats are key components of rural landscapes because they shelter a significant number of overwintering arthropods that are beneficial to agriculture. However, woodlots are semi‐natural habitats with high patch‐level heterogeneity and this aspect has been poorly studied. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of woodlot heterogeneity on overwintering ground beetles. Woodlot heterogeneity was characterized in terms of distance from the woodlot boundary and date of the most recent logging operation. We used emergence traps to quantify the population density of ground beetles that overwintered in the different parts of the woodlot. In woodlot edges the densities and species richness of ground beetles were significantly higher than in the rest of the woodlot. Ground beetles that are active in crop fields overwintered in the edges but not in the inner zone of the woodlot. Species assemblages of ground beetles overwintering in the edges were highly diverse. The date of the most recent logging operation did not explain the distribution of ground beetles that overwintered in the woodlot. Our results show that woodlots, and in particular their edges, are used as a winter shelter by ground beetles that spend part of their life in crops, which potentially favours biological control in adjacent crop fields.

Keywords Beneficial arthropods, Coleoptera, Carabidae, hibernation, emergence trap, woodlot, boundary, edge, logging

Sheeren D., Bastin N., Ouin A., Ladet S., Balent G., Lacombe J.P., 2009. Discriminating small wooded elements in rural landscape from aerial photography: a hybrid pixel/object‐based analysis approach. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 30(19) : 4979‐4990. Abstract While small, fragmented wooded elements do not represent a large surface area in agricultural landscape, their role in the sustainability of ecological processes is recognized widely. Unfortunately, landscape ecology studies suffer from the lack of methods for automatic detection of these elements. We propose a hybrid approach using both aerial photographs and ancillary data of coarser resolution to automatically discriminate small wooded elements. First, a spectral and textural analysis is performed to identify all the planted‐tree areas in the digital photograph. Secondly, an object‐orientated spatial analysis using the two data sources and including a multi‐ resolution segmentation is applied to distinguish between large and small woods, copses, hedgerows and scattered trees. The results show the usefulness of the hybrid approach and the prospects for future ecological applications.

Thématique 3.

Gouvernance des territoires ruraux et politiques publiques

Choisis J.P., Gibon A, Lasseur J, Morales H, Touré I, Tourrand JF, 2010. Acteurs et temporalités dans les processus de modélisation participative de l’interaction entre systèmes agropastoraux et territoires : analyse comparée de sept études de cas. Cahiers Agricultures,19 (2) : 135‐142. Résumé Cet article s’inscrit dans le cadre d’un projet de recherche transversal mené en partenariat sur sept terrains et portant sur l’analyse de la dynamique des activités d’élevage et de leurs impacts sur les ressources et les paysages à l’échelle des territoires. Conduites dans des situations contrastées, les recherches se sont organisées autour de la construction participative de modèles de simulation multi‐agents. L’objet de cet article est d’analyser, d’un point de vue comparatif, la participation des acteurs, y compris des chercheurs, dans ces projets de recherche participative. Pour appréhender la nature et les modalités du partenariat nous avons distingué quatre catégories de partenaires et décomposé le processus de recherche en six phases. L’implication des partenaires est analysée depuis la formulation de la question à l’origine du projet jusqu’à la phase d’exploration de scénarios. Bien que les projets adoptent tous une posture de modélisation d’accompagnement, l’implication des différentes catégories de partenaires diffère selon les projets. Elle semble liée aux objectifs de la modélisation et notamment à la part accordée à la production de connaissances ou à l’action. Au moins trois modalités de participation peuvent ainsi être distinguées : passive, consultative ou interactive. Les chercheurs, quant à eux, occupent une position souvent centrale dans les dispositifs qui les conduit à assumer une fonction d’animation du projet.

Mots‐clés méthodes et outils, productions animales, ressources naturelles et environnement

Abstract This article lies within the framework of a transverse research project which groups 7 case studies relating to the analysis of the dynamics of change in extensive livestock activities and their impacts on resources and landscapes at a territory scale. Carried out in contrasted situations, they relied on the participative construction of Agent‐ Based Models. The object of this article is to analyze, from a comparative point of view, the participation of actors, including researchers, in these participative research projects.To analyze the nature and terms of the partnership we distinguished four categories of partners and broke up the research process into six phases. The involvement of the partners is described starting from the formulation of the question at the origin of the project up to the phase of exploration of scenarios. Although all the projects adopt a companion modelling approach, the implication of the various categories of partners differs according to the projects. It seems related to the objectives of modelling and in particular to the predominance of knowledge generation or action. At least three types of participation can thus be distinguished: passive, consultative or interactive. The researchers themselves often have a central position in the process which leads them to take on the responsibility project animation.

Keywords comparative analysis, participatory approaches, partnerships, simulation models, territories

Choisis J.P., Sourdril A., Deconchat M. Balent G., Gibon A., 2010. Comprendre la dynamique régionale des exploitations de polyculture élevage pour accompagner le développement rural dans les Coteaux de Gascogne. Cahiers Agricultures, 19 (2) : 97‐103. Résumé Les Coteaux de Gascogne constituent un des terrains de recherche sur l’avenir des paysages ruraux et la durabilité de la gestion des ressources naturelles. Cette petite région du Sud‐Ouest de la France est historiquement fondée sur un système social dit « à maison » caractérisé par une permamence des patrimoines fonciers et des exploitations agricoles. Le système agraire qui lui est lié génère une mosaïque de paysages composée de grandes cultures, de prairies liées à l’élevage bovin et de bois. L’agriculture locale a connu, depuis les années 1950, de profonds changements liés à la modernisation et à l’agrandissement des exploitations. À l’origine très diversifiées et tournées vers l’autoconsommation, les exploitations s’inscrivent aujourd’hui dans l’économie de marché tout en conservant une orientation de polyculture‐élevage. Dans une perspective d’élaboration de scénarios d’évolution relatifs à l’élevage, nous avons mis en place un dispositif de recherche en partenariat. Il a été convenu, avec les partenaires, que la première étape de nos travaux porte sur l’amélioration de la connaissance des changements en cours dans les exploitations et la compréhension des stratégies des familles agricoles. À partir d’une enquête exhaustive et spatialisée des exploitations utilisant le territoire de quatre communes, nous avons, en premier lieu, élaboré une typologie pour disposer d’une représentation de la diversité de leurs situations. Les modes d’organisation spatiale et fonctionnelle des territoires d’exploitation montrent des situations contrastées liées à leur dimension et à leur accès aux ressources foncières. La transmission des exploitations et l’avenir de l’élevage bovin sont des questions pressantes qui constituent des éléments à intégrer dans les modèles et scénarios à élaborer.

Mots‐clés économie et développement rural, productions animales, territoire, foncier, politique agricole et alimentaire

Abstract The Coteaux de Gascogne region, an upland area in south‐western France, is a site where studies related to the future of landscapes and the sustainability of natural resource management are well documented. The local agricultural system is induced by a “house centred” society with the particularity of passing on the inheritance and farm estate identically from one generation to the next. This system generates a mosaic landscape made up of field crops, grasslands and woodlots. Local agriculture has experienced deep changes since the 1950s in relation with modernization and farm enlargement processes. Traditional farming systems were very diversified and turned towards subsistence. Nowadays, farming systems are market‐oriented mixed crop‐livestock farming, in which cattle is the main species raised. We have started a participatory research with local stakeholders for prospecting the future of livestock farming in the study area. We carried out a spatially explicit and exhaustive survey of the farms in 4 adjoining villages to assess the variety of family‐farms, their agricultural land‐management and their changes over recent decades. In this paper we present an initial typology assessing the current variety of the family‐farms structure and functioning. The types of spatial and functional organization of farm territories appear to depend on farm size and access to land resources. In current socio‐economical conditions, difficulty for farm transfer at the time of a farmer’s retirement and competition between crop and animal productions appear as main topical issues that challenge the future of local livestock farming. Their impacts on the sustainability of the local livestock sector and on landscape characteristics are major issues that will be considered in the modelling and scenarios of land‐use and landscape change to be worked out in a subsequent step of the participatory research project.

Keywords France, geographical information systems, mixed farming, partnerships, sustainable development, typology

Duvernoy I., Barthe L., Lima S., 2012. Les représentations de l’activité agricole dans les projets de territoires périurbains : exemple de trois pays en Midi‐Pyrenées. Norois, n°224 : 49‐59. Résumé Pour étudier les représentations de l’activité agricole locale inscrites dans la construction des territoires de projet, nous proposons une grille de lecture systématisée de ces représentations s’inspirant de deux théories géographiques de la construction du territoire et de la territorialisation des activités. Nous mettons à l’épreuve cette grille dans trois Pays de Midi‐Pyrénées, tous trois marqués par une forte périurbanisation. Le corpus est constitué des documents de constitution des Pays, de planification supra‐ communale (SCoT) et est complété par des entretiens auprès de différents acteurs territoriaux et agricoles. Cette classification fait apparaître une représentation différenciée de l’agriculture dans les projets de territoire, représentation parfois encore en cours d’élaboration. Un des cas étudiés suggère la mise en place de systèmes d’acteurs nouveaux appuyant le développement des activités agricoles suivant ces représentations.

Mots‐clés Périurbanisation, Activité agricole, Territoire, Représentations, Midi‐Pyrénées

Duvernoy I.,Bacconnier‐Baylet S., 2011. L’agriculture de l’aire urbaine de Toulouse. Enseignements de la presse locale. Sud Ouest Européen, n°31 : 67‐77 Résumé Les représentations de l’activité agricole et de son rôle dans l’aire urbaine de Toulouse sont différenciées. Pour explorer les caractéristiques de cette différenciation, nous avons procédé à une revue de la presse paraissant dans l’aire urbaine de Toulouse. Le corpus que nous avons constitué comprend 217 articles publiés majoritairement en 2006 et 2007 dans neuf périodiques. La répartition de cette diversité de présentations de l’agriculture montre une attention aux services de proximité que peut rendre l’agriculture dans la presse généraliste et des intercommunalités qui n’est pas relayée par la presse professionnelle. Deux représentations de l’agriculture en termes de productions et d’activités et de lien au territoire urbain coexisteraient donc dans l’aire urbaine de Toulouse.

Mots‐clés agriculture, croissance urbaine, représentations sociales, revue de presse, aménagement urbain

Abstract What is said about agriculture and its role in Toulouse differs, and, to explore its different patterns we have analysed the local press to identify how it mentions farming activities in the urban area of Toulouse. We collected and classified 217 articles from nine local publications which appeared mainly in 2006 and 2007 and this article presents the diversity of topics by which farming is presented. The prevalence of local services is the main difference between the regional press, the local press and the farmers’ journal. This suggests two on‐going representations of farming in the urban area of Toulouse, differingstrongly in terms of production, activity and urban functions where agriculture is concerned.

Poinsot Y., Saldaqui F., 2009. Quelle organisation territoriale pour une gestion durable des sangliers? Un exemple pyrénéen. Mappemonde, 94(2‐2009). Résumé La prolifération des grands ongulés réclame une gestion cynégétique rigoureuse, du fait de l’accroissement des dégâts agricoles et forestiers. Le plan de chasse est piloté à l’échelle d’unités de gestion (UG) regroupant quelques dizaines de communes. La territorialité du sanglier impose une gestion intercommunale, illustrée dans le cadre de l’UG 15 (piémont des Pyrénées‐Atlantiques), où les configurations écologiques et territoriales favorisent parfois l’émergence de ce niveau supra‐communal. Le contraire est aussi observé, en fonction des particularités du découpage communal. On remarque aussi des accords techniques entre équipes de chasseurs pourtant rivales. La pertinence d'un regard géographique sur la gestion sociale de la grande faune est ainsi soulignée.

Mots‐clés Battues, Gestion cynégétique, Intercommunalité, Sanglier, Territoires

Abstract The proliferation of large ungulates requires strict control by hunting, because of the damage they do to agriculture and forests. The hunting plan is steered by management units comprising several tens of municipalities. The territoriality of wild boar necessitates inter‐municipal management, illustrated by management unit 15 (foothills of the Western Pyrenees), where the ecological and territorial configurations sometimes encourage the emergence of this supra‐municipal level. The opposite is also observed, depending on the specific features of the municipal subdivisions. There are also technical agreements between rival teams of hunters. This study emphasises the relevance of a geographical view of the social management of large wildlife.

Keywords Battue, Inter‐municipal cooperation, Territories, Wild boar, Wildlife control by hunting

Thématique 4.

Qualité, produits, filières et territoires

Bergez J.E., Carpy‐Goulard F., Paradis S., Ridier A., 2011. A participatory foresight analysis of the cash crop sector at regional level: case study for a southwestern region in France. Regional Environmental Change, DOI: 10.1007/s10113‐011‐0232‐y. Abstract Following the request of local stakeholders, a multidisciplinary group of experts was formed to implement a foresight analysis of the cash crop sector in the Midi‐Pyrénées region. The group developed a four‐step multidisciplinary and participatory methodology that defined the objectives, established a shared diagnosis of the issue raised in the regional cash crop sector, implemented a foresight analysis, and then created a graphical summary. Three types of working groups (steering, restricted, and expanded) were involved with well‐assigned tasks. The dynamic interactions between the different groups of stakeholders and scientists and the use of graphics and maps as a medium to identify critical areas, such as zones in which production or environmental issues, are declining or evolving, enabled a shared view of regional problems. The main contribution of this paper is the presentation of a participative methodology that enabled co‐construction of three shared scenarios based on the combination of five major uncertainties: (i) change in agricultural markets and international trade; (ii) urbanization and regional planning; (iii) changing patterns of consumption and product processing; (iv) environmental issues in public policies; and (v) ability of farmers to implement innovative tools and methods.

Keywords Cash crop sector, Regional level, Foresight analysis, Participatory method

Labatut J., Aggeri F., Girard N., 2012. Discipline and change: how technologies and organizational routines interact in new practice creation?. Organization Studies, 33 (1) : 39‐69. Abstract In this paper we study the development and implementation of a technology over a long period of time, with a particular focus on how its disciplinary effects interplay with and change organizational routines and actors’ capacities, thus producing new patterns of action. To identify these processes of change and emergence of practices, we propose a combinative theoretical analysis at the interface between institutional and practice‐based approaches. Drawing on a rich ethnographic case study, we show how the fact of considering technologies as the combination of three dimensions (technical substrate, managerial philosophy and organizational model) furthers our understanding of institutional change and the creation of new practices. In particular, we examine the internal dynamics between the three dimensions of these technologies and the duality of organizational routines (their ostensive and performative aspects). This enables us to reintroduce practices and agency analysis into an institutional approach to technological change, and to put social history, designers’ assumptions and disciplinary effects of technologies back into the analysis of the micro‐ dynamics of routine changes. We identify several factors which partially explain divergent technological trajectories concerning institutionalization and emerging structures in two different settings.

Keywords disciplinary effects, institutional change, organizational routines, practice, technology

Labatut J., Aggeri F., Astruc J‐M., Bibé B. , Girard N., 2009. The active role of instruments in articulating knowing and knowledge. The case of animal qualification practices in breeding organisations. The Learning Organisation, 16(5): 371‐385. Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the role of instruments defined as artefacts, rules, models or norms, in the articulation between knowing‐in‐practice and knowledge, in learning processes. Design/methodology/approach – The paper focuses on a distributed, knowledge‐intensive and instrumented activity at the core of any collective action: qualification. The particular case of breeding activities in the livestock sector has been studied, where collective practices of animal qualification for collective breeding have been studied. Qualitative data stemming from in‐depth interviews and observation of daily practices have been analysed, combining practice‐ based approaches on knowing processes and science philosophers' theories on the use of instruments during action. Findings – The study of instruments used in daily practices allows us to go beyond the dichotomy between opposite types of knowledge, i.e. scientific knowledge seen as a stock, and sensible knowledge seen as purely tacit and equated to non‐instrumented practices. Instruments are not merely mediators in learning processes; they also take an active part in shaping and activating knowledge and learning processes. Research limitations/implications – Further research is needed on the designing of reflexive instrumentation, which takes knowing and knowledge articulation into account better. Practical implications – Using instruments as a key concept to analyse knowing‐in‐practice processes has both methodological and managerial implications for identifying those instruments that favour learning processes. Originality/value – This paper complements more classical practice‐based approaches by proposing a new perspective on instruments in learning processes, which is particularly relevant to the study of pluralistic organisations where power is diffuse.

Labatut J., Aggeri F., Bibé B., Girard N., 2011. Construire l’animal sélectionnable. Des régimes de sélection et de leurs transformations. Revue d’Anthropologie des Connaissances, 5(2) : 302‐336. Résumé Cet article s’intéresse à l’émergence, la structuration et la déstabilisation, en France, d’un « régime intensif de sélection » en matière de gestion des ressources génétiques animales en agriculture. Ce régime, remplaçant à la fin des années 1960 les précédentes formes de sélection, a la particularité d’avoir reposé sur des dispositifs coopératifs à dimension publique associant éleveurs et la recherche publique, et d’avoir été fortement encadré par l’État. Au travers de l’analyse longitudinale du cas de la sélection génétique de races ovines laitières locales en Pyrénées‐Atlantiques, nous retraçons les processus de construction institutionnelle des formes et pratiques de sélection animale au travers de la transformation conjointe des modes de production de connaissances, des objets et des marchés des ressources génétiques animales. Nous identifions plus largement différents régimes de sélection, reposant sur des modes de production de connaissances en tension, dont la coexistence, dans le cas étudié, menace la coopération indispensable au maintien des races locales. Nous mettons en lumière l’émergence de régimes néo‐communautaires de sélection et montrons en quoi les progrès scientifiques (génomique) et les changements de politiques publiques reconfigurent le paysage organisationnel des activités de gestion des ressources génétiques animales.

Mots‐clés régimes de sélection, ressources génétiques animales, sélection génétique, coopération, race

Abstract This article analyzes the emergence, structuring and undermining, in France, of an “intensive breeding regime” in the realm of animal genetic resources management in agriculture. In the 60’s, this regime replaced previous breeding practices. This regime is characterized by a cooperative and public organization between farmers and public research, and a strong State regulation of the production of knowledge on animals and breeding markets. Based on a longitudinal study of breeding activities in the Western‐Pyrenees sheep milk industry, this article identifies the processes of institutional emergence of contemporary animal breeding practices. It focuses on the joint transformation of modes of knowledge production, objects and markets for animal genetic resources. This analysis helps identifying several breeding regimes, based on different modes of knowledge in tension. Their coexistence, in the case under study, threatens the compulsory cooperation for maintaining local breeds. It highlights the emergence of neo‐communitarian breeding regimes and addresses the question of how recent scientific innovations (genomic tools for example) and political changes impact the socio‐economic organization of animal genetic resources management.

Keywords breeding regimes, genetic animal resources, genetic selection, cooperation, breed

Labatut J., Bibe B., Aggeri F., Girard N., 2012. Coopérer pour gérer des races locales : conception, rôles et usages des instruments scientifiques de sélection. Natures Sciences Sociétés, 20 : 143‐156. Résumé La gestion des ressources génétiques animales domestiques, et notamment des races locales, est aujourd’hui au cœur d’une actualité renouvelée qui met en question les modes de pilotage des dispositifs coopératifs sur lesquels cette gestion repose et les difficultés de coopération susceptibles de les fragiliser. À partir d’une démarche de recherche‐intervention autour de la sélection des races ovines laitières locales des Pyrénées‐Atlantiques, cet article identifie différentes dimensions de la coopération pour la gestion de races animales à travers l’étude de la conception, des usages et des effets inattendus des instruments scientifiques, techniques et de gestion conçus pour gérer ces races. Trois dimensions d’analyse sont développées : les tensions entre conception et usages des instruments scientifiques; les tensions entre évaluation par les instruments scientifiques et évaluation par les éleveurs dans les activités de qualification des animaux; la variété des stratégies des éleveurs sur le marché de la génétique. Cette approche par l’analyse des usages des instruments permet également de cerner des pistes d’action pour les gestionnaires de ces dispositifs.

Mots‐clés coopération, races locales, sciences de gestion, recherche‐intervention, Pyrénées‐Atlantiques

Abstract The management of domestic animal genetic resources is a topic of pressing concern given developing trends such as the liberalization of genetic resources markets, the increasing number of patents and intellectual property rights and the withdrawal of governments from the organization and control of breeding activities. Managing territorialized common goods of this nature calls for cooperative mechanisms involving a wider range of actors than so far. How to steer these mechanisms and handle crises in cooperation that can impede them, is crucial to maintaining biodiversity. This article proposes an analytical framework to analyze and facilitate cooperation in distributed breeding organizations. This framework is the result of an intervention research into breeding organizations for three local breeds of milk sheep in the Western‐ Pyrenees. By investigating the design and uses of scientific, technical and management instruments on which breeding activities and organization rely, we identified three dimensions to be considered in the analysis of cooperation for animal resources management: a) tensions between the design and uses of scientific instruments for genetic gain achievement; b) tensions between the evaluation of animals using scientific instruments and the evaluation of animals based on breeder know‐how in qualifying animal common resources; c) diversity of farmer strategies and functioning of the market for breeding goods and services resulting from the activities conducted in the two previous dimensions (production of genetic gain, qualification of the common resources).

Keywords Cooperation, local breeds, management sciences, intervention research , Western‐Pyrenees

Labatut J., Girard N., Astruc J.M., Bibé B., 2012. The management of genetic progress dissemination: a key aspect for local breeds selection. Animal Genetic Resources. Abstract Researches on local breeds have mainly focused on the scientific and technical activities of genetic gain production and/or maintain genetic variability. The diffusion of the genetic gain used to be taken for granted, or considered as of little importance as the State was subsidizing official breeding schemes. However, diffusion and sustainability of small local‐breeding schemes are threatened by current changes in breeding activities and organizations. Diversification of farming and breeding objectives, liberalization of public policies on breeding activities, decrease in public support change the business model of breeding organizations. Local breeds are par‐ ticularly concerned, as they may be threatened by more competitive and widespread ones. Indeed, the management of the diffusion dimension of breeding activities gets a greater importance. Thus, there is a need for a better understanding of the market of genetic gain and the strategies of its participants. To investigate this issue, we study with quantitative and qualitative data, the way the genetic market works in the case of local dairy sheep breeds in the Western Pyrenees. In this area, the use of artificial insemination (AI) outside nucleus flocks is weak. The diffusion is mainly based on the exchanges of live breeding animals, but the number and substance of the exchanges are unknown. We analyse two types of markets, which are set up: the official sale of breeding animals, organized by the breeding centre; the parallel market of rams’ exchanges by mutual agreement between farmers. We find several paradoxical results: the more expensive animals are sold outside of the breeding schemes, while the genetic value is more uncertain; the breeding centre does not find enough buyers for its rams, while there is a shortage of rams in the region; outside the breeding schemes, the parallel market of rams is dominant. We also identify that there is a diversity of prices on the market, which cannot be explained based on the scientific evaluation of animals. We show the existence of a second‐hand market of rams. In conclusion, we argue that there are various ways of managing the diffusion of genetic gain, and that the market is only one of this.

Keywords Dairy sheep, diffusion, genetic gain, local breeds, rams’ market

Lafon S., Guillon A., 2009. Accompagner la gestion de la production truffière dans le parc régional des Causses (Lot) : présentation de l’analyse territoriale et de l’inventaire des instruments associés. Ingénieries, 57‐58 : 65‐89 Pardo C., 2009. Le discours des trufficulteurs face à leurs pratiques : une passion « naturelle » qui promeut la qualité du produit et de son écosystème. Le trufficulteur, N°69 – 4ème trimestre 2009 : 14‐17.

Thématique 5.

Systèmes de production, petites entreprises et exploitations agricoles

Carof M., Colomb B., Aveline A., 2012. A guide for choosing the most appropriate method for multi‐criteria assessment of agricultural systems according to decision‐makers' expectations. Agricultural systems, 12 pages ‐doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2012.09.011. Abstract Modern agriculture must meet new challenges such as production of healthy food, adaptation to climate change, protection of natural resources, and conservation of landscape. These challenges require changes in current agricultural systems and therefore, environmentally‐friendly agricultural systems must be designed and their sustainability assessed. Over the past several years, various methods have been developed for making such assessments (e.g. the Balancing and Ranking Method, MEACROS, MODAM, the modelling framework of Pacini et al., ROTAT + Farm Images, MASC, and ROTOR) but few studies put forward simple solutions for selecting one method over another. In this paper, we propose a simple guide to distinguish methods one from another. Categories of the guide include the type of systems to assess, the spatial and temporal scales at which systems are assessed, the dimensions of sustainability for which systems are assessed, the type of visualisation for comparing options, the target users, and the ability to generate alternative systems. The guide was developed and tested with a group of farm advisors involved in a three‐year project called RotAB, which aimed to assess the sustainability of organic arable farming systems: the advisors looked for a method for sustainability assessment of cropping systems. We presented seven recent assessment methods as well as the guide to advisors. The guide’s key points allowed them to clearly express their requirements: the method they looked for had to evaluate cropping systems and helped advisors to propose new ones; it had to evaluate multiple sustainability criteria that are easily understandable by farmers; indicators had to be scientifically based, without the need for many input data; the method had to be easy to use and produced graphical output that can be discussed with farmers. Finally, the guide helped advisors to choose one of the seven methods (in that case they chose MASC). This guide can help decision‐makers distinguish assessment tools from one another using simple categories and choose the one best adapted to their expectations.

Keywords Cropping system, Farming system, Evaluation methods, Multi‐criteria decision aid, Sustainability assessment, Decision‐makers’ expectations

Choisis J.P., Thévenet C., Gibon A., 2012. Analyzing farming systems diversity: a case study in south‐western France. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 10(3) : 605‐618. Abstract The huge changes in agricultural activities, which may be amplified by the forthcoming Common Agriculture Policy reform, call the future of crop‐livestock systems into question and hence the impact of these changes on landscapes and biodiversity. We analyzed relationships between agriculture, landscape and biodiversity in south‐ western France. The study area covered about 4000 ha and included four villages. We conducted a survey of 56 farms. Multivariate analysis (multiple factor analysis and cluster analysis) were used to analyze relationships between 25 variables and to build a typology. The type of farming (beef and/or dairy cattle, cash crops), size (area and workforce) and cultivation practices, among others, were revealed as differentiating factors of farms. Six farming types were identified (1) hillside mixed crop‐livestock farms, (2) large ‘corporate’ farms, (3) extensive cattle farms, (4) large intensive farms on the valley sides, (5) small multiple‐job holdings, and (6) ‘hobby’ farms. The diversity of farming systems revealed the variable impact of the main drivers of change affecting agricultural development, particularly the enlargement and modernization of farms along with the demography of agricultural holdings.

Keywords farming systems, farm typology, Hills of Gascony, mixed crop‐livestock systems, multivariate analysisMixed crop‐livestock systems, Multivariate analysis

Colomb B., Carof M., Aveline A., Bergez J.E., 2012. Stockless organic farming: strengths and weaknesses evidenced by a multicriteria sustainability assessment model. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, DOI : 10.1007/s13593‐012‐0126‐5 Abstract Agronomists need methodologies to assess the sustainability of cropping systems. Few models such as MASC have been recently developed for evaluation. The effective use of those models is still a challenge, notably for low‐input systems. Here a more specific model entitled MASC‐OF was developed and applied to study stockless organic cropping systems. The MASC‐OF model is original because it is based on agricultural advisers’ needs and expertises. Two groups of advisers supported by agronomic scientists were involved in a nine‐step methodology to progress from preliminary meetings to data analysis. The methodology allowed advisers to design a model including their own views on what is a sustainable organic cropping system. Soil fertility and weed and pest control were integrated as a new branch in the original MASC model. We also developed evaluation criteria for each basic attribute, defining aggregation rules and weighting attributes. Tested case studies were based on 44 real cropping systems identified on 19 farms in the Midi‐Pyrenees region of France and on 23 cropping system types developed by the advisers from the Centre, Ile‐de‐France, Pays de Loire, Poitou‐Charentes and Rhône‐Alpes regions of France. Our results show that a high score of economic sustainability is the most difficult to achieve. This finding is explained by low productivity of cereal crops and high variability of market prices for organic grain. Further, agronomic viability is also difficult to ensure, as a consequence of poor soil‐fertility management practices. The ability to achieve social acceptability for the producer, including workload and health risk, is high. By contrast, acceptability for the society has a medium score due to reduced productivity and contribution to local employment. Environmental sustainability is the easiest dimension to achieve, despite nitrogen‐loss risks in some situations and high water and energy consumption in irrigated systems. Overall our findings show that the potential for the development of more sustainable organic cropping systems in stockless farms is high.

Keywords Cropping systems, Sustainability assessment, Organic farming, Multicriteria, MASC, MASC‐OF, DEXi

Colomb B., Glandières A., Carpy‐Goulard F., Lecat N., Pelletier A., Prieur L., 2009. Analyse énergétique des systèmes de grandes cultures biologiques. Impact du niveau d’intensification. Revue Innovations Agronomiques, 4,176‐181 Résumé L’étude fait apparaître une variabilité importante des principaux paramètres de l’analyse énergétique appliquée à 44 successions culturales biologiques de quatre années chacune. Le niveau d’intensification des systèmes, appréhendé en termes de recours ou non à la fertilisation organique sur céréales et à l’irrigation sur cultures d’été (légumineuses à graines principalement) explique en grande partie cette variabilité. La consommation énergétique moyenne varie de 5 000 à 12 270 MJ/ha/an selon le niveau d’intensification. La production énergétique varie de 35 500 à 43 950 MJ/ha/an. Consommation et production énergétiques variant dans le même sens avec le degré d’intensification, le gain énergétique est stable avec une valeur moyenne de 29 300 MJ/ha/an. L’efficience énergétique diminue de 7,1 MJ/MJ pour les successions culturales non fertilisées et non irriguées, à 3,5 MJ/MJ pour les successions fertilisées et irriguées, où le soja et la féverole tiennent une place importante.

Mots‐clés Grande culture biologique, Analyse énergétique, Fertilisation organique, Irrigation, Midi‐Pyrénées

Abstract This study reveals a wide variability in the major parameters of the energy analysis applied to 44 fouryear‐long organic crop sequences. The intensification level of the systems in terms of the use or nonuse of organic fertilisation on cereals and of irrigation on summer crops (mainly pulses) is largely responsible for this variability. Average energy consumption ranges from 5 000 to 12 270 MJ/ha/year depending on the intensification level. Energy production varies from 35 500 to 43 950 MJ/ha/year. Since energy consumption and production both vary in the same direction with the degree of intensification, the energy gain is stable at an average value of 29300 MJ/ha/year. Energy efficiency decreases from 7.1 MJ/MJ for unfertilised and unirrigated crop sequences, to 3.5 MJ/MJ for fertilised and irrigated sequences, where soy and faba bean are among the major crops.

Keywords organic field crop, energy analysis, irrigation, organic fertilisation, Midi‐Pyrenees

Da Silveira Pontes L., Agreil C., Gleizes B., Fritz H., Magda D., 2010. Feeding behaviour of sheep on shrubs in response to contrasted herbaceous cover in rangelands dominated by Cytisus scoparius L. Animal Behaviour Science, 124(1): 35‐44. Abstract The foraging responses of ewes faced with a diversity of feed items and their effects on broom (Cytisus scoparius L.) consumption were examined. The experiment was conducted on a farm in the autumn with ewes (n = 33) grazing three small paddocks (0.44 ha on average, for at least 10 days each) located in broom shrubland. The effects of three different herbaceous covers on broom consumption were compared: 100% of paddock area previously grazed in summer; 50% of paddock area previously grazed in summer; and paddock area non‐grazed during the year. The characteristics of herbaceous cover (availability and quality) and the ewes’ diet selection were encoded as bite categories. Flock activities were recorded through scan sampling. We used logistic regression to assess the relationship between feeding behaviour of sheep on herbaceous vegetation and on broom species, and calculated selectivity indices for this shrub. We showed that the presence of high‐quality bite categories in the herbaceous cover affected the way ewes integrated broom into their diet. At the start of each paddock use period, ewes favoured high‐quality larger and medium bites of the herbaceous cover. They gradually included larger bites of broom and reduced their bite size, but continued to seek out higher quality herbaceous plants, a pattern which suggested a stabilisation of their daily average digestibility and bite mass over time. A negative relation was observed between the percentage of ewes taking large and medium bites on highly digestible plant parts and the percentage of ewes browsing broom. A maximum of 26% of the flock browsing broom was observed on any given day. Hence, ewes have a threshold for this target shrubby species that they do not exceed during any paddock utilisation period. This finding was interpreted as a mechanism to deal with post‐ingestive consequences and complementary interactions between nutrients and toxins. When comparing broom selection between paddocks in autumn, we found an earlier and thus longer broom selection in areas with herbaceous cover that had not been grazed during the year (possibly because of a lower palatability). Our results provide new insights into ways to manipulate diet selection in order to stimulate the use of broom by ewes. Bite categories are proposed as functional feed indicators that facilitate prediction of the herbaceous cover state preliminary to initial broom integration in the sheep's diet.

Keywords Bite, Broom, Feeding choices, Grazing behaviour, Shrub encroachment, Shrubland

Duru M., Adam M., Cruz P., Martin G., Ansquer P., Ducourtieux C., Jouany C., Theau J. P., Viegas J., 2009. Modelling above‐ground herbage mass for a wide range of grassland community types. Ecological Modelling, 220 : 209‐225. Abstract Whereas it is recognized that management of plant diversity can be the key to reconciling production and environmental aims, most grassland models are tailored for high‐ value grass species. We proposed to adapt a mono‐specific grass model to take into account specific features of species‐rich permanent grasslands, especially over the reproductive phase. To this end, we used the concept of plant functional type (PFT), i.e. the grouping of plant species according to plant traits determined by the response of plant species to different management practices (land use and fertilization) and characterizing of agronomic properties of the corresponding species. In the model, weather and nutrient availability act upon rates of biophysical processes (radiation capture and use, plant senescence). These rates are modified over times due to PFT‐ specific parameters determined experimentally which represent the different strategies of plant species regarding growth. The integration of these parameters into the model made it possible to predict herbage biomass accumulation rate under different management practices for a wide range of plant communities differing in their PFT composition. The model was evaluated in two steps, first by analyzing separately the effects of PFT and an indicator of nutrient availability on herbage accumulation and then by conducting a sensitivity analysis. It was validated using two independent datasets; a cutting experiment running over the whole growing season to examine the consistency of the model outputs under different cutting regimes, and a monitoring of meadows and pastures in spring over a whole growth cycle to assess the model’s ability to reproduce growth curves. Although a good fit was observed between the simulated and observed data, the few discrepancies noticed between field data and predicted values were attributed mainly to the potential presence of non‐grass species. More specifically, we noticed that nutrient (mainly nitrogen) availability is the main driver of plant growth rate, and that PFT determines the times at which this rate changes in relation to the phenological characteristics of species present. We concluded that integration of the PFT concept into the initial mono‐specific growth model is especially suited to evaluating the consequences of management practices on species‐rich permanent grasslands to meet feed production targets.

Keywords Permanent grassland, Plant functional type, Model, Management, Grasses

Duru M., Cruz P., Jouany C., Theau J.P., 2010. Herb'type : un nouvel outil pour évaluer les services de production fournis par les prairies permanentes. INRA Productions Animales, 23 : 319‐32. Résumé Herb’type est un outil de caractérisation des services de production (valeur d’usage) fournis par les prairies permanentes : productivité, digestibilité, temporalité de la production et souplesse d’utilisation. Les fondements écologiques qui en font sa généricité sont résumés dans une première partie. Dans une deuxième partie, nous présentons le mode d’emploi de l’outil permettant de passer d’un relevé botanique à une évaluation des services agronomiques : la composition en types fonctionnels de graminées est renseignée par une méthode simplifiée de relevé botanique ; des règles d’agrégation des données et d’interprétation des résultats permettent de passer de cette composition à une information (les composantes de la valeur d’usage) puis à une connaissance opérationnelle pour l’action. Herb’type est le résultat d’un travail en partenariat avec des éleveurs et des conseillers lors de suivis d’élevage et de formations ayant donné lieu à des retours d’expérience qui ont permis de transformer une idée en plusieurs prototypes puis en un outil. Dans une troisième partie, nous présentons quelques illustrations d’utilisation de l’outil à différentes échelles (parcelle, système fourrager) comme éléments d’évaluation et pour montrer quelques potentialités de l’outil. Enfin les atouts et les limites de cet outil sont présentés en précisant les pistes en cours d’étude.

Duru M., Cruz P., Martin G., Theau J.P., Charron‐Moirez, M. H., Desange, M., Jouany, C., Zerourou A., 2010. Herb'sim : un modèle pour raisonner la production et l'utilisation de l'herbe. Fourrages, 201 : 37‐46. Résumé La simulation informatique constitue un outil performant pour prévoir les effets des conduites de prairies (pratiques de fertilisation et modes d'exploitation) sur la disponibilité en herbe pour des types de végétation connus. Elle peut aussi compléter les connaissances acquises par expérimentations et réseaux d'observation. Ce papier synthétise l'état des connaissances et constitue une introduction pour l'utilisation d'un modèle de simulation qui l'accompagnera dans une version disponible via Internet. Nous présentons ci‐dessous un modèle de croissance et de qualité de l'herbe mis au point pour des prairies de graminées semées et des prairies permanentes riches en espèces. Nous l'étendons à des légumineuses associées ou non à des graminées. Ce modèle conçu pour raisonner la production et l'utilisation de l'herbe a deux objectifs principaux : (i) représenter de manière intégrée et dynamique la croissance de l'herbe ; le modèle constituant un support de formation, (ii) aider à l'élaboration de référentiels régionaux sur la base de comparaison d'années climatiques, de modes d'exploitation, de types de végétation. Les variables d'entrée du modèle sont le niveau de nutrition minérale, les types de végétation (espèces, type de graminées des prairies permanentes ou composition des associations graminées‐légumineuses), des caractéristiques du sol (réserve en eau), les modes d'exploitation (date et hauteur de récolte) et des données journalières du climat. Les variables de sortie sont la quantité d'herbe sur pied, sa digestibilité et sa teneur en protéines. Des illustrations sont données pour indiquer les performances du modèle, notamment en ce qui concerne les différences entre types de végétation, ainsi que les effets des modes d'exploitation sur la croissance et la biomasse récoltée.

Mots‐clés prairie permanente, végétation, facteur climat, prairie temporaire, production fourragère, digestibilité, légumineuse, mode d'exploitation, modélisation, nutrition de la plante, composition fonctionnelle, croissance végétale

Duru M., Cruz P., Theau J. P., 2010. Évaluer la souplesse d'utilisation des prairies permanentes par la caractérisation de la composition fonctionnelle de la végétation et la phénologie des espèces. Fourrages, 201 : 3‐10. Résumé La souplesse d'utilisation des prairies permanentes est une composante mal connue de leur valeur d'usage. Au‐delà de l'acception usuelle concernant le temps écoulé entre le départ en végétation et le stade épiaison, nous examinons le rôle de la diversité fonctionnelle de la végétation et nous proposons une méthode de caractérisation. Pour les graminées fourragères sélectionnées, la souplesse d'utilisation au cours du printemps est estimée par le temps écoulé entre le départ en végétation et l'épiaison. Pour les prairies permanentes riches en espèces, nous proposons d'examiner en outre le rôle de la diversité fonctionnelle au travers d'indicateurs rendant compte de la composition en formes de vie (graminées vs dicotylédones) et de la diversité des types de graminées. Les graminées sont qualifiées sur la base de la teneur en matière sèche des limbes (TMS), trait connu pour les classer selon leur préférence pour des milieux plus ou moins fertiles. Deux dispositifs, l'un concernant 19 graminées de prairies permanentes cultivées en culture pure à Toulouse, l'autre 18 communautés prairiales fauchées et pâturées localisées dans les Pyrénées centrales ont été mobilisés. Les observations concernent des stades phénologiques et des formes de courbes de croissance (dispositif 2). Les données du premier dispositif montrent que chacun des stades, épi 5 ou 10 cm, épiaison et floraison, s'étale sur plus d'un mois, et qu'à quelques exceptions prêt, les espèces les plus précoces aux premiers stades le sont aussi aux derniers. Nous montrons aussi que la TMS est corrélée significativement à chacun de ces stades (r=0,60 à 0,82 ; p<0.01). Au niveau des communautés, nous montrons que les dicotylédones fleurissent en moyenne plus tôt que les graminées. En outre que le temps écoulé entre le départ en végétation (date où la biomasse atteint 1,5 t/ha) et la date à laquelle le pic de biomasse est atteint dépend peu du type de graminées. Par contre, la forme de croissance autour du pic est d'autant plus aplatie que la diversité des graminées est grande et cette forme est augmentée par la présence de dicotylédones, en cohérence avec leur date de floraison plus précoce. Comme observé pour les graminées en culture pure, les dates auxquelles sont observés le départ en végétation, le pic de biomasse et les dates de floraison pondérées par l'abondance des espèces (graminées ou toutes espèces) sont corrélées à la TMS calculée à partir de l'abondance des graminées. La diversité des graminées, de même que la présence de dicotylédones contribue à conférer de la souplesse dans les modes d'exploitation, c'est‐à‐dire ouvre la possibilité d'avancer ou retarder la fauche ou le pâturage sans réduire pour autant la valeur d'usage agricole. Le deuxième enseignement de cette synthèse est que les grandes différences de stades clefs entre communautés (départ en végétation, date du pic de croissance) peuvent être mis à profit au niveau d'une sole fourragère pour créer de la souplesse à ce niveau. Enfin, cette étude montre qu'il est possible de caractériser la souplesse à partir de relevés botanique simplifiés, limités aux graminées, à partir desquels on calcule la TMS pondérée, sa variabilité et une estimation de la proportion de dicotylédones.

Mots‐clés prairie permanente, végétation, graminée, souplesse d'exploitation, courbe de croissance, composition fonctionnelle, cycle végétatif, dicotylédones

Duru M., Cruz P., Theau J.P., 2010. A simplified method for characterising agronomic services provided by species‐rich grasslands. Crop Pasture Sciences, 61 : 420‐33. Abstract In order to encourage farmers and their advisors to promote species‐rich grasslands, the agronomic services they can provide should be demonstrated. Methods based on functional ecology are promising, but difficult to use in an applied context. Thus, we aimed to construct a simplified method, tailored for non‐researchers, for assessing grassland agronomic services. We assess them by focusing on the grass species that was coupled to a leaf dry matter content (LDMC) database. These simplifications are supported by several hypotheses tested in our paper: (i) trade‐offs between agronomic properties; (ii) mass ratio hypothesis; and (iii) functional convergence and divergence between grass and dicotyledonous species. The results were based on 37 vegetation records taken in the south of France (central Pyrenees, from 650 to 1250 m. a.s.l.) for calculating the proportion of grass species and the aggregated LDMC of grass species (LDMCgw), weighting species values by their abundance. LDMC of grass species was taken from field measurements and from a database. The two methods were compared. The latter avoids tedious field measurements, and we found that it was at least as good as the former for assessing agronomic productivity and quality, and the same was true for a LDMC diversity index. Reducing the list of grass species to the two dominant ones did not significantly alter the LDMCgw. There were significant differences between the grass and dicotyledonous components coexisting within a plant community for the digestibility of the plant components (higher for dicots) and in the date at which ceiling yield occurred (earlier for dicots), but no significant effect for productivity. For assessing agronomic services, we proposed corrections based on the grass : dicotyledon ratio. The hypotheses used for designing the method were verified. Finally, agronomic services such as herbage productivity and quality provided by species‐rich grasslands can be evaluated by recording dominant grass species and the proportion of grass in the herbage. However, taking account of the difference in sensitivity to the environment for agronomic properties and plant species composition, the main use of the method is for ranking plant communities within a given area and a given year, rather than for providing absolute values of these agronomic properties.

Keywords dicotyledon, digestibility, grass, growth, leaf dry matter content, nitrogen, plant trait, trade‐off

Duru M., Felten B., Theau J.P., Martin G. 2012. A modelling and participatory approach for enhancing learning about adaptation of grassland‐based livestock systems to climate change". Regional Environmental Change 12: 739‐750. Abstract To anticipate local livestock systems’ adaptation to climate change, we created a modelling and participatory approach that relies on the development and use of agro‐ meteorological and agronomic supports that are based on climate‐ and plant‐model outputs and shaped by a conceptual model of a livestock system. The objective of this paper was to examine the extent to which the approach, in particular the use of the supports in workshops with farmers and advisors, helped to stimulate learning about adaptation options of livestock systems to climate change and the way in which workshop discussions can improve researchers’ conceptual models of livestock systems. We show that the use of supports can generate incremental adaptation options (interpreted as single‐loop learning) and sometimes more radical ideas for change (interpreted as double‐loop learning). Subsequent analysis of workshops provides new insights into livestock systems (e.g. considerations used by farmers for key decisions). We demonstrate that this modelling and participatory approach avoids the trade‐off often found between the credibility of livestock‐system adaptations to climate change and their relevance in practice.

Keywords Land use, Farmer, Grassland, Boundary object, Workshop, Knowledge, Pyrenees

Duru M., Jouany C., Cruz P., Theau J.P., 2011. Combiner des recherches en agroécologie et des dispositifs participatifs pour construire des outils d’évaluation des prairies permanentes. Cahiers Agricultures 20: 223‐234. Résumé L’objectif de cet article est de montrer comment, partant des concepts et méthodes de l’écologie fonctionnelle, le travail en partenariat au cours d’une décennie avec des éleveurs et des conseillers agricoles a permis de construire pas à pas une boîte à outils pour caractériser la valeur d’usage des prairies permanentes. La base commune aux cinq outils de cette boîte est la caractérisation de la composition fonctionnelle de la végétation. Nous montrons comment les différents types de partenariat, et la mise en situation des connaissances avec les partenaires, ont orienté les choix faits et permis de passer d’un concept à plusieurs prototypes, puis à un ensemble d’outils actionnables. Les différents types d’apprentissage pour les chercheurs et les praticiens sont analysés. Enfin, sont discutés des enseignements méthodologiques pour coconstruire des outils pour l’action lorsque les connaissances scientifiques et pratiques sur les processus à piloter font défaut.

Mots‐clés apprentissage, diagnostic, modèle, partenariat, prairie permanente

Abstract Environmental services provided by permanent grasslands are well acknowledged but the agricultural services they provide remain difficult to assess with conventional methods. Our objective is to present the step‐by‐step approach which was used to build a toolbox. Methodologies and concepts developed in functional ecology were mobilized together with long‐term partnership with farmers, advisors and teachers. The five tools rely on a common base, the functional characterization of vegetation. These tools make it possible to characterize the agronomic potential of the grassland, to define the range of practices compatible with a vegetation type, to model different scenarios for learning purposes and to estimate room for manoeuvring for a better valorisation of available forage resources. We demonstrate how the different partnerships and the real life situation of knowledge with partners orientated the choices we made and allowed us to pass from a concept with several prototypes to a combination of actionable, ie easily mobilized, tools. We analyze the different types of training available for scientists and practitioners in this work. Finally, we discuss methodological teachings for tool co‐construction in action when scientific and practical knowledge on processes are missing.

Keywords diagnosis, learning, models, permanent pastures, partnerships

Gross H., Girard N., Magda D., 2011. Analysing theory and use of management tools for sustainable agri‐environmental livestock practices: the case of Pastoral Value in the French Pyrenees. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 35(5) : 550‐573. Abstract The aim of this paper is to contribute to the design of management tools for sustainable agricultural systems that are able to accompany farming practices in anticipating the long‐term effects of practices on natural resources management. Its originality is to analyze tools on the basis of their cognitive content as well as their management philosophy and their organizational model. We applied this approach to the main tool (Pastoral Value) used to assess the potential of forage resources in France. Our findings show how the tool strongly shapes practices and how it is adapted by technicians to their situation within the context of the French Central Pyrenees, emphasizing the role of experiential knowledge.

Ickowicz A, Bah A, Bommel P., Choisis J.P., Etienne M., Gibon A, Lasseur J., Morales H., Touré I., Tourrand JF, 2010. Facteurs de transformations des systèmes d’élevage extensifs des territoires: étude comparée des dynamiques locales sur trois continents, Cahiers Agricultures, 19 (2) : 127‐134. Résumé Depuis plus d’une décennie, la globalisation des enjeux environnementaux, économiques et sociaux induit de rapides transformations du monde agricole et des territoires ruraux. Celles‐ci posent en particulier la question de l’avenir des systèmes d’élevage extensifs, face au défi du doublement attendu des productions animales d’ici 2050, tout en préservant l’environnement. Afin de mieux comprendre et accompagner ces processus de transformation, une analyse comparative des dynamiques des systèmes d’élevage et des territoires a été réalisée à partir de sept études de cas sur trois continents sur la base d’une grille de lecture commune. Les facteurs globaux (démographie, environnement, marchés) pèsent sur l’ensemble des territoires d’élevage, mais leurs impacts sont modulés de manière spécifique par des facteurs locaux : culture, histoire, enclavement, projets locaux et politiques publiques. Cependant les processus de transformation sont comparables et l’élevage extensif est souvent sous pression, notamment foncière et économique, face aux activités alternatives qui se développent sur les territoires d’élevage. Pour évaluer équitablement et de façon intégrée le rôle de l’élevage dans le développement des territoires, il est nécessaire de mieux qualifier et de quantifier ses différentes fonctions qui sont complexes car multi‐échelles sur les plans spatial et temporel.

Mots‐clés économie et développement rural, productions animales, territoire, foncier, politique agricole et alimentaire

Abstract For over a decade, the globalisation of environmental, economic and social issues has induced rapid modification in agriculture and land. These changes raise the question of future extensive livestock systems in regards to the worldwide challenge to double livestock production by 2050 in ways which are safe for the environment. In order to better understand and follow modification processes, a comparative study of livestock systems and land dynamics has been carried out on seven case studies on three continents through the use of a common grid. Global factors (demography, environment, markets) are active on all livestock lands but their impacts are modulated and specific in relation to local factors (culture, history, isolation, local projects, public policies). Be that as it may, modification processes are similar and livestock production most often appears to be under pressure from alternative land‐uses, especially for land‐tenure and economic factors. To estimate livestock’s role in land development with equity and in an integrative way, it is necessary to improve qualitative and quantitative assessment of livestock functions which are complex due to spatial and temporal multi‐scale processes.

Keywords dynamics, extensive husbandry, land‐use

Justes E., Bedoussac L., Prieur L., 2009. Est‐il possible d’améliorer le rendement et la teneur en protéines du blé en Agriculture Biologique au moyen de cultures intermédiaires ou de cultures associées ?. Revue Innovations Agronomiques, 4 : 165‐176. Résumé L’objectif du travail est de trouver des systèmes de culture durables pour produire en AB des rendements de blé réguliers et de bon niveau avec une teneur en protéines satisfaisante. Notre démarche repose sur une valorisation optimale des ressources naturelles en azote provenant de la minéralisation du sol et de la fixation symbiotique. D’une part, des cultures intermédiaires ont été semées en été et enfouies avant le semis du blé réalisé en novembre afin de limiter les pertes hivernales d’azote nitrique. D’autre part, le blé a été cultivé en association avec une légumineuse à graines (pois ou fèverole d’hiver). Les cultures intermédiaires sont efficaces dans leur rôle de piège à nitrate et permettent d‘augmenter le rendement et la teneur en protéines du blé lors des années pluvieuses. En culture associée, le rendement du blé est réduit mais la teneur en protéines est significativement augmentée et le rendement total (blé+légumineuse) est plus élevé. Ainsi, en AB, les cultures associées sont plus efficaces p ur utiliser les ressources naturelles en azote. Il reste cependant i) à optimiser les itinéraires techniques de ces systèmes de culture, et, ii) déterminer la place des associations au sein des rotations et analyser leur effet pour la gestion des bioagresseurs.

Mots‐clés azote, culture intermédiaire, culture associée, blé tendre, blé dur, teneur en protéines

Abstract The objective of our work was to investigate innovative sustainable cropping systems to produce regular yields of wheat with a satisfactory grain protein concentration in organic farming systems. Achieving good production levels in stockless French organic farming systems is a major challenge due to strong N limitation. Our approach is mainly based on a better valorisation of the natural nitrogen resources from soil mineralisation and symbiotic fixation of legumes, and not by an increase in the use of organic fertiliser. Two experiments were carried out in southwestern France where winter wheat and durum wheat were grown for their use in human consumption (bread and pasta, respectively). On one hand, cover crops were sown in summer and were incorporated in early November just before the wheat was sown. On the other hand, wheat was cultivated in mixture (intercropping) with a grain legume such as winter pea or fababean. The cover crops were found to be effective in the case of rainy winter years i) because of their role as a nitrate catch crop to mitigate nitrate leaching and ii) because they made it possible to increase the yield and the protein concentration of wheat grains by increasing available N (role of green manure). In the case of intercropping, wheat yield was reduced in comparison to a wheat crop alone, as expected, but the protein concentration was significantly increased and the whole grain yield (wheat + legume) was increased. Thus, in organic farming, intercrops seem to be more effective for enhancing natural nitrogen resources. However, it is still necessary: (i) to optimise the technical sequences of these two farming systems, and; ii) to determine the role of intercrops within rotations and to analyse their effect for both pests and diseases management, which is crucial in organic farming systems.

Keywords nitrogen, cover crop, intercrop, winter wheat, durum wheat, grain protein concentration

Lelièvre, F., Volaire, F., 2009. Current and potential development of perennial grasses in rainfed Mediterranean farming systems. Crop Science , 49 : 2371‐2378. Abstract Past and recent development of perennial grasses in the rainfed Euro‐Mediterranean region is reviewed concerning climatic constraints and main types of farming systems. The few Mediterranean cultivars that are registered and available are used for livestock production and cover crops only in subtemperate areas. These cultivars are adapted where annual rainfall exceeds 500 mm and accumulated water defi cit from May to September is <800 mm. For the future, grass– legume mixtures need to be developed to meet the contrasting situations of livestock production and environmental use, with both functions contributing to farm income through the market and from public subsidies. Concern for environmental uses of perennial grasses raises interest in new germplasm that could accelerate cultivar breeding and seed production. Research programs should ensure a diversifi cation of available germplasm in the principal forage species for phenology, drought tolerance, summer dormancy levels, and dehydration tolerance.

Martin G., Felten B., Duru M., 2011. Forage rummy: a game to support the participatory design of adapted livestock systems. Environmental Modelling & Software, 26 : 1442‐1453. Abstract The context of agricultural production, climate change in particular, is increasingly requiring adaptations in the structure and management of farming systems. As explorers, implementers, testers and promoters of such adaptations, farmers and extension services have to be involved in the design process of adapted farming systems. However, the complexity of most design approaches produced by research (e.g. computer‐model‐based) keeps them outside the core of this process. Here we present a game called “forage rummy” developed to engage farmers and extension services in being the main players in livestock system design and evaluation. It relies on a number of “boundary objects” developed upon the conversion of scientific knowledge into more usable forms of support. These are a player‐friendly game board based on a conceptual model of a livestock system on which flattened wooden sticks marked with year‐round forage production and animal feeding requirements have to be assembled with the support of a computerized support system. Playing the game thus consists of repeated cycles of design of livestock systems adapted to scenarios of the agricultural production context and evaluation of their biophysical and organizational feasibility. An application to designing dairy systems adapted to climate change by 2050 is presented. As the first example of a game‐based approach for farming system design, forage rummy proves to be useful in stimulating discussion, reflective and interactive analysis and learning about farming systems, their management and the scope for their adaptation. This is attributed to the researchers’ effort to offer transparent and easily‐usable forms of support to the design process. We conclude that the learning stimulated by the game could potentially lead to more consistent and concerted action between researchers, extension services and farmers.

Keywords Farm model, Farming system, Adaptation, Simulation, Learning, Climate change

Martin G., Martin‐Clouaire R., Rellier J. P., Duru M., 2011. A conceptual model of grassland‐based beef systems. International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Information Systems (IJAEIS), 2 : 20‐39. Abstract Fulfilling the production objectives of a grassland‐based beef system requires a robust management strategy to secure the best practicable use of forage resources with regard to the cattle demand. To address the challenging issue of designing such strategies, this article describes the application of an ontology of agricultural production systems to the generic conceptual model SEDIVER, which supports the representation and dynamic farm‐scale simulation of specific grassland‐based beef systems. The most salient and novel aspects of SEDIVER concern the explicit modeling of (a) the diversity in plant, grassland, animal and farmland, and (b) management strategies that deal with the planning and coordination of activities whereby the farmer controls the biophysical processes. By using the SEDIVER conceptual framework, part of the subjective and context‐specific knowledge used in farm management can be captured and, in this way, enable scientific investigation of management practices.

Martin G., Martin‐Clouaire R., Rellier J. P., Duru M., 2011. A simulation framework for the design of grassland‐based beef‐cattle farms. Environmental Modelling & Software, 26 : 371‐385. Abstract Grassland‐based beef‐cattle farms are dynamic systems that are difficult to manage, particularly because of their sensitivity to uncontrollable environmental factors such as weather. The design of farms and management strategies capable of coping with a wide range of conditions is thus a challenging issue. The SEDIVER discrete‐event simulation framework presented in this article has been developed to support the construction of dynamic simulation models of grassland‐based beef‐cattle farms for evaluation and empirical design purposes. The originality of the models built with SEDIVER lies in the explicit representation of: (i) management strategies as the planning and coordination of activities in time and space through which the farmer controls the biophysical processes occurring within the system and (ii) the diversity in plant, animals, grassland and farmland, and the management opportunities and difficulties that this might induce. An application example illustrates the kind of simulation‐based investigations enabled by SEDIVER. A grassland‐based beef‐cattle farm in France is examined for two contrasted management strategies: the first one corresponding to the actual practice and the second one paying increased attention to and exploiting plant and grassland diversity. The simulation results showed that the second one could roughly double fodder yields and thus ensure farm self‐sufficiency for fodder. Thanks to the capacity of a SEDIVER‐based model to take practical production considerations into account, it is possible to increase the realism of farm simulations and the credibility and relevance of the farming systems which can thus be designed.

Keywords Farm model, Flexibility, Functional diversity, Grassland, Management strategy

Martin G., Theau J.P., Thérond O., Carre J., Cruz P., Jouany C., Magne M.A., Duru M., 2010. Bases et premier exemple d’application d’une démarche articulant diagnostic et simulation de systèmes fourragers pour évaluer et améliorer l’efficience d’utilisation de l’herbe. Fourrages, 201 : 47‐56. Résumé Les systèmes fourragers herbagers se révèlent particulièrement complexes à gérer et sensibles aux variations météorologiques. Des outils récemment développés permettent d'établir des diagnostics de pratiques d'éleveurs qui conduisent à des recommandations de gestion des prairies, par exemple pour améliorer l'efficience d'utilisation de l'herbe. Se pose la question de savoir quelle part de ces recommandations est applicable lorsque l'on intègre les contraintes rencontrées par l'éleveur à l'échelle du système. Cette évaluation systémique par simulation pour deux systèmes bovins allaitants Pyrénéens est l'objet de cet article. Elle combine suivi d'élevages, analyse fonctionnelle du système fourrager, diagnostic de pratiques d'éleveurs, modélisation systémique et simulation dynamique. Elle vise à comparer les marges d'amélioration sur l'efficience d'utilisation de l'herbe déterminées à l'échelle de la parcelle dans le diagnostic, et à l'échelle du système dans les simulations. Le diagnostic laisse entrevoir d'im ortantes marges d'amélioration dans les deux systèmes, en particulier en modifiant l'organisation des récoltes de fourrages. La simulation révèle que ces marges d'amélioration sont très limitées par des contraintes structurelles et climatiques qui ne permettent pas la mise en œuvre parfaite des recommandations de gestion des prairies issues du diagnostic. La démarche proposée constitue un exemple original d'articulation de méthodes capables de supporter l'expertise des chercheurs, des conseillers agricoles et des éleveurs.

Mots‐clés système fourrager, gestion du pâturage, facteur climat, prairie de montagne, modélisation, simulation, pratiques des agriculteurs, diagnostic, pratiques de gestion des prairies

Mondy B., Terrieux A., Gafsi M., Hemptinne J.‐L., 2009. Enjeu et perspectives de développement de l’agriculture biologique en Midi‐ Pyrénées. Revue Innovations Agronomiques, 4 : 377‐388. Résumé Si l’AB a connu ces quinze dernières années un développement important, notamment avec la forte croissance de la demande des produits biologiques, son développement en matière de production marque le pas depuis quelques années. A cela plusieurs raisons liées à des difficultés d’ordre technique, économique, financier, et organisationnel. Si l’ensemble de ces difficultés est réel, l’importance de la question organisationnelle attire particulièrement l’attention. Ce texte traite cette question organisationnelle de l’AB, en partant des conclusions de cette étude régionale réalisée en partenariat avec le Conseil Régional de Midi‐Pyrénées. Il analyse les modes de coordination des acteurs en intégrant trois composantes qui renvoient aux dynamiques interactives entre acteurs de l’AB dans la Région, à l’élaboration d’un dispositif de gouvernance, à la valorisation du capital social régional. L’objectif, est de pousser la réflexion et l’analyse prospective en matière de développement de l’AB, en évitant d’appliquer à l’AB un schéma de développement et d’accompagnement similaire à celui qui a présidé au développement de l’agriculture conventionnelle.

Mots‐clés Agriculture biologique, système complexe, gouvernance régionale, savoirs actionnables, convention d’effort, triple hélice

Abstract With 67,000 ha and 1,200 organic farms (OF), the Midi‐Pyrénées region is the biggest agricultural area in France and second only to the Pays de Loire region in number of farms. Organic farming has developed rapidly over the past 15 years due to the steep increase in the demand for organic products. However, this was not always the case due to several factors linked to technical difficulties: market access, wide use of imports, a trend towards industrialisation, difficulties in mastering techniques, particularly for the production of high quality durum wheat, the ineffectiveness or absence of organisations intended to help producers, etc. As a result, the Midi‐Pyrénées Regional Council, which had supported organic farming for a long time, sponsored several studies to assess the sector’s development potential and future prospects (Demeter Conseil, 2005; Mondy, 2006). The conclusions of these studies will be used as a basis for our reflection on the means necessary to coordinate stakeholders in the field. The difficulties involved in the development of organic agriculture are real, but the importance of organisation requires particular attention. To address this issue, two research hypotheses were explored: the first one considers that the development of organic farming is not simply a question of technique or commercial advancement. The organisational dimension includes three elements that link the interactive dynamics between OF stakeholders in the region, the development of a regional governance network, and the enhancement of regional social capital. The second hypothesis clarifies the nature of the organisational dimension. It is not possible to apply a development plan similar to the one used for mainstream agriculture to organic farming. On the contrary, a new plan must be developed that takes the specificities of OF into consideration.

Keywords organic farming, complex system, regional governance, coordination agreement, knowledge in action, legitimised knowledge, effort agreement, triple helix

Rueff C., Choisis J.P., Balent G., Gibon A., 2012. A preliminary assessment of the local diversity of family farms change trajectories since 1950 in a Pyrenees Mountains area. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 36(5) : 564‐590. Abstract In agriculture and environmental sustainability research, assessment of local diversity of individual farm dynamics and farmers' behaviors appears of special interest for enlightening changes in ecological, social, and economical functions related to farming in rural communities and landscapes. It also includes challenges due to current methodology limitations. In this study, we developed a method for assessing the variety in individual change trajectories since 1950 of farms in a case study area in the Pyrenees (France). Changes in individual farms and households over the period were described at a five‐year step using a set of indicators selected in reference to a social‐ ecological model of family farm dynamics. They were respectively categorized using a spatial‐temporal multivariate analysis method. Results gained on a 24‐farm sample showed four contrasted farm‐development trajectories that could be related to lifecycle patterns of individual households. This opens new prospects for integrated assessment of individual farms' dynamics within a local agricultural system.

Ruget F., Satger S., Volaire F., Lelièvre F., 2009. Modelling tiller density, growth, and yield of perennial grasslands in Mediterranean areas with the STICS model. Crop Science, 49 : 2379‐2385. Abstract A generic crop model (STICS) was adapted (STICS–Grassland) to model growth, yield, and environmental impacts of grasslands in France. It is a semimechanistic model combining equations of physiological processes and mathematical relationships between processes in a daily time step. The Information et Suivi Objectif des Prairies (ISOP; Grassland Information and Objective Survey) application was developed to estimate and map the real‐time status of grass growth and forage production in the 200 forage regions of France, to help decision makers anticipate forage availability in case of severe defi cits. Initially, the model could not simulate long, severe droughts typical of Mediterranean regions when plant and tiller densities are signifi cantly reduced. A tiller density module models the dynamics of tiller death during droughts. Since STICS is based on the concept of a mean plant (tiller) covering the whole fi eld, variability was introduced through a γ law distribution of transpiration defi cit by tiller, a threshold value imposing desiccation, and death to tillers reaching this level. Its second part generates incomplete or total recovery of tiller density through new tillering in the next wet season. Species and contrasting groups of cultivars within species can be characterized with a limited number of parameters.

Ryschawy J., Choisis N., Choisis J.P., Gibon A., 2012. Paths to last in mixed crop–livestock farming: lessons from an assessment of farm trajectories of change. Animal, FirstView Article, 1‐9. Abstract Mixed crop–livestock systems, combining livestock and cash crops at farm level, are considered to be suitable for sustainable intensification of agriculture. Ensuring the survival of mixed crop–livestock systems is a challenge for European agriculture: the number of European mixed crop–livestock farms has been decreasing since 1970. Analysis of farming system dynamics may elucidate past changes and the forces driving this decline. The objectives of this study were (i) to identify the diversity of paths that allowed the survival of mixed crop–livestock farming and (ii) to elucidate the driving forces behind such survival. We analysed the variety of farm trajectories from 1950 to 2005. We studied the entire farm population of a case study site, located in the ‘Coteaux de Gascogne’ region. In this less favoured area of south‐western France, farmers have limited specialisation. Currently, half of the farms use mixed crop–livestock systems. The data set of 20 variables for 50 farms on the basis of six 10‐year time steps was collected through retrospective surveys. We used a two‐step analysis including (i) a visual assessment of the whole population of individual farm trajectories and (ii) a computer‐based typology of farm trajectories on the basis of a series of multivariate analyses followed by automatic clustering. The European Common Agricultural Policy, market globalisation and decreasing workforce availability were identified as drivers of change that favoured the specialisation process. Nevertheless, farmers’ choices and values have opposed against these driving forces, ensuring the survival of some mixed crop–livestock farming systems. The trajectories were clustered into five types, four of which were compatible with mixed crop–livestock systems. The first type was the maximisation of autonomy by combining crops and livestock. The second type was diversification of production to exploit economies of scope and protect the farm against market fluctuations. The other two types involved enlargement and progressive adaptation of the farm to the familial workforce. The survival of mixed crop–livestock systems in these two types is largely dependent on workforce availability. Only one type of trajectory, on the basis of enlargement and economies of scale, did not lead to mixed crop–livestock systems. In view of the current evolution of the driving forces, maximising autonomy and diversification appear to be suitable paths to deal with current challenges and maintain mixed crop–livestock systems in Europe.

Keywords farm trajectories, farming systems research, mixed crop–livestock farming, farmer participatory research

Ryschawy J., Choisis N., Choisis J.P., Joannon A., Gibon A. 2012. Mixed crop‐livestock farming: an economical and environmental‐friendly way to intensify production? A case‐study. Animal, Volume 6 / Issue 10 : 1722‐1730. Abstract Intensification and specialisation of agriculture in developed countries enabled productivity to be improved but had detrimental impacts on the environment and threatened the economic viability of a huge number of farms. The combination of livestock and crops, which was very common in the past, is assumed to be a viable alternative to specialised livestock or cropping systems. Mixed crop‐livestock systems can improve nutrient cycling while reducing chemical inputs and generate economies of scope at farm level. Most assumptions underlying these views are based on theoretical and experimental evidence. Very few assessments of their environmental and economic advantages have nevertheless been undertaken in real‐world farming conditions. In this paper, we present a comparative assessment of the environmental and economic performances of mixed crop‐livestock farms v. specialised farms among the farm population of the French ‘Coteaux de Gascogne’. In this hilly region, half of the farms currently use a mixed crop‐livestock system including beef cattle and cash crops, the remaining farms being specialised in either crops or cattle. Data were collected through an exhaustive survey of farms located in our study area. The economic performances of farming systems were assessed on 48 farms on the basis of (i) overall gross margin, (ii) production costs and (iii) analysis of the sensitivity of gross margins to fluctuations in the price of inputs and outputs. The environmental dimension was analysed through (i) characterisation of farmers’ crop management practices, (ii) analysis of farm land use diversity and (iii) nitrogen farm‐gate balance. Local mixed crop‐ livestock farms did not have significantly higher overall gross margins than specialised farms but were less sensitive than dairy and crop farms to fluctuations in the price of inputs and outputs considered. Mixed crop‐livestock farms had lower costs than crop farms, while beef farms had the lowest costs as they are grass‐based systems. Concerning crop management practices, our results revealed an intensification gradient from low to high input farming systems. Beyond some general trends, a wide range of management practices and levels of intensification were observed among farms with a similar production system. Mixed crop‐livestock farms were very heterogeneous with respect to the use of inputs. Nevertheless, our study revealed a lower potential for nitrogen pollution in mixed crop‐livestock and beef production systems than in dairy and crop farming systems. Even if a wide variability exists within system, mixed crop‐livestock systems appear to be a way for an environmental and economical sustainable agriculture.

Keywords mixed crop‐livestock farming, economic viability, environment, practices, comparative assessment

Siriex L., Pernin J.‐L., Schaer B., 2009. L’enjeu de la provenance régionale pour l’agriculture biologique. Revue Innovations Agronomiques, n°4 : 401‐407. Résumé Cet article présente les pratiques et attitudes des responsables de magasins spécialisés envers l’approvisionnement local de leurs produits. Presque deux tiers de ces magasins y ont recours (en majorité des grands magasins), avec des appréciations mitigées : si des avantages évidents, comme la fraîcheur des produits régionaux, sont notés, les distributeurs regrettent un manque de professionnalisme et d’engagement de la part des fournisseurs agricoles. Les consommateurs sont quant à eux très sensibles à l’origine régionale des produits biologiques, plus parce qu’elle est synonyme d’accès direct et de transparence qu’en raison de préoccupations environnementales (« food miles » ou kilomètres alimentaires). Les résultats obtenus nous permettent de proposer plusieurs recommandations aux acteurs de la filière.

Mots‐clés Agriculture Biologique, provenance régionale, comportement du consommateur, magasins spécialisés, approvisionnement, food miles (kilomètres alimentaires), préoccupations environnementales

Abstract This article deals with the regional or local origin of organic food in different supply channels. The first part presents results about supply practices and attitudes of specialised organic food shop owners with regard to regional or local supply. It shows that almost two out of three shops are directly supplied by farmers (mainly the bigger shops). Their opinions and experiences about working directly with farmers vary. Obvious advantages such as product freshness are mentioned, as well as important weaknesses such as the lack of professionalism in product and service quality on the part of many farmers. The article also addresses consumers’ viewpoints on the regional supply of organic products. Even though consumers are largely in favour of a regional origin of the organic food that they purchase, it is mainly for reasons of freshness and transparency and less for environmental issues (most consumers are not really concerned about food miles). Our results allow us to propose several recommendations for stakeholders in the sector.

Keywords organic farming, regional origin, consumer behaviour, specialised shops, food miles, environmental concerns

Sourdril A., Andrieu E., Cabanettes A., Elyakime B., Ladet S., 2012. How to maintain domesticity of usages in small rural forest? Lessons from forest management continuity through a French case study. Ecology & Society, 17(2), 6p. Abstract The management of small private forests in the Western World has been under threat owing to rural and agricultural transformations since the Second World War. The actions put in place to preserve those forests are hard to implement because the forests are managed essentially in an unofficial way that is not clearly understood. Through multidisciplinary approaches, our aims were to understand local forest management processes, to assess the continuities and discontinuities of usages and practices in the Coteaux de Gascogne area of France, and to propose guidelines for future forest management. Forest management is shaped by a traditional but unrecognized social system called the house‐centered system, which has contributed to a high degree of domesticity and diversity in forestry practices in this area. If forest management guidelines are to be effective, any guidelines put in place should take into account the roots of the traditional management system and attempt to comply with local social organizations. This is a major challenge regarding the long‐term preservation of small private forests.

Keywords anthropology, coppice with standards, domestic usage, forestry, history, house‐centered system, small private forest, southwestern France

Liste des articles soumis et en cours de publication

Akimowicz M., Magrini M.B., Ridier A., Bergez J.E., Requier‐Desjardins D. What Influences Farm Size Growth in South‐Western France?. Journal of Agriculture Economics. Barraud‐Didier V., Henninger M.C., Triboulet P. La fidélité des adhérents de coopératives agricoles en question : Le cas d’agriculteurs céréaliers de Midi‐Pyrénées. Ruralia. Barraud‐Didier V., Henninger M.C., Triboulet P. La participation des adhérents dans leurs coopératives agricoles : Une étude exploratoire du secteur céréalier français. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics. Barthe L., Eychenne C. Agriculture et développement des territoires ruraux : des légitimités d’action en contradiction. Bedoussac L., Journet E.‐P., Rouet P., Justes E. Durum Wheat‐Grain Legume intercrops: an innovative way to design low inputs cropping systems. Revue non précisée. Bedoussac L., Justes E., Journet E.‐P., Hauggaard‐Nielsen H., Naudin C., Corre‐Hellou G., Prieur L., Jensen E. S. Intercropping, an application of ecological principles to improve nitrogen use efficiency in organic farming systems. Revue non précisée. Bergez J.E., Carpani M., Colomb B., Angevin F., Bockstaller C., Monod H. A guideline to create quantitative hierarchical models dealing with sustainability aspects of cropping systems using sensitivity analysis. Revue non précisée Chantelot S., Filippi M., Pérès S., Triboulet P. Empreinte spatiale de la coopération agricole française : un éclairage par l’analyse des structures de localisation. Revue d’Economie Régionale et Urbaine. Chantelot S., Pérès S., Triboulet P., Filippi M. The Spatial Distribution of French Agricultural Cooperatives: An Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis. European Planning Studies. Clavel L., Baudais D., Soudais J., Leenhardt D. Integrating expert knowledge and quantitative information for mapping cropping systems. Land Use Policy. Clavel L., Charron M.‐H., Baudais D., Soudais J., Thérond O, Leenhardt D. SPACSS: A tool for translating qualitative scenarios of cropping system distribution into maps of cropping systems. Environmental Modelling and Software. Colomb B., Carof M.., Aveline A.,Bergez J. E. Use of a qualitative multi‐criteria framework by field advisers to assess organic cropping system sustainability. Revue non précisée Del Corso J.P., Képhaliacos Ch. Gouvernance foncière territoriale et rationalité communicationnelle. Géographie, Economie, Sociétés.

Del Corso J.P., Képhaliacos Ch., Nguyen G., Tavernier H. Rôle du conseil dans l’adoption de pratiques agricoles alternatives visant à réduire les pollutions diffuses des eaux par les pesticides. Ruralia. Eychenne C., Barthe L. Agriculture et territorialisation de l’action publique. La prise en compte de la question agricole par les territoires de projet en zone de montagne : logiques d’action et gouvernance. Filippi M., Frey O. Valoriser l’ancrage territorial à travers l’internationalisation : perspectives pour la coopération agricole française. Géographie, Economie et Sociétés. Filippi M., Muller P. 2011. Le jeu des Communautés de Pratique au sein des Coopératives agricoles : le cas des filières fromagères vache d’appellation d’origine du Massif Central. Ruralia. Gafsi M., Favreau J.L. Innovation et durabilité dans les trajectoires d’évolution des exploitations en agriculture biologique. Economie et société. Galliano D., Magrini M.B., Triboulet P. Location vs urbanization economies in firms' innovation performance: The case of the French industry. Regional studies. Girard N., Magda D., Astruc J‐M., Couix N. , Gross H., Guyon J.P. , Labatut J., Poinsot Y., Saldaqui F. Managing within uncertainty: analysing indicators for the management of natural resources embedded in productive activities. Environmental Management. Lelièvre F., Sala S., Volaire F. Climate change 1950‐2009 in Southern France. Climatic change. Lelièvre, F., Sala, S., Volaire, F. Impacts of climate change on grasslands production at temperate‐Medirerranean interface in France. European Journal of Agronomy. Lurette A., Aubron C., Moulin C.H. A model to assess the sensitivity of grassland farming systems to herbage growth hazards. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. N Abanda R., Magro A., Bedoussac L., Justes E.,Journet E.‐P., Hemptinne J.‐L. Is there an associational resistance of winter pea ‐ durum wheat intercrops towards Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris?. Agriculture and Forest entomology. Nguyen G., Del Corso J.P., Képhaliacos Ch., Tavernier H. Rôle de l’apprentissage collectif dans l’adoption de pratiques agricoles visant à réduire l’utilisation de pesticides : une approche par les coûts de transaction appliquée à l’adoption d’une MAET‐DCE sur le bassin versant Adour‐Garonne. Economie Rurale.

Paradis S, Ridier A., Bergez, J.E., Goulard F. Une approche prospective transdisciplinaire pour une insertion territoriale durable des grandes cultures en Midi‐Pyrénées. Développement Durable et Territoires. Pernin J.L. L’intention d’achat de produits biologiques régionaux : une recherche exploratoire sur la base de la théorie du comportement planifié. Revue d’Etude en Agriculture et Environnement. Pernin J.L. Le bio à la cantine : impact sur les attitudes et les comportements des parents. Economie Rurale. Reynaud A. Land use and intra‐annual agricultural water use under climate and price uncertainty: A French case study. Agricultural Economics. Reynaud, A., Couture S., Duruy J., Bergez J.E. Farmer’s Risk Attitude: Reconciliating Stated and Revealed Preference Approaches?. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. Ridier A., Ben ElGhali M., Nguyen G., Képhaliacos Ch. The role of risk aversion and labor productivity in the adoption of low input practices supported by the CAP green payments in cash crop farms. Review of Agricultural and Environmental Studies. Triboulet P., Filippi M. L’analyse des déterminants de l’intensité capitalistique entre groupes coopératifs agricoles. Revue d’Economie Régionale et Urbaine.

Index alphabétique des auteurs

A Adam ∙ 58 Aggeri ∙ 21, 46, 47, 48, 49 Agreil ∙ 31, 57 Akimowicz ∙ 81 Alard ∙ 30 Alignier ∙ 22 Andrieu ∙ 23, 24, 79 Angevin ∙ 81 Ansquer ∙ 58 Astruc ∙ 47, 50, 82 Aubron ∙ 82 Aveline ∙ 53, 55, 82

B Bacconnier‐Baylet ∙ 42 Bah ∙ 66 Balent ∙ 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 35, 37, 40, 74 Barnagaud ∙ 26 Barraud‐Didier ∙ 9, 10, 81 Barthe ∙ 41, 81, 82 Baselga ∙ 27 Bastin ∙ 37 Baudais ∙ 81 Bedoussac ∙ 67, 81, 83 Ben ElGhali ∙ 83 Bergez ∙ 45, 55, 81, 82, 83 Bibe ∙ 49 Bibé ∙ 47, 48, 50 Bockstaller ∙ 81

Bommel ∙ 66 Bonneu ∙ 18 Bonthoux ∙ 26, 27

C Cabanettes ∙ 29, 30, 79 Carof ∙ 53, 55, 82 Carpani ∙ 81 Carpy‐Goulard ∙ 45, 56 Carre ∙ 72 Chambon‐Dubreuil ∙ 31 Chantelot ∙ 81 Charron ∙ 81 Charron‐Moirez ∙ 60 Choisis ∙ 39, 40, 54, 66, 74, 76, 77 Clavel ∙ 81 Coelho ∙ 18 Colomb ∙ 53, 55, 56, 81, 82 Corre‐Hellou ∙ 81 Couix ∙ 82 Couture ∙ 19, 83 Cruz ∙ 58, 59, 60, 62, 64, 72

D Da Silveira Pontes ∙ 57 Deconchat ∙ 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 30, 35, 36, 40 Del Corso ∙ 82, 83 Du Bus de Warnaffe ∙ 23 Ducourtieux ∙ 58 Duru ∙ 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 69, 70, 71, 72

Duruy ∙ 83 Duvernoy ∙ 41, 42

Hauggaard‐Nielsen ∙ 81 Heintz ∙ 23, 24 Hemptinne ∙ 73, 83 Henninger ∙ 9, 10, 81

El Akremi Assâad ∙ 10 Elyakime ∙ 79 Etienne ∙ 66 Eychenne ∙ 81, 82

I Ickowicz ∙ 66

F Fares ∙ 17 Favreau ∙ 82 Felten ∙ 63, 69 Filippi ∙ 11, 12, 17, 81, 82, 83 Frey ∙ 82 Fritz ∙ 57

J Jarry ∙ 31 Jensen ∙ 81 Joannon ∙ 77 Jouany ∙ 58, 59, 60, 64, 72 Journet ∙ 81, 83 Justes ∙ 67, 81, 83

G Gafsi ∙ 73, 82 Galliano ∙ 13, 14, 15, 16, 82 Gibon ∙ 28, 39, 40, 54, 66, 74, 76, 77 Girard ∙ 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 65, 82 Glandières ∙ 56 Gleizes ∙ 31, 57 Gonzalez ∙ 29, 30 Goulard ∙ 26, 32, 83 Gross ∙ 65, 82 Guillon ∙ 51 Guyon ∙ 82

K Képhaliacos ∙ 82, 83

L Labatut ∙ 21, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 82 Lacombe ∙ 37 Ladet ∙ 23, 24, 28, 30, 37, 79 Lafon ∙ 51 Lasseur ∙ 39, 66

Lecat ∙ 56 Leenhardt ∙ 81 Lelièvre ∙ 68, 75, 82 Lima ∙ 41 Lurette ∙ 82

M Magda ∙ 31, 57, 65, 82 Magne ∙ 72 Magrini ∙ 13, 17, 18, 81, 82 Magro ∙ 83 Martin ∙ 58, 60, 63, 69, 70, 72 Martin‐Clouaire ∙ 70, 71 Mondy ∙ 73 Monod ∙ 81 Monteil ∙ 28 Morales ∙ 39, 66 Moulin ∙ 82 Muller ∙ 82

Sourdril ∙ 40, 79

N Abanda ∙ 83 Naudin ∙ 81 Nguyen ∙ 82, 83

Raison ∙ 35, 36 Rellier ∙ 70, 71 Requier‐Desjardins ∙ 81 Reynaud ∙ 19, 33, 34, 83 Ridier ∙ 45, 81, 83 Rouet ∙ 81 Roume ∙ 35, 36 Roux ∙ 16 Rueff ∙ 74 Ruget ∙ 75 Ryschawy ∙ 76, 77

O Orozco ∙ 14, 15 Ouin ∙ 35, 36, 37

P Paradis ∙ 45, 83 Pardo ∙ 51 Pelletier ∙ 56 Pelosi ∙ 32 Pérès ∙ 81 Pernin ∙ 78, 83 Poinsot ∙ 43, 82 Prieur ∙ 56, 67, 81

S Sala ∙ 82 Saldaqui ∙ 43, 82 Satger ∙ 75 Schaer ∙ 78 Sheeren ∙ 28, 37 Siriex ∙ 78 Soudais ∙ 81 Soulié ∙ 16

Tavernier ∙ 82 Terrieux ∙ 73 Theau ∙ 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 72 Thérond ∙ 72, 81 Thévenet ∙ 54 Thomas‐Agnan ∙ 18 Touré ∙ 39, 66 Tourrand ∙ 39, 66 Triboulet ∙ 11, 12, 81, 82, 83

V Viegas ∙ 58 Volaire ∙ 68, 75, 82

Z Zerourou ∙ 60

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