Architecture and the Expression of Cultural Identity in Kuwait

Architecture and the Expression of Cultural Identity in Kuwait

Architecture and the Expression of Cultural Identity in Kuwait Dr. Yasser Mahgoub Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Kuwait University Abstract The phenomenon of expressing cultural identity in architecture is recognized in many parts of the world. In Kuwait, the expression of cultural identity in architecture has passed through dramatic transformations during the second half of the 20th century that were the result of economic, regional and global changes. This paper examines how cultural identity is being expressed in contemporary architecture in the context of Kuwait. It focuses on the actors; the architects, and the mechanisms, tools, and media they use in expressing cultural identity in architecture. The aim is to understand the views of Kuwaiti architects participating in the current efforts for achieving cultural identity in architecture in Kuwait. Their opinions are critical to the understanding of architecture currently being produced in Kuwait. A survey of the views of Kuwaiti architects was conducted using focused interviews and a standardized questionnaire. A sample of 18 Kuwaiti architects was selected for the purpose of in depth study. Examples of their projects were analyzed to illustrate their views and ways of thinking. The study concluded that there are several strategies employed by Kuwaiti architects to express a Kuwaiti cultural identity in their work. A three dimensional model was developed to illustrate the relationship between the ranges of these strategies, the use of precedent and the building types. The model is useful for practitioners and observers of contemporary architecture in Kuwait in understanding the current trend towards achieving a cultural identity in architecture. The case of Kuwait is relevant to the

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understanding of the same phenomenon recognized in other parts of the world that share many aspects of the experience.

Introduction The beginning of the 21st century is marked by increasing globalization and the affirmation of a singular identity that is in constant tension with traditional local identities. This trend has started after the spread of the international style, during the second half of the 20th century, and intensified as a result of the spread of globalization as a dominating world view at the end of the century. As a reaction to this sweeping trend, the phenomenon of expressing local cultural identities in architecture is observed in many parts of the world. As Castells (2004) put it, “cultural identity is the process by which social actors build their own meaning according to cultural attributes.�

Aims, Goals, and Objectives This paper investigates how cultural identity is being expressed in contemporary architecture in the context of Kuwait. It focuses on the actors; the architects, and the strategies, mechanisms, tools, and media they use in expressing cultural identity in their architecture. The aim of this paper is to understand the views and role of Kuwaiti architects participating in the current efforts for achieving cultural identity in architecture. Their attempts to express cultural identity influence the making and development of contemporary architecture in Kuwait. While these efforts are currently individualistic, they are gaining momentum and popularity as they claim to answer pressing cultural and social problems generated by the application of modern architecture principles during the second half of the 20th century. It is also relevant to other countries especially Gulf, Arab, and developing countries that share the same experience with Kuwait.

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Context In Kuwait, architecture has passed through dramatic transformations during the second half of the 20th century that were the result of economic, regional and global changes. Starting with the discovery of oil during the 1940’s and the economic wealth generated by its sale, the execution of the first master plan for the country during the 1950’s and 1960’s, the economic boom during the 1970’s following the dramatic increase of oil prices in 1973, the economic depression during the 1980’s following the stock market crash, and finally the second Gulf war and the experience of invasion and liberation by foreign countries during the 1990’s.

Architecture reflected all these layers of rapid political, economic, and cultural changes.

The movement towards expressing cultural identity in Kuwaiti architecture is not new. It started with attempts by foreign architects who participated in the design of buildings after the implementation of the first master plan in Kuwait during the 1960’s, as documented by Shiber (1964). Subsequently, the work of Jorn Utzon in the design of the Parliament Building and the work of Reima Pietilae in the design of the new Sief Palace are examples of landmarks designed by foreign architects expressing a cultural identity, as documented in several studies (Gardiner, 1983, Vale, 1992 and Kultermann, 1999). (See figure1.)While these attempts were made by foreign architects who were commissioned to design projects in Kuwait due to the lack of Kuwaiti architects, the appearance of architecture that attempts to reflect cultural identity by Kuwaiti architects is a different phenomenon.

Background Literature What is identity? Firstly, it is a process, and not a ‘found’ object. It may be likened to the trail left by civilization as it moves through history. The trail is the culture, or identity, or that civilization. Secondly, being a process, identity

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cannot be fabricated. We develop our identity by tackling what we perceive to be our real problems. Thirdly, identity is not a self-conscious thing. (Correa, 1983, p.10) This research study is based on the observation that in recent years the issue of cultural identity in contemporary architecture has become essential in creating uniqueness and local identity in a competitive environment on a global level. Industrialized and developing countries have started to re-examine their traditions in search for their own values and principles. This process has had an impact on the production of contemporary architecture and eventually triggered an intense discussion about how local identity should be created other than copying fragments from the past.

The question of whether architecture should express a cultural identity is being investigated by many researchers in many parts of the world. Gospondini (2004) argues that “in the process of economic and cultural globalization, European integration and the blur of national identities in Europe, place identity emerges as a central concern of both scholars and other people.� (Gospodini, 2004, p. 225) In Singapore, architects vigorously adopted transformed and integrated traditions to reflect contemporary realities such as fast evolving cultures, values and lifestyles. The notion of contemporary vernacular was developed. It can be defined as a conscious commitment to uncover a particular tradition’s unique responses to spatial arrangements, place and climate and thereafter exteriorize these established and symbolic identities into creative forms. (Lim, 2004) Ogura et al (2002) attempted to clarify the characteristics of the modern Filipino style which was introduced by leading architects following World War II. They discovered that one of the most comprehensible expressions of domestic style is the direct quotation of traditional shape. The pursuit of architecture as the product of the

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Filipino culture for the sake of the enrichment of the Filipino culture is an ongoing problem for architects seeking to realize the Filipino style while designing for present-day expectations.

El-Sheshtawy et al (2000) argue that third world cities - especially those which have witnessed rapid growth within the last two decades - are moving towards a "co-existence" model which takes into account forces of modernization and change (globalization) while at the same time responding to the preservation of traditional elements within the society. They concluded that an examination of the viability of this model and its suitability for other cities is recommended and they argued that in a world dominated by forces of globalization the current discourse on the "loss of identity" needs to be reconsidered. Saleh (1998) presents an analytical study of the major factors inherent to place identity which have a bearing on the development of visual images to Saudi Arabian cities. He points out that climatic, social, topographic and economical aspects were important factors in the formulation of regionalism. He argues that these factors are now weakened by two controversial trends in planning and design of place known as the traditionalism and modernism. He asserts that the professionals use their skill in the incorporation of historical as well as new images of the physical place and structures to enhance their identifiability and recognition in the city. The image represents a cultural significance which tie it to culture. For him, the forces exerted by the commercialism seem to dominate the image attachment to the contemporary cities.

As described by Khattab (2001), "particularly in the case of Kuwait, reasserting the local identity has lately become a matter of great importance especially after Iraq's claims in Kuwait and the Second Gulf War." This was reflected on the architecture being produced in Kuwait by local and Kuwaiti architects in their attempts to recognize and acknowledge the heritage of traditional Kuwaiti architecture during the 1990s. The famous Kuwaiti architect Hamed Shuaib

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(1999) reiterated the question posed by many conferences and seminars held in the Gulf area: “When will we, in Kuwait and other Gulf countries, have modern architecture suitable for our community, environment and heritage?” Several practicing architects expressed the same view in a documentary titled: Kuwaiti Architecture: A Lost Identity. While this question is paused by practicing architects, it is also paused by academic researchers in the field.

The general debate on the representation of cultural identity in architecture was initiated

by Frampton (1983) and others in the 80s by introducing the concept of critical regionalism.

Kenneth Frampton’s theory of critical regionalism received much attention as it seemed particularly relevant to developing countries faced with the onslaught of Western media, commodification and globalization. The architecture of critical regionalism makes reference to the site, the “genius loci” on a more abstract level. Rather than dealing extensively with the region itself and a particular regional style, Frampton’s concept of regionalism mainly focuses on the relationship of a building to its site and location in a sociological context. However, the concept of critical regionalism has since been challenged by many critics, particularly those who question its relevance for more advanced economies. According to Lim, “the concept of regionality depends on it being possible to correlate cultural codes with geographical regions. In modern societies these regional differences are largely obliterated, or as I would add, hybridized.” (Lim, 2004, p.19) Although this concept was developed in the context of industrialized countries, it has also been applied to contemporary architecture in developing countries. However, it seems that it overlooks fundamental differences and neglects important factors underlying the postcolonial development of architecture in these countries. Specifically, it does not reflect the diverse and dynamic nature of the emergence of local identities. It superimposes a rather static and narrow

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notion of local vs. universal, traditional vs. modern concepts. As an analytical approach it seems inadequate to capture the products of "local architecture" and their perception by theorists and the general public. (Tzonis et al, 2003) In many developing countries identities can hardly be localized and many places show composite patterns with more than one identity. In addition, the works of architects labeled as contributions to promoting "local identity" seem to have more in common with the developments in other countries than with the characteristics of the place where they have been erected.

Method of Inquiry This study focuses on the views of the actors; the architects, who contribute to the production of cultural identity in architecture in Kuwait and analyzed examples of their projects.

For the purpose of this study, a sample composed of eighteen architects was selected from a group of Kuwaiti architects who express cultural identity in their projects. The methods used for data collection included; a survey using standardized questionnaire, focused interviews, and the analysis of examples of contemporary Kuwaiti architecture that represent the expression of cultural identity. The questionnaire contained several sections covering the different inquiries including: the views of the architects who are producing this architecture, how do they see what they are doing, what are their references, and how are they influenced by the client, the context and the history. An interview guide was used to guide the in depth interviews with selected architects.

Findings The questionnaire responses were statistically analyzed and the in depth interviews were thematically analyzed to reveal the commonalities and differences of the views of the Kuwaiti architects.

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Questionnaire Results The questionnaire analysis produced the following results which are illustrated in figure 2.: Regarding Kuwaiti architecture identity, 88% of the respondents agree that there is currently no identity in Kuwaiti architecture while 12% agree that there is an identity expressed in contemporary Kuwaiti architecture. 94% believe that there should be an identity in Kuwaiti architecture and 6% disagree. 94% of the respondents believe that there is a need to develop building regulations to impose Kuwaiti identity on architecture. 32% of the respondents agreed that there was a clear architecture identity before 1950 while 5% of the respondents believe that there is identity in Kuwaiti architecture after 2000.

The factors that affect the generation of identity in architecture are; climatic conditions 94%, culture of the society 88%, building codes and regulations 87%, client 81%, and building technology 47%. 100% of the respondents believe that traditional Kuwaiti architecture should be the source, desert architecture 94%, Arab architecture 92%, Gulf architecture 88%, Islamic architecture 87% and lastly International architecture 71%. 100% of the respondents agreed that climate, region and culture should be the sources of identity, while only 75% agree religion is a source of architecture identity.

As for the elements of Kuwaiti architecture, 94% of the respondents believe that al-housh (the courtyard) and the traditional colors should be used to reflect the Kuwaiti identity in architecture, 88% believe that the dareehz (the entrance), the diwaniyah (the men’s receiving room), and the liwan (the colonnade) should be used to reflect Kuwaiti identity, and only 50% of the respondents believe that the columns should be used to reflect identity. 81% of the

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respondents believe that more than one traditional element should be used at the same time to reflect a cultural identity in architecture. (See figure 3.)

69% of the respondents believe that Kuwaiti architects are contributing positively to identity in Kuwaiti architecture, while 73% believe that Kuwait Municipality is contributing negatively. 94% believe that local consulting offices and the awareness of the society will contribute positively in the future to Kuwaiti identity. 100% of the respondents believe that public buildings should reflect Kuwaiti identity, while 94 % believe that governmental buildings and private villas should reflect cultural identity. 94% believe that the new Seif palace, Souq AlMubarkiah and Souq Al-Zul Wa Al-Bishut reflect Kuwaiti identity. Only 13% believe that the Liberation Tower reflect Kuwaiti cultural identity, and only 40% believe that Kuwait towers the touristic symbol of Kuwait - reflects Kuwaiti identity.

The respondents selected most important examples that represent Kuwaiti architecture from traditional and contemporary. Traditional examples included: old Seif palace, old houses, diwaniyas, schools, mosques, neighborhoods, and souqs. Contemporary examples included: water towers, Kuwait towers, Parliament buildings, Souq Sharq, Souq Al-Zul Wa Al-Bishut, Arab Organizations Headquarter, and the New Seif palace. (See figure 4.)

Interviews Results The interviews were useful for gaining in-depth understanding of the views of Kuwaiti architects. While there were many common themes between the views of the architects, each architect empathized a particular factor. Collectively, the interviews represented a wide range of strategies and approaches to the subject. Due to the absence of an architecture education in Kuwait until 1996, all the architects graduated from schools of architecture in the US during the eighties. All of them were employed in governmental agencies for several years before starting

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their private professional practice. The following are samples representing the views of some the Kuwaiti architects interviewed for the purpose of this study followed by common themes analysis. (See figure 5.)

Mohammed Al-Khedr graduated from Wisconsin School of Architecture at the US in 1985. He practiced as an architect in Kuwait Ministry of Public Work. Later he worked at private architectural firms. He established his own architectural private firm MAC in 1999. He believes that “there are some attempts to express identity in Kuwaiti architecture, but no present structure is available that clearly represents the distinctive architectural identity of Kuwait.” He stated that “before oil was discovered buildings were constructed using local materials and workers, depending mainly on family’s needs. After oil was discovered, architecture reflects individualism architecture made by foreign architects with good construction.” For him, the expression of family needs in architecture is an important element in the expression of local identity. He asserts that “the traditional desert architecture, characterized by its courtyards and adobe-style construction, should be the source of architectural identity in Kuwait.” The impact of the climatic conditions is another factor that reflects a true architectural identity. The harsh weather condition during the long summer months is an important driving force. He recognizes that “there is some interest towards reflecting traditional architecture by the public, but for the purpose of being individual only.” “Kuwait Municipality should have an important role in educating the public and organizing some regulation for general architectural style, but unfortunately the municipality is concerned more about commercial regulations than architectural concerns”, he added.

Fareed Abdal received his M. Arch. from the University of Wisconsin USA in 1983. He has worked in governmental, military, and private sectors. He has published several studies and

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papers on architecture. He thinks that there is no special architectural identity in Kuwait because many buildings are following the international style. He also thinks that there shouldn’t necessarily be an identity but instead there should be an environmental response to the climate, and thus emphasizing the significance of the region as a whole. He believes that, “the only time where Kuwait had an identity was during the pre oil period; 1950’s and before, when architecture represented the society's environment and its social identity.” In his opinion the factors that affect the Kuwaiti architectural identity are natural, cultural, behavioral, economical, material, and technical factors. He believes that, “the Arab culture is a response to the desert climate and nature, and also architecture should represent the environment and our values.” In his opinion, “Islam is also an important factor because it is an innate and inborn religion that is related to nature, and is in harmony with nature in its best form.” He thinks that “the more we assume environmental solutions, the more we come closer to our identity.” He believes that “obligatory guidance restrictions should be given so as to maintain a special architectural identity, but not laws that are too limiting and restricting so that there would be room for creativity.”

Saleh Al-Mutawa received his B. Arch. from University of Miami in Florida in 1980 and his M. Arch. in solar passive cooling and heating and architecture renovation in 1982. Saleh published his book “History of Architecture in Old Kuwait City” in 1994. (Al-Mutawa, 1994) In 1994 His Highness the Ameer of Kuwait awarded him with a prize for his distinguished work on preserving traditional Kuwait Architecture. In 1997 Godfrey Goodwin wrote a book about him titled “Saleh Al-Mutawa: A new Vision in Kuwait.” (Goodwin, 1997) When asked if there is an identity in Kuwaiti architecture today, he replied that, “No, it’s lost, but I am trying to follow it in all of my projects in order to revive it.” He believes that having an identity in Kuwaiti architecture is like having a “character and soul of the country which should not be denied or

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changed.” He believes that the era that represents Kuwaiti architecture was before 1940 and that the elements that affects Kuwaiti architecture are: vocabularies, proportion, and materials. For him the sources of Kuwaiti architecture are “Islamic architecture and desert architecture.” He believes that “there should be some incentive for those who try to do Kuwaiti architecture, such as more FAR, etc.”

Jamal Al-Hajji graduated from the Unites Sates in 1991. He has worked in governmental and private agencies. He believes that “Kuwait was really having its identity before 1960 and began to disappear from 1950 the year of demolishing of the Kuwait wall. Currently, Kuwait really doesn’t have any identity.” In his opinion, “Kuwait identity is more than the elements used in old Kuwaiti house, which is used by some architects today in attempt to reach an identity. No body denies that the elements have great effect in creating identity, but the real essence of Kuwait identity lies in the architecture of the traditional city. It is a primarily an experience of spaces defined by continuous walls of buildings which are arranged in a way that emphasizes the building volumes”, he added. He believes that, “we are going through the figural buildings stage that are functionally successful, yet they waste energy and cause pollution in a very bad way. We are very connected to these buildings because of our ideology that these buildings are the symbol of Kuwait modernity.” From his practical experience, the first pressure on the architect is the client. “Very rarely you find a client who has appreciation for identity. There is a group of clients that have a wrong understanding of identity and it needs many sessions to put the client in the right track”, he added. He thinks that every situation in every project is different from one to another in its approach to local identity.

Tariq Al-Saqabi has graduated from the United States in 1984 with a B.Sc. in Architectural Engineering. He worked in several governmental agencies before working as a

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faculty member in department of architecture at Kuwait University. In his opinion, “there is nothing called Kuwaiti architecture. What we have is Gulf architecture, which is a mixture of Egyptian, Roman, Babylon and other architectures. What is called the Kuwaiti architecture is existing architecture influenced by traditions and cultures. So there is no Kuwaiti architecture but there are architectural elements.” When asked if there should be identity of a Kuwaiti architecture, he replied “it is not necessary to have an identity that is applied on every building.”

He believes that “there is no specific period of time that had an identity of Kuwaiti architecture.

Yes, there is Najdi architecture, Hijazii, Iraqi architecture, but in Kuwait it is a mix of these architectures.” In his opinion, the factors that affect the identity of Kuwaiti architecture are environmental, religious, and social factors, and the sources that should be the source of Kuwaiti architecture are traditional Kuwaiti architecture, Islamic, Gulf, but not desert and Arabic architecture.” In his opinion, the architectural elements that express the Kuwaiti architecture are: “the courtyard, wall thickness, and the badgeer.” He agrees that “there should be building codes that will help to find Kuwaiti architecture.”

Outcomes The study revealed that there are commonalities and differences between the views of the Kuwaiti architects regarding the sources of Kuwaiti cultural identity. There is a general agreement that the climate and the environment have a major influence on the culture of the people and the identity of architecture. Environmental response to the climate is a key factor in reflecting the identity of the country. Located in a harsh desert region, Kuwait suffers from long hot summer months that dominate the image of the weather of the country, overshadowing the moderate weather of the winter months.

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Kuwait’s location on the tip of the Arabian Gulf makes it one of the Gulf architecture representatives. Its history of sea trading, pearl catching, fishing is part of its traditional cultural identity. Many architects employ the metaphors of the pearl shells and boats making in their buildings. The impact of the religion on the culture is very significant and essential for understanding the needs of the individual for privacy, family members interaction, and space configuration and orientation. These needs are currently being modified under the influence of higher economic standards and globalization. The religion is also viewed as a unifying force of the individual with nature and society, a notion opposite to the current trend towards individualism and show-off.

There is an agreement among architects that there are elements, vocabularies, proportions, and materials that distinguish traditional Kuwaiti architecture, but there is no agreement on whether they should be used again or not. Some architects think that the reuse of these elements and vocabulary is essential to achieve a distinctive architectural Kuwaiti architectural identity that relates contemporary architecture to traditional architecture. Others believe that it is not a necessity to use these elements and vocabularies but it is essential to respond to the climatic conditions and the specific needs of the Kuwaiti people.

There is recognition among Kuwaiti architects that buildings alone are not sufficient to convey the cultural identity. The context of architecture provides an important background against which architecture is understood. The traditional city spaces provided an important dimension to the experience and provided a meaningful reading of traditional architecture buildings. When placed against modern streets and buildings, traditional elements and vocabularies read more like Disney World than authentic architecture.

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Discussion The analysis of several examples of the architects’ projects concluded that there are several strategies employed by Kuwaiti architects to express a Kuwaiti cultural identity in their work. A three dimensional model was developed to illustrate the relationship between the ranges of these strategies and the use of precedent and the building types. The model utilizes the four design strategies suggested by Broadbent (1973) to categorize the examples. They are identified as pragmatic, iconic, analogical and canonic. Two more strategies were added to complete the range of the identified strategies; symbolic and metaphoric. They are utilized in the model according to the following definitions: 1. Pragmatic design strategy utilizes the inheritance from traditional architecture and strives to reproduce it as it was exactly in the past. It applies direct copy and paste practices of complete examples or elements from traditional architecture.

2. Iconic design strategy strives to reproduce the image of traditional architecture by reusing its elements and vocabularies to produce new building types and functions.

3. Analogic design strategy attempts to produce cultural identity by producing architecture that resembles traditional architecture without direct copying and pasting of its elements.

4. Canonic design strategy attempts to produce cultural identity by applying the principles of traditional architecture without copying its elements and shapes.

5. Symbolic design strategy attempts to represent and reinterpret the principles and elements of traditional architecture and avoids any copying and pasting of elements and shapes.

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6. Metaphoric design strategy attempts to intentionally depart from being associated with traditional architecture and creates dramatic experiences of contemporary cultural identity.

The model represents the relationship between these design strategies, sources of identity and building types and scales. Several examples are used to illustrate the model. Figure 6. illustrates the model developed by this study. The results of this study supports the view of Greig Crysler (2000) that a paradigm shift is underway, in which discourses that define traditional environments as socially and geographically isolated, nonurban, premodern spaces (and often located in the so-called Third World) are giving way to those which constitute tradition as a contested site of power relations in a global context. He suggests that this represents an important shift of emphasis away from idealist conceptions of tradition, to those which explore how it is grounded in asymmetrical relations of power that shape, and are shaped by, among others, the state, the global economy, the built environment professions, and writing on tradition itself.

Applicability to Field and Further Research So this search for identity could give us a much greater sensitivity not only to our environment, but to ourselves and to the society in which we live. It is a byproduct of looking at our real problems, rather than self-consciously trying to find identity as an end in itself, without worrying about the issues we face.

(Correa,1983, p. 10) This study investigated the views of Kuwaiti architects who are participating in the production of cultural identity in their architecture. It analyzed examples of Kuwaiti architects examples and developed a model to relate their work to each other and to sources of cultural identity. The case of Kuwait is relevant to the understanding of the same phenomenon

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recognized in other parts of the world that share many aspects of this experience. It helps us understand the contradictory relationship between globalization and identity as practiced in Kuwait. Future research could investigate the same phenomenon by applying the same method in different countries and compare results systematically. Another research could focus on the comparison between developing and industrialized countries in terms of architects’ views regarding the representation of cultural identity in architecture.

The model developed by this study is useful for practitioners and observers of contemporary architecture in Kuwait in understanding the current trend towards achieving a cultural identity in architecture. Further research could include expatriate architects currently practicing in Kuwait and compare their views with local Kuwaiti architects. It is important to recognize that this is a new trend that is just starting and is changing with more and more Kuwaiti architects joining this movement and new building types being erected. As in the case of Singapore, “local architects now have better opportunities to produce original innovative work, and to actively contribute towards Singapore’s architectural manifestation and new directions in the evolving urban environment. Their intellectual energy must range beyond the restrictive boundaries of architecture and urbanism to include participating in the theoretical discourse of cultural studies, which has now recognized the essentiality of meaningful local inputs to achieve viable globalization.” (Lim, 2004) The expression of cultural identity is expressed in many ways. Neil Leach (2003) challenged the whole notion of identity as some fixed and stable condition. He stated that, “identities must be perceived in the plural, as multiple and often seemingly contradictory modes of personal expression.” (Leach, 2003, p. 78) There are those who express cultural identity by borrowing from traditional architecture believing that the sources of cultural identity are derived

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from the past, and there are those who express a cultural identity that relates to today’s prosperity and future ambitions. Identity is always pluralistic, fluid and unstable. It is continuously constructed and reproduced by the collective imagination of the community.

The study suggests the following venues for action to start with: 1. Building codes and regulations should be revised and integrate lessons from the traditional architecture of the country.

2. Architectural education should incorporate in its curriculum approaches to understanding globalization and localization processes.

3. Professional practice should encourage architects who express cultural identity in their work through competitions and awards.

4. The public awareness should be fostered by public lecture, professional writings and the media.

5. Sustainable architecture and urban development responsive to and expressive of its geographical and climatic situation should be encouraged and become common practice.

The quest for identity should be applied on all levels. As Silva (2001) put it, it is usually the whole building fabric, rather than individual buildings that matters most to the identity and of a setting. The character of a town reside in the sum of its multiple and often fragmented interrelationships in space between buildings themselves, the social mix of people, its activities and events, and the wider geographical setting of the town.

There is always a cultural identity expressed in architecture. The expression might differ from one architect to the other and from one building to the other. The collective image of these identities conveys the degree of agreement or disagreement, commonalities and differences,

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harmony and contrast between the members of the society at any given period of time. It reflects the shared or non-shared view of past, present and future of the world.

References Al-Mutawa, S. (1994). History of Architecture in Old Kuwait City. Kuwait: Al-Khat.

Broadbent, G. (1973). Design in Architecture: Architecture and the Human Sciences. John Wiley and Sons.

Castells. M. (2004) The Relationship between Globalization and Cultural Identity in the early 21st Century. Forum Barcelona 2004. Available: http://www.barcelona2004.org/eng/banco_del_conocimiento/documentos/ficha.cfm?IdDoc =1628 (23 June 2005) Correa, C. (1983). Quest for Identity. In R. Powell (Ed.).Architecture and Identity. (pp. 10-13) Singapore: Concept Media/The Aga Khan Award for Architecture.

Crysler, G. (2000). Writing Spaces: Cultural Translation and critical Reflexivity in Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review. Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review, Vol. 11 No. 11.

El-Sheshtawy, Y. & Aulnaga, M. (2000). Sustainable Urban Development in an Age of Globalization: Towards a co-existence model in Dubai, UAE. Proceedings of the IAPS 16, Paris: International Association for People-Environment Studies, 2000.

Frampton, K. (1983). Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance. In H. Foster (Ed.) The Anti-Aesthetic. (pp. 17-27). Port Townsend, Washington: Bay Press.

Gardiner, S. (1983). Kuwait: The making of a city. Longman.

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Goodwin, G. (1997). Saleh Abulghani Al-Mutawa: New Vision in Kuwait. London: Alrabea Publisher.

Gospodini, A. (2004). Urban Morphology and Place Identity in European Cities: Built Heritage and Innovative Design. Journal of Urban Design, Vol. 9. No. 2, 225-248, June 2004.

Khattab, O. (2001). Globalization Versus Localization: Contemporary Architecture and the Arab City. CTBUH Review, Vol. 1, No. 3, 56-68.

Kultermann, U. (1999). Contemporary Architecture in the Arab States: Renaissance of a Region. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Leach, N. (2003). Belonging, AA Files 49, 78.

Lim, W. (2004). Architecture, Art, Identity: Is There Life in Singapore After Tabula Rasa?

Identity Research/ Research Paper. Architecture and Identity Research Sponsored by Volkswagen Stiftung and Berlin University of Technology. Available: http://www.architecture竏段dentity.de (9 September 2004) Ogura, N., Yap, D. & Tanoue, K.(2002). Modern Architecture in the Philippines and the Quest for Filipino Style. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, November 2002. 233-238.

Saleh, M. (1998). The integration of tradition and modernity: A search for an urban and architectural identity in Arriyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia. Habitat International Vol.: 22 Issue: 4, 571-589.

Shiber, S. (1964). The Kuwait Urbanization. Kuwait: Kuwait Government Printing Press.

Shuaib, H. (1999). Towards Modern Kuwaiti Architecture Developed From Tradition. AMAR, 7, 12-14.

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Silva, K. Preserving Historic Urban Districts: Issues of Culture change, stress, and culturesupportiveness. Proceedings of the Environment and Design Research Association (EDRA) 32 International Conference. Edinburgh. 2001.

Tzonis, A. & Lefaivre, L. (2003). Critical Regionalism: Architecture and Identity in a Globalized World. Munich-Berlin-London-New York: Prestel.

Vale, L. (1992). Architecture, Power, and National Identity. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

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Illustrations

Fig. 1. Attempts by foreign architects to express cultural identity in architecture.

Fig. 2. Questionnaire responses analysis.

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Fig. 3. Elements of traditional Kuwaiti architecture

Fig. 4. Important examples of Kuwaiti contemporary architecture

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Fig. 5. Attempts by Kuwaiti architects to express cultural identity in architecture

Fig. 6. A model illustrating strategies of expressing cultural identity in architecture.

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