The Journal of the
IYNA
International Youth Neuroscience Association LANGUAGE VOL. 1
ISSUE 7
DECEMBER 2016
FEATURED ARTICLES
‘Talking Heads: The Ethical Consequences of a Neuroscienti c Understanding of Language’ – by Nicholas Chrapliwy
‘Neurological Advantages of Bilingualism’ – by Kento Arendt
‘The Role of the Right Hemisphere in Language’– by Lorrayne Isidoro
‘Research Methods: ERP Technique’ – by Jacob Umans and Eva Kitlen
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Contents INTRODUCTION Letter from the Editor William Ellsworth
pages 3 - 4
Update from the Directors Jacob Umans et al.
page 5
GENERAL NEUROSCIENCE The Role of the Right Hemisphere in Lorrayne Isidoro Language
pages 6 - 12
NEW TECHNOLOGY Aphasias and Apple: Alleviating Language Dhanya Mahesh Impairments Through Communication Technology
pages 13 - 15
DISEASE Foreign Accent Syndrome: A Perplexing Mallika Pajjuri Disorder
Joshua Woo
Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA)
Dyslexia: A Summary Alexander Skvortsov Broca’s Aphasia: At a Loss for Words Christian Gonzalez
pages 16 - 18 pages 19 - 22 pages 23 - 25 pages 26 - 29
RESEARCH Research Methods: ERP Technique Jacob Umans and Eva Kitlen
pages 30 - 32
The Neurological Bene ts of Bilingualism Kento Arendt and Megumi Sano
pages 33 - 35
Study Summary: fMRI Syntactic and Lexical Jacob Umans and Shreyas Repetition E ects Reveal the Initial Stages of Parab Learning a New Language
pages 36 - 38
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___________________________________________________________________________ NEUROETHICS Language and Moral Dilemma Norhan AlGharabawy Talking Heads: The Ethical Consequences of Nicholas Chrapliwy a Neuroscienti c Understanding of Language
pages 39 - 40 pages 41 - 44
INTERVIEW Interview: Studying Dyslexia Megumi Sano
pages 45 - 47
VITREOUS HUMOR New Research Paper Uses Simple IYNA Satire Team “Hands-On” Language
page 48
CONTRIBUTORS PAGE
page 49
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___________________________________________________________________________ ・INTRODUCTION・
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Letter From the Editor William Ellsworth
Readers, I hope you enjoy the seventh issue of the IYNA Journal! We greatly appreciate your continued (or new) readership. Language is of utmost importance to the human species. From coordinating a society to conveying an emotion, everything that we do depends on it. The dominance of Homo sapiens over the planet can be attributed at least in part to our highly e ective means of communication. The more we learn about language, it seems, the less we know. In the research section, Jacob Umans and Shreyas Parab discuss recent research describing acquisition of a new language; Kento Arendt and Megumi Sano provide a primer on the debate over purported bene ts of bilingualism. Unfortunately, signi cant problems can exist with language abilities. In the disease section, Mallika Pajjuri explains Foreign Accent Syndrome; Christian Gonzalez describes Broca’s Aphasia; Joshua Woo details Primary Progressive Aphasia; and Alexander Skvortsov covers perhaps the most commonly known language disorder-- Dyslexia. Modern technology is setting the pace for language therapy. In new technology, Dhanya Mahesh reports on communication technology as a treatment for language disorders. In neuroethics, Nicholas Chrapliwy and Norhan AlGharabawy delineate the ethical complexities of language. Finally, we were honored to get a chance to interview the Dr. Guinevere Eden, Director of the Center for Study of Learning and full Professor at the Department of Pediatrics at Georgetown University Medical Center and previous President of the International Dyslexia Association. As always, it is critical that we recognize all of our dedicated writers for helping us make this issue the success that it is. You can nd all of their names and positions on our Contributors page.
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If you have any questions, comments, or suggestions for us, please feel free to contact us at info@youthneuro.org. We hope you enjoy our seventh issue as much as we enjoyed writing it! Best Regards, William Ellsworth Editor-in-Chief, IYNA Journal
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___________________________________________________________________________ ・INTRODUCTION・
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Update from the Directors IYNA Board of Directors
Readers, We all hope you enjoy the seventh issue of the IYNA Journal! We are incredibly grateful for your continued readership. This month, we would like to draw your attention to several developments within our organization: The Path to Nonpro t After several months of hard work, our nonpro t team headed by Executive Vice President Alexander Skvortsov has had signi cant successes. As of today, the IYNA is nishing up the paperwork necessary to incorporate, and will soon be able to register as a 501(c)(3) nonpro t. This will allow us to engage in a wider variety of outreach activities to promote neuroscience education around the world. ISSN In addition to approaching legal status as a non-pro t organization, the IYNA has completed an application for the Journal of the IYNA to be added to the Library of Congress’s register as a serial publication. A further step toward legitimizing the hard work of every contributor to the Journal, attaining this status will allow the IYNA to spread its scope even further than before. As always, if you are interested in contributing see the contact us page on our website or email us at info@youthneuro.org. Best Regards, Jacob Umans and Nicholas Chrapliwy Shreyas Parab Treasurer Presidents Alexander Skvortsov and Janvie Naik Megumi Sano Executive Vice Presidents Editor-In-Chief of the MYELIN Initiative Kyle Ryan Director of Outreach
William Ellsworth IYNA Journal Editor-in-Chief
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___________________________________________________________________________ ・GENERAL NEUROSCIENCE・
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The Role of The Right Hemisphere in Language Lorrayne Isidoro Gonçalves
Introduction Before the breakthroughs of Broca and Wernicke, the notion of language regions was based on observations in patients with brain injuries. This was not able to directly determine the brain areas in which language is localized. This researchers studied their patients and found that certain parts in certain regions lead to damage to language.
Con rmation of Language Lateralization Broca Paul Broca ( gure I) is known for his role in the discovery of specialized functions in di erent areas of the brain. In 1861, he was able to show, using post-mortem analysis of the patient Mr Leborgne ( gure II), who had lost the ability to speak, that such loss was associated with damage to a speci c area of the brain. The area, located toward the front of the brain's left hemisphere, became known as Broca's area [2].
Figure II: Damage in broca’s area of the Mr Leborne, the Broca’s patient
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___________________________________________________________________________ Wernicke
Carl Wernicke ( gure III) believed that abnormalities could be localized to speci c regions of the cerebral cortex and thus could be used to determine the functions of these regions. Wernicke was one of the rst to conceive of brain function as dependent on neural pathways that connected di erent regions of the brain, with each region contributing a relatively simple sensory-motor activity [3]. In view of this, the thoughts all were facing to the localization of the brain functions. De nitive evidence supporting the inferences from neurological observations came from studies of patients whose corpus callosum and anterior commissure had been severed. This surgery is used for a treatment for epileptic seizures-disturbance in the electrical activity- of the brain called corpus callosotomy [1]. Corpus callosotomy Corpus callosotomy ( gure IV) is an operation that severs - cuts- the corpus callosum, interrupting the spread of seizures from hemisphere to hemisphere. Seizures generally do not completely stop after this procedure - they continue on the side of the brain in which they originate. However, the seizures usually become less severe, as they cannot spread to the opposite side of the brain [4].
Figure IV: Corpus callosotomy
New Ideas So, in these patients, since the major axons connecting the cerebral hemispheres had been cut, researchers were able to determine what a “split” brain can result in. Roger Sperry and his –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 7
___________________________________________________________________________ group of research initiate the rst investigations in split-brain patients were carried out by and established the hemispheric lateralization of language- localization of functions in the brain, normally divided into hemispheres-demonstrating many other functional di erences between the left and right hemispheres and continues to stand contributions to the understanding of brain organization [1]. Stereognosis Test Single-handed, vision-independent stereognosis - ability to identify an object by touch- can be used to evaluate the functional capacity of each hemisphere in split-brain patients. In this test, it is essential to provide information to one side of the brain only ( gure V). The scientists Sperry, Michael Gazzaniga, and others devised several simple ways to do this, the most straightforward of which was to ask the subject to use each hand independently to identify objects without any visual assistance. [1] Figure V: Stereognosis test
Tachistoscopic Presentation Visual stimuli or simple instructions can be given independently to the right or left hemisphere in normal and split-brain individuals. Since the left visual eld is perceived by the right hemisphere , a brie y presented tachistoscopic ( gure VI) instruction in the left visual eld is appreciated only by the right brain assuming that the individual maintains xation on a mark in the center of the viewing screen. In normal subjects, activation of the right visual cortex leads to hemispheric transfer of visual information via the corpus callosum to the left hemisphere. In split-brain patients, information presented to the left visual eld cannot reach the left hemisphere, and patients are unable to produce a verbal report regarding the stimuli. However, such patients are able to provide a verbal report of stimuli presented to the right visual eld. Awide range of hemispheric functions can be evaluated using this tachistoscopic method, even in normal subjects. [1]
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Figure VI: Tachistoscopic Presentation
The results were intriguing: using the left hemisphere, split-brain patients were able to name objects held in the right hand without di culty. In contrast, and quite remarkably, an object held in the left hand could not be named! Using the right hemisphere, subjects could produce only an indirect description of the object that relied on rudimentary words and phrases rather than the precise lexical symbol for the object (for instance, “a round thing” instead of “a ball”), and some could not provide any verbal account of what they held in their left hand [1]. This shows further that the left hemisphere can respond to written commands, whereas the right hemisphere can typically respond only to nonverbal stimuli - e.g., pictorial instructions, or, in some cases, rudimentary written commands. These distinctions re ect broader hemispheric di erences summarized by the statement that the left hemisphere in most humans is specialized for (among other things) the verbal and symbolic processing important in communication, whereas the right hemisphere is specialized for (among other things) visuospatial and emotional processing [1]. This work on split-brain patients modi ed the thoughts about language lateralization; neuroscientists began to conclude that in most individuals, the left hemisphere is unequivocally the seat of the major language functions. It would be more accurate to say that we understand language and speak much better with the left hemisphere than with the right. [1] Because the major importance of the right hemisphere is nonverbal abilities--nonverbal communications include facial expression, the tone and pitch of voice, gesture, body language. The summation of all of these elements, in fact, makes us really understand what another person wants to communicate.
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___________________________________________________________________________ The Role of the Right Hemisphere in Language: Understanding language process In contrast to the left hemisphere, the right hemisphere does not normally have much responsibility for linguistic processes such as phonology, morphology and syntax. It is best manner to view this, it is observing damages in the left hemisphere regions like Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. Damage to Broca's area primarily results in speech production impairment and loss of grammar and function words. In patients with lesions in Wernicke's area may speak uently and use function words. Their problems mainly concern in syntax and lexical words, which leads to di culties with understanding language as well as with producing comprehensible sentences.[9] They produce problems in comprehension and production of language. So, what is the function of the right hemisphere? When word meanings are accessed, semantically related word meanings are activated in both the left and right hemispheres. However, a vast set of related meanings remains accessible within the right hemisphere; into the left hemisphere only the most relevant meanings are maintained. This suggests that the right hemisphere is important for maintaining multiple meanings of ambiguous words, distant semantic associations of words, and broader aspects of meaning comprehension. Such functions may be important for the ability to revise initial interpretations of words or phrases, maintaining discourse coherence, and understanding multiple levels of meaning [5]. Unlike the aphasias - an inability to comprehend and formulate language because of dysfunction in speci c brain regions caused by left hemisphere damage and generally resulting in focused language de cits, right hemisphere brain damage can result in a variety of di use de cits which complicate formal testing of this disorder. These formal tests assess areas such as understanding humor, metaphors, sarcasm, facial expression, and prosody- that impart additional meaning to verbal communication. This elements helps in a complete understanding of what is talked. ‘Extra’ elements in language This “coloring” of speech is critical to the message conveyed, and in some languages (e.g., Mandarin Chinese) is even used to change the literal meaning of the word uttered. These de ciencies, referred to as aprosodias - is a neurological condition characterized by the inability of a person to properly convey or interpret emotional prosody - are associated with right-hemisphere damage to the cortical regions that correspond to Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas and associated regions in the left hemisphere. The aprosodias emphasize that although the left hemisphere (or, better put, distinct cortical regions within that hemisphere) gures prominently in the comprehension and production of language for most humans, other regions, including areas in the right hemisphere, are needed to generate the full richness of everyday speech [1]. Reading comprehension requires, in most cases, the processing of literal and nonliteral information, that is, explicit and implicit. In addition, the participation of both hemispheres in this process is undeniable, since the left hemisphere tends to be involved in local coherence and in the –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 10
___________________________________________________________________________ aspects of the context ( gure VII).[6] While areas of the right hemisphere seem to be more involved in global coherence, message macrostructure and inferential generation.
Figure VII: Understanding language by non literal elements Overall, it would be erroneous to assume the right hemisphere has no language capacity. As noted above, in some individuals the right hemisphere can produce rudimentary words and phrases, and it is normally the source of emotional coloring of language. Moreover, the right hemisphere in many split-brain patients understands language to a modest degree, since these patients can respond to simple visual commands presented in tachistoscopic to the right hemisphere (in the left visual eld) [1]. Thus, the right hemisphere is the primary mediator of understanding a meaning of a sentence. These higher order language functions are crucial to understanding someone's true communicative intent and thereby integrating e ectively into society.[8] How something is said may be just as important as what is said. In addition, it is important to note that the left and right hemispheres have a complementary work; they assume di erents functions, complementing each other and not only dominance on one side of the brain in relation to the other. Therefore, the language process is very elaborate. They are complex connections and together, they collaborate with their own and so important characteristics. All of this process is not only by right or left hemisphere parts. It is a work group! –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– References
[1] Purves, Dale. (11/03/1938). Neuroscience. Neuroscience. Chapter 26 -Language and Speech . Retrieved: 11/21/16.
[6] Jerônimo, G. (07/2012). The processing of reading and speci cities of the cerebral hemispheres. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270051021_O_processa mento_da_leitura_e_as_especi cidades_dos_hemisferios_cerebrais. Retrieved: 11/24/16.
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[2] Free encyclopedia. Pierre Paul Broca.The JRank Psychology Encyclopedia. http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/97/Pierre-Paul-Broca.html. Retrieved: 11/21/16.
[7]Mannell, Robert. (DD/MM/YYYY). Introduction to Prosody Theories and Models. Macquarie University, Sidney Australia. http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonology/intonation/ prosody.html. Retrieved: 11/25/16.
[3]Free encyclopedia. (DD/MM/YYYY). Carl Wernicke - Describes Wernicke's aphasia, Describes Wernicke's encephalopathy. The JRank Psychology Encyclopedia. http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/652/Carl-Wernicke.html . Retrieved: 11/21/16.
[8]Mitchell, Rachel and Crow, Tim . (02/03/2005).Right hemisphere language functions and schizophrenia: the forgotten hemisphere? Brain, a journal of neurology. http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/128/5/963. Retrieved: 11/27/16.
[4] Lava, Neil. (24/07/2016).Epilepsy and the Corpus Callosotomy. Web MD. http://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/guide/corpus-callosotomy. Retrieved: 11/21/16.
[9] Martensson, Frida. (2007). Lateralization of Language Functions in the Human Brain.Neuro Linguistics. http://course.sol.lu.se/FON218/Postrar_neurolingvistik_VT07/Fr ida_Maartensson.pdf. Retrieved: 11/27/16.
[5]National Science Foundation,U.S.-Israel Binational Science Foundation, and the National Institutes of Mental Health. Title of the Sourced Material. Cognitive Neuroscience Lab. http://faculty.ucr.edu/~chrisc/research/research_RH.html. Retrieved: 11/21/16.
・NEW TECHNOLOGY・
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Aphasias and Apple: Alleviating Language Impairments Through Communication Technology Dhanya Mahesh
Introduction According to Peggy Orenstein of the New York Times, the slogan of the modern American adult has become “I tweet, therefore I am,” [1] re ecting the far reaching e ect of social media on adult lives. Through its wide platform, social media allows for extensive communication and the expression of diverse ideas, thoughts and opinions. Social media has also been shown to improve users’ communication skills [2], especially those of users with certain language impairments [3]. To cater to people with such disabilities, researchers have developed a variety of di erent applications to help such users easily digitally communicate with others. From language disorders such as aphasias to language impairments related to autism spectrum disorders, the recent years have seen a rise in mobile applications and technology to ease communication for people with speci c language impairments.
Communication Technology and Social Media for Speci c Language Impairments Most of the current communication applications for those with language impairments fall in one of two categories. Generally, either they emphasize digital communication quite literally, through generating text based on the user’s needs, or they establish social media platforms, with features made speci cally to cater certain language impairment symptoms [3]. Applications in the rst category currently include communication technology by companies and organizations such as DynaVox, Liberator [4], Lingraphica, Apple, and the Department of Computer Science at the University of Toronto [5]. All of these organizations have developed applications that speci cally work to help those with language impairments communicate through text [3]. For example, Lingraphica has developed an “AllTalk speech-generating device in conjunction with their SmallTalk Aphasia app,” allowing users to create personalized digital scripts to help with online and in person conversations [5]. Users with speech or language comprehension problems can easily choose among the thousands of icons to generate text or audio. Similarly, Apple has included the Speak Selection feature in most of its native applications which allows website and texts to be read aloud to the user with an adjustable speaking rate [5]. DynaVox and Liberator have developed Compass and AAC Speak which are electronic “augmentative or alternative communication [3]” (AAC) devices that “use...symbols, aids, strategies, and techniques [3]” to create digital communication boards. Marco Polo, built for those with language impairments associated –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 13
___________________________________________________________________________ with Autism Spectrum Disorders, provides vocabulary support based on GPS location and is available on multiple platforms including Android and iOS stores [6]. Such applications can easily allow those with language impairments to communicate their thoughts into digital text which can be sent as texts, emails or posts on social media networks. Technology falling in the second category include various social media platforms built speci cally for those with language disorders. One of such platforms is Tapgram, accessible through the Internet but not as a separate mobile application. Similar to other social media platforms, Tapgram allows users to post or email messages by choosing from an extensive variety of images. In Tapgram, users can scroll through a feed of images and follow other users to see their posts and messages [5]. Similar to Tapgram, Kaveripiiri. , a website developed in Finland, is built exclusively for the Finnish community of those with language impairments. According to researchers at The Finnish Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, “People using the service seem to bene t from [social media]” and the time per visit to the site has been increasing [7]. The communication technology in both categories allow those with language impairments to increase their overall communication and be connected with the rest of the world. Successes and Limitations As this type of technology is a relatively new phenomenon, research reports have noted that while the technology as a whole has contributed to the increase in overall communication of those with language impairments, certain features of select applications work better than others. In terms of successes, research reports have found that such mobile applications are bene cial to those with language impairments in that they increase overall communication. The developers of Marco Polo at the University of Toronto have concluded that “MarcoPolo can support communication and is perceived as useful by...our current users [6]” using direct user feedback. A comprehensive report of mobile communication technology for those with language impairments from the University of Queensland in Australia has also found that such technology can help “both social participation and management of aphasia [8]” through the analysis of a variety of di erent communication applications. While such applications have been successful, researchers have found that there are problems. At Flinders University in South Australia, researchers have used analysis of user feedback to conclude that certain applications require more detailed instructions in an easily readable format and that certain user interfaces are more appealing to users than others [8]. Other problems include a di culty physically using devices such as iPads, iPhones and other smart devices as well as di culty physically accessing the Internet [9]. Future Directions It is clear that mobile communication technology for those with language impairments have quite a bit of potential. According to published results, many users have increased their social participation and are more connected with the world than ever before. In order to help those with language disorders even more, these types of applications need to increase the quality of their user –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 14
___________________________________________________________________________ interfaces, include features to help give users clear introductions and incorporate more image based features instead of text based ones. While social media and digital communications have their setbacks, they help people around the world connect with each other instantly and allow for the expression of ideas, thoughts and opinions. It is important that this phenomenon include all types of people, especially those with language impairments, to truly bring the world closer together. ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– References
[1] Orenstein, P. (31/7/2010). I Tweet, Therefore I Am. The New YorkTimes.http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/01/magazine/01ww ln-lede-t.html. Retrieved: 22/11/2016. [2] Shirky, C. (2011). The Political Power of Social Media: Technology, the Public Sphere, and Political Change. Foreign A airs, 90(1), 28-41. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25800379. Retrieved: 24/11/2016. [3] Speech Or Language Impairments. (2013).Project IDEAL. http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/speech-language-impairme nts/. Retrieved: 22/11/2016. [4] Baxter, S., Enderby, P., Evans, P., & Judge, S. (2012). Barriers and facilitators to the use of high‐technology augmentative and alternative communication devices: a systematic review and qualitative synthesis. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 47(2), 115-129. Retrieved: 24/11/2016. [5] Szabo, G., & Dittelman, J. (2014). Using Mobile Technology with Individuals with Aphasia: Native iPad Features and Everyday Apps. Seminars in Speech and Language, 35(01), 005-016. doi:10.1055/s-0033-1362993. Retrieved: 22/11/2016. [6] Övermark, T. (2009). Social Networking Service for People with Cognitive or Speech and Language Impairments. https://www.w3.org/WAI/RD/2012/easy-to-read/paper9/. Retrieved: 22/11/2016.
[7] Brandenburg, C., Worrall, L., Rodriguez, A. D., & Copland, D. (26/1/2013). Mobile computing technology and aphasia: An integrated review of accessibility and potential uses. Aphasiology, 27(4), 444-461. doi:10.1080/02687038.2013.772293. Retrieved: 22/11/2016. [8] Raghavendra, P., Grace, E., Newman, L., Wood, D., & Connell, T. (2013). ‘They think I’m really cool and nice’: The impact of Internet support on the social networks and loneliness of young people with disabilities. TJA Telecommunications Journal of Australia, 63(2). doi:10.7790/tja.v63i2.414. Retrieved:22/11/2016. [9] Demmans Epp, C., Campigotto, R., Levy, A., and Baecker, R. (2011). MarcoPolo: Context-Sensitive Mobile Communication Support. In Proc. FICCDAT: RESNA/ICTA 2011, RESNA (2011). https://www.resna.org/sites/default/ les/legacy/conference/pro ceedings/2011/RESNA_ICTA/demmans%20epp-69532.pdf. Retrieved: 22/11/2016.
・DISEASE・
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Foreign Accent Syndrome: A Perplexing Disorder Mallika Reddy Pajjuri
Introduction Foreign Accent Syndrome (FAS), a disorder stemming from neurogenic causes, occurs when a person suddenly changes linguistically to pronounce words in alternate fashions and in some unusual cases alters their ability to speak certain languages while retaining intelligible speech patterns. This sudden change can occur once faced with injury, such as a stroke or any form of traumatic brain injury, and its genesis is highly perplexing. In most cases, a icted persons speak in typologically disparate manners, speaking in languages of countries that they have never been to and speaking like people that they have never met before. In this article, the origins, discovery, and physiological e ects of FAS will be deconstructed. Discovery of a Disorder
In 1907, French neurologist Pierre Marie was faced with a rather perplexing case: his patient, having su ered a debilitating stroke, was suddenly able to speak in a low Alemannic Germanic accent despite being French. Ultimately, Marie decided to document this linguistic phenomenon, which we now know to be the rst report of FAS. Subsequently, a decade after this rattling discovery, neurologist Arnold Pick came across a similar case, this time occurring to a Czech patient, who after su ering a stroke was able to speak with tinges of a Polish accent. In years after, FAS was diagnosed a bit more often, accounting for sixty-two reported cases from 1941-2009. This has prompted neuroscience researchers to suggest explanations for this rather mysterious a iction [1]. Diagnosis and Treatment Since there have only been a handful of reported cases in the past century, the origins of this disorder are still quite nebulous. Much research is still required to determine a common cause. However, there have been many notable similarities within past patients, such as certain lesions and speech patterns. This has led to an established methodology to diagnose impaired people, utilizing various specialists and brain scans to recognize the syndrome. Initially, psychologists are called in alongside speech pathologists and neurologists to rule out any psychological impairment and language exposure. Patients are given various tests, ranging from reading, comprehension, and writing assessments, to aid in identifying the patient’s psychiatric condition. In addition, a speech pathologist will administer a myriad of surveys, ranging from family to educations surveys, in conjunction with gestural and articulatory analyses such as speech tests and oral structure assessments, to analyze the individual’s speech patterns and ultimately deduce the individual’s –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 16
___________________________________________________________________________ standing on his or her converted language. If needed, EEGs and MRIs are also used in order to identify lesions in the somatosensory cortex or the motor cortex that can seriously a ect the brain’s ability to navigate language [1]. Although intervention techniques for this symptom have not been explored, there are various accent-reducing processes utilized by neurologists that can reduce the e ects. One technique regards pronouncing the phonemes, or vowel/consonant sounds, most commonly present in a given language [2]. For example, if a patient originally spoke English, he/she would be required to read aloud words that contained the forty-four phonemes of the English language. Phoneme
/b/
Spelling Variations
b, bb
Phoneme
/v/
Spelling Variations
v, f, ph, ve
Phoneme
Spelling Variations
/ū/
o, oo, ew, ue, u_e, oe, ough, ui, oew, ou
/d/
d, dd, ed
/w/
w, wh, u, o
/y//ü/
u, you, ew, iew, yu, ul, eue, eau, ieu, eu
/f/
f, , ph, gh, lf, ft
/y/
y, i, j
/oi/
oi, oy, uoy
/g/
g, gg, gh,gu,gue
/z/
z, zz, s, ss, x, ze, se
/ow/
ow, ou, ough
/h/
h, wh
/a/
a, ai, au
/ә/ (schwa)
a, er, i, ar, our, or, e, ur, re, eur
/ã/
air, are, ear, ere, eir, ayer
/j/
j, ge, g, dge, di, gg
/ā/
a, ai, eigh, aigh, ay, er, et, ei, au, a_e, ea, ey
/k/
k, c, ch, cc, lk, qu ,q(u), ck, x
/e/
e, ea, u, ie, ai, a, eo, ei, ae, ay
/ä/
a, ar, au, er, ear
/ē/
e, ee, ea, y, ey, oe, ie, i, ei, eo, ay
/û/
ir, er, ur, ear, or, our, yr
/l/
/m/
/n/
l, ll
m, mm, mb, mn, lm
n, nn,kn, gn, pn
/i/
i, e, o, u, ui, y, ie
/ô/
aw, a, or, oor, ore, oar, our, augh, ar, ough, au
/ī/
i, y, igh, ie, uy, ye, ai, is, eigh, i_e
/ēә/
ear, eer, ere, ier
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___________________________________________________________________________ /p/
p, pp
/o/
o, a, ho, au, aw, ough
/üә/
ure, our
/zh/
s, si, z
/r/
r, rr, wr, rh
/ō/
o, oa, o_e, oe, ow, ough, eau, oo, ew
/s/
s, ss, c, sc, ps, st, ce, se
/oo/
o, oo, u,ou
/ch/
ch, tch, tu, ti, te
/t/
t, tt, th, ed
/u/
u, o, oo, ou
/sh/
sh, ce, s, ci, si, ch, sci, ti
/th/
th(voiced), th(unvoiced)
/ng/
ng, n, ngue
Chart of the 44 Phonemes of English FAS in the Media FAS has been subject to public scrutiny in the past few years with its absurd social media popularity. Most recently, the case of sixteen year-old American student Reuben Nsemoh gained extreme popularity, with news coverage extending to mainstream media outlets such as CNN. After being kicked in the head during a match, he was comatose for a short time, and, upon waking up, was able to speak uent Spanish [3]. Even though he had been learning Spanish as a second language, neurologists were able to conclude that his level of expertise was merely subpar. However, as time passed, he slowly gained the ability to speak English once again, at the expense of his Spanish uency. This rather mainstream case gained much attention from the general public, and, as a result, increased the interest in foreign accent syndrome research. Hopefully, these recent events will ignite a passion for neurolinguistics, and, as a result, inspire a new focus of linguistics research. –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– References
[1] Foreign Accent Syndrome (FAS). UT Dallas. https://www.utdallas.edu/research/FAS/. Retrieved: 11/19/2016
[2] Katz, William; Garst, Diane; Kaplan, Karen; Frisch, Emily. E ects of Accent-Reduction Techniques for the Treatment of an Individual with Foreign Accent Syndrome. UT Dallas. https://www.utdallas.edu/research/FAS/media/FASTherapyPos terWebsite.jpg. Retrieved: 11/19/ 2016.
[3] Criss, Doug. (25/10/2016). Before his coma he spoke English; after waking up he's uent in Spanish. CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2016/10/24/health/teen-spanish-new-langu age-trnd/. Retrieved: November 20, 2016.
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Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA) Joshua Woo
Introduction Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA) is categorized as a neurological disorder that progressively inhibits language capabilities [1]. Distinct from other forms of aphasia, PPA results from deteriorating brain tissue caused by neurodegenerative diseases. Recent research has categorized PPA into 3 forms: Non uent/Agrammatic Aphasia (nfvPPA), Semantic Variant (svPPA), and Logopenic Progressive Aphasia (lvPPA). These variants have clinical syndromes that relate to speci c pathology. Treatment for PPA remains limited, although speech therapy can be e ective for some.
Overview Primary Progressive Aphasia is a neurological syndrome in which underlying neurodegenerative diseases, like Alzheimer's or frontotemporal lobar degeneration, cause damage to regions in the brain responsible for speech and language. Unlike acquired aphasia caused by trauma, PPA’s progressive nature makes recovery unlikely. It is relatively rare and has an age of onset ranging from 40-60; ergo it is categorized as “young-onset dementia”. [2] Although symptoms di er for each a ected individual, it is common for patients to initially nd trouble in naming of objects, word association, pronunciation, spelling, comprehension, and other language-related functions. Basic intellect is often spared during the initial stages; however, as the severity of symptoms escalates, individuals may experience a blanket inability to speak and communicate [3]. Variants The pattern of PPA impairment varies with the individual, resulting in classi cation of three subtypes: Non uent/Agrammatic Variant (nfvPPA), Semantic Dementia Variant (svPPA), and Logopenic Variant (lvPPA). Each variant di ers in regards to core and supporting features, pathology, and a ected regions [5]. Clinical diagnosis of nfvPPA requires that an individual express one of two primary symptoms: apraxia of speech and agrammatic production of sentences. Secondary symptoms include a decreased ability to comprehend syntactically complex sentences. Nevertheless, it is just as important that single word and object knowledge are spared. In imaging-supported nfvPPA diagnosis, the aforementioned features in clinical diagnosis must be supplemented by atrophy in the left posterior frontal lobe on MRI, SPECT, or PET. The pathology of nfvPPA often involves tau from frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD-t) or, occasionally, Alzheimer’s Disease [3][5]. Diagnosis of Semantic PPA requires the presence of 2 primary symptoms: impaired object naming and impaired single word comprehension. Secondary symptoms of svPPA include impaired object knowledge for unfamiliar items with a spared repetition and spared grammatical speech –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 19
___________________________________________________________________________ production. Although speech patterns of Wernicke’s Aphasia and svPPA resemble each other in regards to their shared nonsensical patterns, svPPA can a ect both temporal lobes, which leads to impaired understanding of object meaning. As a result, individuals with svPPA may misuse certain objects due to its misunderstood purpose. Semantic PPA generally a ects anterior and inferior regions of the left temporal lobes. Similar to nfvPPA, frontotemporal lobar degeneration is the most common pathology, although it more frequently involves Tau DNA Binding Protein.[5] Logopenic PPA is the most recently categorized PPA variant whose core symptoms relate to word retrieval in conversation, confrontational naming, and repetition di culty. [3] It is important to understand that speech hesitation and di culty with lexical retrieval don’t automatically equate to agrammatism. Logopenic a ected individuals are often unable to recall speci c objects (anomic), but retain the ability to produce fragments of a grammatical sentence. The sentence often breaks down when they begin to struggle with recalling an object. In comparison to the other variants, symptoms of lvPPA can include halted mannerisms that additionally produce dysprosodic language.[5] The supporting features such as naming inhibitions are slightly less severe than the semantic variant, as it is usually limited to phonological error. Furthermore, the supporting features for a diagnosis often require a preservation of motor speech, single-word comprehension, and blatant agrammatism—functions more signi cantly impaired in the other variants. [3] They are lvPPA’s exclusionary factors. The pathology of lvPPA includes amyloid plaques and neuro brillary tangles of Alzheimer’s disease with a slight variation on the distribution that results in a temporarily spared mesial temporal structure. As a result, the areas of the brain that are a ected are usually the posterior inferior parietal and posterior superior temporal lobe (although some pictures show the entire external temporal lobe, only atrophy in the aforementioned areas are required for diagnosis). Diagnosis Depending on the individual, symptoms of the PPA variants can occur simultaneously , creating challenges in diagnosis[2]. This complication often correlates with the stage of progression. Early singular symptoms such as di culty with naming or spelling are too broad and present amongst all variants, therefore insu cient to provide a basis for diagnosing a speci c aphasia. Similarly, late stage patients are often a ected in numerous distinct areas that make it di cult to assess the original variant. The current means of clinical diagnosis and classi cation involve a two-step process derived from Marsel Mesulam’s criteria. As a part of this classi cation process, there are inclusionary factors and exclusionary factors. The inclusionary requirements are the standards that must be observed in the individual. An example would include aphasia; the loss or inhibited ability to use and comprehend has to be present and it has to be the most prominent clinical feature. [3] On the other hand, exclusionary factors are conditions that cannot be present in order for a PPA diagnosis. Exclusionary factors that di erentiate PPA from other diseases include nonverbal memory loss, visuospatial impairment, physical trauma, and impairments resulted from behavioral shifts. As previously mentioned, the primary inclusive factor is linguistic complication. Therefore, behaviors like palilalia(an involuntary repetition of words/phrases), whose symptoms are based –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 20
___________________________________________________________________________ primarily in non-linguistic speech repetition, cannot be included within PPA syndrome categories [3]. A critical component of accurate diagnosis is examining the patient to isolate the cause of the aforementioned symptoms. Neuropsychological examinations reveal any variation in thinking and behavior and document the severity. Psychosocial evaluations deal with the social interactions that take place at home or with other involved individuals in order to understand the patient’s inhibition in expressing basic needs. Depending on the results of the evaluation, di erent treatment strategies can be used. As PPA progresses, it is also suggested that psychiatric evaluations are performed in order to note behavioral changes and identify potential causes. The rarity of PPA and its young onset age make it bene cial to receive various input from di erent doctors for a nal diagnosis. [4]. Treatment Treatment for PPA remains limited; there aren’t any procedures or medicine that cure PPA[6]. However, despite the inconclusive pharmacological treatments, even a temporary form of treatment, like language therapy, can vastly improve an a ected individual’s quality of life. [4] Speech-Language Pathologists are involved in both developing strategies to manage the recurring symptoms as well as providing necessary resources. In moderate stages of PPA, self-cueing strategies are practiced to improve lexical retrieval. [2] This often involves training of family members in order for the individual to begin recognizing and responding to conversational cues by themselves during normal interactions. Some forms of self-cueing include internal use of synonyms, rhymes, and spelling. For motivated individuals there are script trainings, which repetitively cover certain tasks in the form of a dialogue (or monologue). The purpose is to simulate a conversational environment in order to elicit an automatic response without the script [2][4]. The most e ective treatment for PPA doesn’t involve management of the pathology; it focuses on learning to cope and adapt to a new way of life. A loss of certain linguistic abilities is not a permanent barrier to ful lling a meaningful life. With professional consultation, familial support, and personal e ort, a ected individuals can prolong their ability to communicate. KEY TERMS Marsel Mesulam- A neurologist who identi ed PPA and established a basic criteria for diagnosis/characterization in 1982 Apraxia of speech- Reduced motor speech functions Atrophy- Organ or tissue mass decrease Pathology- The structure and function of disease Tau- Protein that functions in association with cytoskeletal stabilization and polymerization; located in cerebral neurons in neurodegenerative diseases Dysprosodic- Impaired oral speech articulation Lexical retrieval- Word (often object) recollection ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 21
___________________________________________________________________________ References
[1] Primary Progressive Aphasia. National Aphasia Association. http://www.aphasia.org/aphasia-resources/primary-progressiv e-aphasia/. Retrieved: 19/11/2016.
[4] Diagnosis of Primary Progressive Aphasia. Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine. http://brain.northwestern.edu/dementia/ppa/diagnosis.html Retrieved: 20/11/2016.
[2] Khayum, Becky; Wieneke, Christina; Rogalski, Emily; Robinson, Jaimie; and O'Hara, Mary. (17/5/2012). Thinking Outside the Stroke: Treating Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA). US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4613785/. Retrieved: 20/11/2016.
[5] Hillis, Argye. (19/2/2016). Argye Hillis: Advances in Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Treatment of Primary Progressive Aphasia [Video File]. . http://cred.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=2494933. Retrieved: 19/11/2016 .
[3] Classi cation of primary progressive aphasia and its variants. (16/2/2011). Neurology. Editorial, page 942. Retrieved: 19/11/2016.
[6] Kortte, B. Kathleen. Rogalski, J. Emily. (10/9/2012). Behavioural interventions for enhancing life participation in behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia and primary progressive aphasia. International Review of Psychiatry Volume 25 Issue 2. Page 237-245 . Retrieved: 21/11/2016.
[4]Diagnosis of Primary Progressive Aphasia. Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine. http://brain.northwestern.edu/dementia/ppa/diagnosis.html Retrieved: 11/20/16.
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Dyslexia: A Summary Alexander Skvortsov
Introduction The ability to communicate with other creatures is and has been an enormous advantage to any species that can master it. From primitive mating calls to more complex whistles to full- edged language, communication allows for organisms to work with each other, accomplishing as a unit what could not be done as an individual. Much of human societal evolution would be impossible without language; not the agricultural revolution, nor urban development, or any other major human social accomplishment. Among other advanced mental capabilities, the capacity to communicate through the use of a complex alphabet is integral to humanity. In today’s modern society, this ability to communicate is more important than ever. This ability is hindered by dyslexia, a learning disorder which may heavily impair comprehension and expression of language, experienced by approximately 15% of the population. Overview and Symptoms Dyslexia is a developmental learning disorder. The primary manifestation of which is a di culty learning and comprehending language, particularly written language, and is characterized by abnormal di culties with reading despite average or above average performance on various other intellectual and academic metrics. Students with dyslexia will often appear to be brighter, more intellectually developed, and conceptually advanced than their non-dyslexic peers; however, their reading level often places below grade average. For these reasons, dyslexia is traditionally classi ed as a cognitive process disorder rather than an intelligence disorder: Dyslexics do not seem to exhibit intellectual impairments as a character or their disease. As with most conditions, severity of dyslexia can vary from a minor inconvenience to a debilitating impairment. Onset of dyslexia almost always occurs from early childhood, and can be often noticed by excessively slurred speech, confusion while reading, problems in regards to phonological awareness: the ability to understand and comprehend sounds, and the almost universally present di culties with reading. In rare cases of adult-onset dyslexia, the disease is generally trauma-related, or appears in accordance with another neurological disease. Causes Dyslexia is considered to have basis in both genetics and neurology. Studies have shown that dyslexia commonly runs in families, with over 50% of cases thought to be inherited [1]. Genetic –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 23
___________________________________________________________________________ causes for dyslexia have been discovered in about 9 genes [1] on Chromosomes 6 and 15 [2]. Neurological discrepancies have been discovered as well. Post-mortem studies have noted anatomical di erentiations between the brains of dyslexics and those of non-dyslexics, particularly in the corpus callosum, which links the two cerebral hemispheres. Also in the planum temporale, a triangular area which forms the core of Wernicke’s area, and it is thought to be heavily involved in processing of language. Anatomical di erences have also been found by fMRI scans throughout the left hemisphere [2]. Diagnosis Diagnosis of dyslexia can often be di cult due to lack of a clear, objective de nition. Trouble with reading often occurs on a spectrum, with no de nitive di erentiation between dyslexia and natural issues with reading. Various characteristics that seem to indicate dyslexia are often misleading. For example, people often associate conditions such as seeing or reading backwards with dyslexia. However, these symptoms are actually quite common with young children just learning to read [3]. Characteristics of dyslexia include prolonged trouble reading, despite average achievement in other elds, and other literary issues. Dyslexia should be evaluated by an educational psychologist, neurologist, or other quali ed medical professional. Pathophysiology The process of reading is a complicated combination of two distinct neural operations: orthological reading and phonological reading. Orthological reading is based upon direct association of a word with a concept, and is very direct. Orthological processes are most often used for commonly used words. Phonological reading, in contrast, uses a conversion of written text into sounds, combination of sounds, and then association of the resulting word with a concept. Research suggests that a subset of dyslexia, phonological dyslexia, is rooted in mis development of the phonological reading system [2]. Research points to three major neural areas associated with reading: Broca’s Area, Wernicke’s Area, and the Left Occipito-Temporal region. Studies have demonstrated that children su ering from dyslexia show considerably less activation in these three areas while reading than children without dyslexia. The Left Occipital-Temporal region seems to be especially di erent in dyslexics as compared to non-dyslexics. Prognosis Although dyslexia can severely impact lives of a ected individuals, it can be overcome to a degree in most cases. While the disease is not curable, there exist a variety of treatment plans focused primarily around reshaping a child’s education and introduction to reading. A large e ort is often required; however, progress can often be made. Individuals suspecting themselves, relatives, or friends of having dyslexia should consult a trained educational psychologist, neurologist, or other medical professional. –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 24
___________________________________________________________________________ References
[1] What causes dyslexia? Dyslexia, http://www.dyslexic.org.uk/about-dyslexia/what-causes-dyslexia. Retrieved: 11/23/2016
[3] Debunking the myths about dyslexia. (2016). University Of Michigan. http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/dyslexics/learn-about-dyslexia/w hat-is-dyslexia/debunking-common-myths-about-dyslexia. Retrieved: 11/23/2016
[2] Siegel, L. S. (2006). Perspectives on dyslexia. Paediatrics and Child Health, 11(9), 581–587. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2528651/. Retrieved:
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Broca’s Aphasia: At a Loss for Words Christian Gonzalez Introduction In 1861, eminent French physician Paul Broca discovered the part of the brain that is responsible for speech production. Aptly named Broca’s area, the part of the brain Broca studied came from a patient known as “Tan,” who su ered from aphasia. Tan was unable to produce any meaningful speech by the end of his life, when the only recorded phrase he said to Paul Broca was “tan,” hence his name. Following the death of Tan, Paul Broca examined the aphasics brain and discovered that there was signi cant damage sustained to the left hemisphere, speci cally in Broca’s area. This lead to the eventual characterization of the condition the patient Tan su ered from as Broca’s aphasia [1].
Overview and Symptoms Broca’s aphasia is a language disorder characterized by the inability to produce meaningful speech and written language. As Broca’s aphasia is a non- uent (expressive) aphasia, a ected patients are able to understand heard speech, but cannot produce speech or write meaningful language. This pathology is the opposite of what happens in Wernicke’s aphasia (the uent form of aphasia in which language comprehension is disrupted). The severity of failing to comprehend heard speech varies from a patient to another, although generally an aphasic can comprehend more than 50% of heard words. Besides the loss of meaningful speech production, the physical manifestations of the condition most commonly include patterns of speaking in incoherent, incomplete and short sentences; producing unrecognizable words; failing to understand conversations; and constructing sentences that lack logic [2]. Causes Typically, Broca’s aphasia is caused by a stroke. Nearly 40% of all stroke patients will experience some form of aphasia after su ering from the incident, and Broca's aphasia accounts for about 12% of those cases [3]. Other relatively common causes of Broca’s aphasia include sustained brain trauma, tumors, cerebral hemorrhages (a type of stroke that results in bleeding due to ruptured blood vessels), and extradural hematoma (brain injury caused by blood buildup). Neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's Disease and epilepsy can produce aphasia in some instances as well. –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 26
___________________________________________________________________________ Pathophysiology Broca’s aphasia, or more commonly referred to simply as Broca’s area, is the result of damage in the inferior frontal gyrus. When an injurious event such as a stroke or a tumor develops, the natural function of the brain region is altered, disrupting typical speech and language abilities. The degree to which a patient regains their language abilities is largely dependent upon activation of brain tissue surrounding the area that was damaged. Blood ow to damaged areas is also crucial for proper neuron recovery in such areas.
Figure 1: Image of Broca’s area in the left frontal lobe of the cerebrum [5].
Diagnosis The methods used to reach a proper diagnosis of Broca’s aphasia vary from patient to patient. Typically, doctors will perform several tests such as the Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination (BDAE) and the Western Aphasia Battery (WAP) in order to determine whether or not the symptoms a patient experiences are the result of aphasia. The BDAE tests language abilities through analysis of responses to visual and auditory stimuli. The WAP investigates the degree to which a patient is su ering from aphasia and can be used to classify what type they have. Additionally, physicians may use other diagnostic tools such as MRI scans or assessing the ability of the patient to identify objects and carry out normal conversations without signi cant di culty [4]. Dysphagia -trouble swallowing- may also be useful in diagnosing Broca’s aphasia, as it is used as a means to rule out expressive aphasia because throat impairment often results in di culty with speech production. The Porch Index of Speech Ability can also be employed to further test the categorization of the suspected aphasia. Treatment
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___________________________________________________________________________ While there is not an established standard method for treating Broca's aphasia, a variety of methods are used to aid in the recovery process. Speech exercises can be performed to speed up the recovery process to gain back certain language abilities, and can be integrated with other methods such as pharmacotherapy or transcranial magnetic stimulation. During pharmacotherapy, aphasic patients take drugs that act on a number of neurotransmitter systems in the brain. Drugs such as dexamphetamine and methylphenidate act on dopamine (both are dopaminergic psychostimulants), while donepezil and bifemelane act on acetylcholine (both are cholinergic drugs). In transcranial magnetic stimulation, magnetic elds are noninvasively used to stimulate speci c brain regions, which can aid in the recovery process. Additionally, patients may undergo treatment therapies such as impairment-based therapies, including melodic intonation therapy, and constraint-induced therapy [6]. Melodic intonation therapy treats patients through the use of singing to improve language ability, whereas constraint-induced therapy focuses on rewiring the brain to regain lost speech abilities. Advocacy and Awareness If you would like more information on how to get involved in helping patients with Broca’s aphasia, please contact the National Aphasia Association or visit their website at http://www.aphasia.org/. Key Terms Paul Broca- French physician who conducted research that provided the initial evidence of brain function localization Tan- Patient whose brain damage lead to the discovery of Broca’s aphasia by Paul Broca in 1861 Broca’s area- Brain region responsible for production of meaningful speech that is located in the inferior frontal gyrus Cerebral hemorrhage- Type of stroke resulting in bleeding from ruptured brain blood vessels Extradural hematoma- Type of traumatic brain injury characterized by a buildup of blood between the skull and dura mater Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination- Diagnostic battery used to test for aphasia in patients Western Aphasia Battery- Diagnostic battery used to test the language skills of aphasic patients Porch Index of Speech Ability- Diagnostic test used to di erentiate between types of aphasia Pharmacotherapy- Treatment of aphasia or other diseases through using prescription drugs Transcranial magnetic stimulation- Method used to stimulate brain regions with magnetic elds Dopaminergic psychostimulants- Drugs that act to increase the levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain Cholinergic drugs- Drugs that inhibit the activity of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine Melodic intonation therapy- Therapy intended to improve language ability through singing Constraint-induced therapy- Therapy aimed at brain rewiring to regain speech abilities –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– References
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___________________________________________________________________________ [1] Broca's Aphasia - National Aphasia Association. http://www.aphasia.org/aphasia-resources/brocas-aphasia/ Retrieved :11/21/2016
[2] Aphasia Symptoms. http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/aphasia/basics/s ymptoms/CON-20027061 Retrieved: 11/21/ 2016
[3] Pedersen, P. M., Vinter, K., & Olsen, T. S. (2003). Aphasia after Stroke: Type, Severity and Prognosis. Cerebrovascular Diseases, 17(1), 35-43. doi:10.1159/000073896. Retrieved: 11/21/2016
[4] Aphasia | NIDCD. https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/aphasia. Retrieved: 11/21/ 2016
[5] Morin, A. (2011). Self-Awareness Part 2: Neuroanatomy and Importance of Inner Speech. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(12), 1004-1017. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00410.x.Retrieved: 11/21/2016
[6] Aphasia Therapy Guide - National Aphasia Association. .http://www.aphasia.org/aphasia-resources/aphasia-therapy-gui de/. Retrieved: 11/21/ 2016
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Research Methods: ERP Technique –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 29
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Jacob Umans and Eva Kitlen Introduction Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) are electrical signals generated by the processing of EEG data. Since their rst use in research in 1935-6 by Pauline and Hallowell Davis [1], ERPs have become a powerful tool used by cognitive psychologists to investigate the overall activity of the brain. In language research, ERP analysis can provide valuable insight into the overall activity of the normal brain and the mechanisms by which its normal functions can go awry in language disorders such as dyslexia.
Generating ERPs ERPs are the products of heavily processed electroencephalogram (EEG) data. When EEG is used to record brain activity, the changes in voltage are very small so an ampli er must be used so the trends in the data are visible. Once the data is recorded, it must be processed to generate ERPs. This is normally done with EEGlab, a program in MATLAB. EEGlab is used to lter the data, remove artifacts from muscle tension or blinking, and epoch the data so only activity around stimuli is studied. After the data has been epoched and ltered, individual components analysis (ICA) is run. ICA uses an algorithm to estimate the localization of ERPs, which is a valuable tool when studying disorders like dyslexia that show di erences in lateralization of activity. ERPs can be a powerful tool that allow researchers to study rough graphs of brain activity in response to certain stimuli, but have many weaknesses. While the temporal resolution of EEG is excellent, its spatial resolution is lacking. In “An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique," Luck explains this: if the source of brain activity is known, it is easy to determine which electrodes on the EEG cap could pick up the activity, but there is such a variety of electrodes that can record activity from a certain area that it is almost impossible to determine source based on the activity recorded by the electrodes [1] Algorithms like ICA can be used to do this, but they are rather unreliable. If ICA is run multiple times on the same set of data, the results will di er. Researchers account for this by disregarding ICA results that are dissimilar between participants, but this is dangerous as it discounts the importance of inter-individual variability. Uses in studying language The nature of ERPs themselves has been studied extensively in a practice dubbed “ERPology” by Luck. This practice involves investigating what events elicit particular ERPs in order to understand the activity a particular ERP re ects. While this process seems impractical at rst glance, it is necessary to fully interpret experimental data. Understanding the underlying processes that cause ERPs allows researchers to better understand the results of ERP studies. In fact, ERPology allows for ERPs to be applied to neurolinguistic research. For example, ERPs are used to study brain activity while reading. They allow researchers to understand how sentence position and linguistic features like frequency, length, and orthographic neighborhood change –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 30
___________________________________________________________________________ language processing. ERP studies are also used to compare the processing of words to non-words (random strings of letters) and pseudowords (strings of letters without meaning, but those which also look like words). Language processing studies normally rely on three ERP components that re ect comprehension: the N400 (negative component 400 ms after word onset), the P600 (positive component 600 ms after word onset), and the N170 (negative component 170 ms after word onset). The N400 is the most extensively studied and best understood of these. It is thought that the amplitude of this component re ects the di culty of word comprehension in di erent scenarios. The applications of ERP studies in neurolinguistics are abundant: they can be used to study natural reading, lexical decision, priming, bilingualism, and more. Perhaps the most relevant application of ERP research is in language disorders such as dyslexia and aphasia: ERPs from subjects with and without these disorders can be compared to reveal the underlying cognitive processes impaired by the disorders. The study summarized below exempli es how ERPs can be used to study dyslexia. Practical Application: Dyslexia Research After having discussed the general principles of ERP collection and analysis, it is valuable to take an in-depth look at one ERP study to better understand how these principles come together to One important use of ERP analysis is in the study of dyslexia. One particular study by Araújo et al. investigated the e ects of visual naming de cits in dyslexic patients. Previous research had already established the existence of these de cits; however, “the speed of name retrieval and phonological ability has not always been found” [1] so the researchers conducting this experiment wanted to explore in more detail the physiological basis of these de cits. In this experiment, researchers recruited seventeen dyslexic subjects and eighteen age-matched controls (to minimize the e ects of individual variation on the results obtained). In each trial of the experiment, study participants were presented with two images: a priming image, and an experimental image. The priming image was only used to allow for more precise analysis of the subsequent image. The experimental setup used this design to investigate the e ects several types of priming (phonological, semantic, perceptual); for example, in phonological priming a picture of a log may be used to prime the word dog, since the two are phonologically related. The experimenters also used images both related and unrelated to the prime in order to investigate the precise relationship between these variables and the resulting ERP waveform. In speci c, the researchers analyzed three speci c ERP waves: N/P190 wave, linked to early perceptual processing; the N300 wave, linked to later visual processing; the N400 wave, linked to semantic processing. The researchers found a diminished N/P190 wave in control subjects after visual priming but not in dyslexics, suggesting decreased e ciency in processing the relationship between the two images in dyslexics. The researchers also found increased frontal negativity (indicating an action potential) between about 250-350ms in controls but not in dyslexics in the visual priming task, indicating the presence of a certain aspect of processing that does not occur normally in the dyslexic test subjects. When looking at semantic priming, the researchers saw diminished N400 waves in both groups, but that this e ect was more signi cant in controls than dyslexics. Thus, the researchers –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 31
___________________________________________________________________________ were able to nd that semantic similarities facilitate language processing, but to a lesser extent in people with dyslexia. This suggests that instantaneous issues with word recognition and identifying word relationships may cause some of the di culty reading seen in dyslexia. This illustrates how ERP comparison can be used to identify the underlying issues in language processing disorders and truly demonstrates the potential ERP research has to help scientists understand and cure these disorders. Overall, one important trend that can be clearly observed in this study is the reliance on ERPology studies to better understand more practical data. Had researchers not already gured out the meanings of speci c waveforms, they would be unable to extract meaning from them. Such a pattern re ects the broader relationship between basic and applied research, with both making substantial contributions to the advancement of neuroscienti c knowledge as a whole. ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– References
[1] Luck, S.J. An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique, Second Edition. Retrieved from:https://www.ncbs.res.in/site les/gb2012/An%20Introduc tion%20to%20the%20Event-Related%20Potential%20Techniqu e.pdf
[2] Araujo, S., Faisca, L., Reis, A., Marques, J. F., & Petersson, K. M. (2016). Visual naming de cits in dyslexia: An ERP investigation of di erent processing domains. Neuropsychologia, 91, 61–76. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.07.007
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The Neurological Bene ts of Bilingualism –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 32
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Kento Arendt and Megumi Sano Introduction As of today, it is estimated that over 50% of the world's population are able to use two or more languages at an advanced level of pro ciency and approximately 21 percent of Americans speak a language other than English at home [1]. Knowing how to speak multiple languages can largely increase one's network of communication -- indeed, in many cases, the motivation behind becoming bilingual is to obtain this advantage. But recent studies have suggested that speaking multiple languages may not only socially and economically, but also cognitively improve one’s quality of life. At the last Society for the Neurobiology of Language meeting held in London, there was an interesting debate on "The Consequences of Bilingualism for Cognitive and Neural Function" between Dr. Ellen Bialystok and Dr. Manuel Carreiras.
Types of Bilingualism "Bilingualism" is commonly de ned as a human condition that makes it possible for an individual to function, at some level, in more than one language [2]. It is important to note here that although the name may imply two languages to be spoken by the individual, the generally accepted de nition among experts is considered to encompass individuals who speak more than two languages as well. Di erent types of bilingualism arise from speci c aspects of bilingual ability or experience. One method of categorising bilingualism re ects the age of acquisition of the second language. While individuals who acquired two languages simultaneously as a rst language are called simultaneous bilinguals, individuals who acquired the second language after acquiring the rst language are referred to as sequential bilinguals. This classi cation is also described as "early" and "late" bilingualism. Many researchers studying the neurobiology of language have been interested in whether bilingualism--and, more speci cally, which di erent types of bilingualism-- can be associated with cognitive bene ts. Thus, many studies are carried out on monolinguals and bilinguals with similar IQs, socioeconomic backgrounds, and levels of education. Furthermore, a popular focus in today's bilingualism research is examining cognitive and neural functions across our lifespan, from infancy to old age. Bilingualism in Children In recent years, American schools have begun to o er second language classes as early as elementary school. There is reasoning behind this, as young children tend to have an increased capability to learn new languages. This is in part because of the increased neuroplasticity of the young brain, or its ability to change as new information is acquired. Neuroplasticity is reduced with age, and therefore, so is the ability to learn new languages. Children are literally hardwired to be able to acquire new information, and do so at a rapid pace. Adults (and even teenagers), on the other –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 33
___________________________________________________________________________ hand, have to study and memorize in order to acquire new information. In other words, children can learn unconsciously while adults usually have to learn consciously. Another reason that children nd it easier to learn a new language is that they start o easy, and then move to more di cult concepts. The most basic second language classes teach only new words, as grammatical concepts are too di cult for young children to learn. Grammatical concepts like cases and syntax are instead learned later in high school, when the child has developed enough to understand relationships within the language and has had practice with grammar in his or her native language. Adult learners, however, often nd themselves having to learn vocabulary and grammar at the same time because they are seen as much more capable [3]. Unfortunately, in this case, capability leads to decreased ability. Bilingualism and Aging It is a well-known fact that brain function decreases with age. Diseases like Alzheimer’s and dementia a ect most in old age, and there is little that can be done to prevent them. However, recent research has shown that bilingualism may decrease the chance of being a icted by such diseases. One of the key signs of the onset of dementia is a decreased ability to update, switch, and inhibit attention, and bilinguals show an above average capacity for all of those abilities. Bilingualism by itself does not better the brain’s ability to process attention. The leading hypothesis is that it is action of changing between languages that actually increases that ability. In order to support the idea that bilingualism helps prevent dementia, Gold et al. (quoted in Bialystok et al.) conducted an experiment in which they asked subjects to complete a non-linguistic attention switching task [4]. The researchers found that, among older adults, bilinguals were able to perform better than monolinguals. However, among children, performance was relatively uniform no matter how many languages they spoke. Gold and the other researchers concluded that the uniformity present among children was likely caused by ceiling performance on the task. The results for the adults support the hypothesis that bilingualism helps attention switching, which in turn helps prevent dementia. Criticisms Bilingualism is an exciting area of research for neuroscientists studying cognition, development, and most importantly language. However, there have been multiple arguments against the claim that bilingualism is associated with cognitive advantages. First, some argue against the association between bilingualism and neuroplasticity by pointing out that the neurological di erences over time are inconsistent across individuals. Moreover, these di erences are not distinctly coupled with behavioral data. Any di erence in brain structure may be used to argue for a theoretical account, but currently there exists no “mechanistic model of bilingual advantages." Another important criticism has been that even though studies are carefully designed to reduce the e ects of variables such as socioeconomic status and education, there still seems to be confounding variables involved in these bilingualism studies such as the cultural interaction that arises from migration or travel. For example, bilinguals are more likely than monolinguals to have lived in more than one country especially during the period of language acquisition. This change in –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 34
___________________________________________________________________________ environment may account for inconsistencies across data. The type of language being used in the study may also play an in uential role -- an individual who is uent in Mandarin and Cantonese may not be as "bilingual" as an individual who pro ciently speaks Chinese and Italian, because of the phonological, syntactic, and morphological similarities and di erences between languages. Finally, the use of the term "bene t" or "advantage" can be considered to have dangerous implications for society. The question of whether one is at an advantage should not be determined solely by one's cognitive abilities. Although this type of research explicitly states that it focuses on "cognitive bene ts," some argue that this description is too binary -- it may be perceived as being an extremely reductionist approach that categorizes humans into superior and inferior groups. –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
References
[1]US Census Bureau. (28/10/2015). Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over.http://www.census.gov/data/tables/2013/demo/2009-2013-l ang-tables.html. Retrieved:25/11/2016. [2] Linguistic Society of America. (n.d.). “Multilingualism.” http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/multilingualism. Retrieved: 25/11/2016.
[3] Perkins, S. (n.d.). Why Is it Easier for a Child to Learn a New Language Than an Adult? http://oureverydaylife.com/easier-child-learn-new-language-adu lt-15590.html. Retrieved: 27/11/2016. [4] Bialystok, E., Abutalebi, J., Bak, T. H., Burke, D. M., & Kroll, J. F. (16/3/2016). Aging in two languages: Implications for public health. Ageing Research Reviews, 27, 56-60. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2016.03.003 Retrieved: 27/11/2016.
・RESEARCH・
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Study Summary: fMRI Syntactic and Lexical Repetition E ects Reveal the Initial Stages of Learning a New Language Jacob Umans and Shreyas Parab
Introduction To investigate the neurophysiological changes which take place during the initial stages of language learning, the researchers conducting this study used fMRI to analyze how the participants learned a short, made-up language. The fMRI results and participants’ progress in learning the made-up language point to an interesting discovery in interactions occurring in speci c areas of the brain that result in either a strengthening of an existing neural representation or the formation of a new one.
Background As any high-school student who has taken a foreign language class can say, learning a new language is di cult. The amount of grammatical rules and words can be overwhelming on its own, and even more e ort must be taken to be able to translate between the two languages at a pace fast enough to maintain a conversation. While it is well-established that learning a language induces signi cant cognitive changes, the researchers writing this study were interested in looking at the neurophysiological changes involved with language learning. More speci cally, they wanted to investigate the e ects of words’ repetition and syntactical (grammatical) structure. To conduct this research, the researchers relied on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). fMRI a technique that uses magnetic resonance imaging much like MRI, but it also involves the analysis of the subtle di erences between the magnetic properties oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin (forms of the protein hemoglobin with and without oxygen molecules attached, respectively) in order to create a 3D map of functional activity. The researchers focused on two speci c fMRI features: repetition enhancement (RE) and repetition suppression (RS). Repetition enhancement “in the context of novel item repetition has been linked to the formation of neural representations” [1], meaning that it shows the formation of a neural representation of the new language. Conversely, “RS is thought to re ect the facilitation of processing within or the sharpening of an existing neural representation” [1], meaning that it is linked to the re nement of existing representations to increase its precision. More speci cally, they looked at these phenomena in the left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG) and left posterior and superior temporal gyrus (MTG/STG), because these regions have previously been implicated in grammatical processing.
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___________________________________________________________________________ Hypothesis and Methods In order to investigate the e ects of language learning, the researchers in this experiment created a language called “Alienese” composed of easy-to-pronounce but nonsensical vocabulary. Furthermore, this language included unfamiliar sentence structures. For example, “Help you I” and “I you help” would be valid sentences in this language. However, they also included a more typical sentence structure (“I help you”) for comparison. The researchers hypothesized that they would observe RE when the participants viewed these novel sentence structures, but would observe RS when familiar sentence structures are presented. They also hypothesized that early into learning new words the participants would undergo RE while forming a representation of the language, but later this repetition would be sharpened by RS. In this experiment, the researchers collected data over the course of four days (Day 1, Day 2, Day 3, and a fourth interval between Days 7 and 10). In the language learning sessions, the researchers would have the participants look at a video screen outside of the fMRI machine (with a mirror) to learn the language; this screen show the sentences or black-and-white pictures illustrating their meaning. The researchers would rst prime the participants in one trial, then vary the syntactic structure, the verb used, or both to analyze the response a later trial (but not the one immediately after). On the third day and the last day, participants also completed a comprehension task after the presentation of each image. Such a structure allowed the researchers to compare the e ects of the distinct grammatical structures and verbs on RE or RS and correlate this to language comprehension. After all days (except the rst), the participants also were asked to translate all of the verbs on a written form; collecting this data allowed the researchers to link language pro ciency to the fMRI data gathered. Results Armed with the data on the participant’s ability to translate “Alienese” into Dutch (whether ability in translating verbs or explicating pictures into meaning) and corresponding fMRI data, the researchers were able to draw a correlation between repetition enhancement or repetition suppression occurring in the area of studied interest, the LIFG and left-posterior MTG/STG sections of the brain, and the formation of a neural representation of a new language. As expected, the participant’s ability to translate pictorial depictions into words increased over the course of the experiment; participants were 81% correct in their identi cation (with a standard error margin of 1%) on Day 9 versus the 71% correct on Day 3. Participant’s ability to translate verbs in “Alienese” to Dutch also increased; the average of the verbs translated increased from 15.54% to 43.91% and nally to 56.84% on Day 2, 3, and 9 respectively. Looking at the neuroimaging results of the experiment, there was a statistically signi cant correlation between the type of structure where syntactic repetition occurred and the LIFG and left posterior MTG/STG (p=0.009). In fact, there was an interesting di erence in the relationship between the fMRI results of a novel syntactic structure and participant’s ability to comprehend pictures and the results of a known syntactic structure and comprehension of pictures. The calculated probability of the former was p=0.023, while the latter was p=0.054, a stark di erence that –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 37
___________________________________________________________________________ clearly illustrated the e ect of syntactic repetition on regions of the brain linked to grammatical and lexical development. Implications The research performed can help linguists and neuroscientists understand the mechanisms in place to help humans strengthen neural pathways for syntactic patterns they are accustomed to and also the mechanisms that help accommodate new information or learn completely new lexical or syntactic patterns. Although more could be investigated with a longitudinal study with longer time frames and a more precise measurement of learning progress, as suggested in the researchers’ discussion section, the current results point to an interesting conclusion: that new linguistic information use the same brain areas (primarily the LIFG and left posterior MTG/STG areas) as known syntactic and lexical information for one’s native language. This discovery can prove as very useful knowledge as globalization increases and individuals are obliged to learn more and more about the diverse languages and grammatical structures found in each one. The research performed by Weber’s team also provides a foothold for future research in understanding what neural mechanisms are used in the initial stages of learning a language.
References
The IYNA Journal Research Section Sta would like to extend its thanks to the authors of this paper for generously allowing us to describe it within the IYNA Journal.
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– [1] Weber, K., Christiansen, M. H., Petersson, K. M., Indefrey, P., & Hagoort, P. (2016). fMRI Syntactic and Lexical Repetition E ects Reveal the Initial Stages of Learning a New Language. Journal of Neuroscience, 36(26), 6872–6880. http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3180-15.2016
・NEUROETHICS・
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Language and Moral Dilemmas Norhan AlGharabawy
Introduction We have all heard about the trolley and footbridge dilemmas, which have been used to study moral judgment for a long time. Many experiments show that language has a great e ect on people’s moral decisions. For example, using a foreign language in uences the moral decisions a person makes. The style of the dilemma narration, emotional or abstract, can bias the decision as well. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a brain imaging technique, shows that some regions in the brain that process language are active during a moral dilemma. Language has been demonstrated to a ect moral judgment during dilemmas in many ways.
Nelson Mandela once said, “If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to
his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.” Moral judgement is believed to be driven by two forces: intuitive processes prompted by the emotional impact of the dilemma leading to deontological judgement (emotional judgement) and rational controlled processes driven by the conscious evaluation of each decision’s outcomes leading to utilitarian judgment. Intuitive processes, in general, support the essential rights of a person, while rational processes support the greater good. [1] Many experiments show that people tend to favour utilitarian judgements over emotional ones when the footbridge moral dilemma is presented in a foreign language. It’s believed this happens because a foreign language reduces emotional reactivity. However, the foreign language pro ciency is also a factor in moral judgement. With increased pro ciency, however, the person becomes more emotionally grounded, leading to a result closer to that of their native language. When a person isn’t uent at the used foreign language, it slows down the decision making process, decreasing the decision biases as they make the decisions more carefully. On the contrary, in the trolley dilemma, which is impersonal and less emotional as you don’t have to commit murder directly, no foreign language e ect was found.[1] Research has also shown that decision making process can depend on the language of the question. This was proved by an experiment in which Chinese-English bilinguals had a questionnaire regarding self-esteem. Surprisingly, the results of the questionnaire showed that the participants had higher self-esteem when the dilemma was demonstrated in English than Chinese.[2] In conclusion, language a ects moral judgement in several ways. Using a foreign language to demonstrate the moral dilemma can bias the questionnaire results only if the dilemma is personal such as the footbridge dilemma. However, using a foreign language doesn’t a ect the results of a questionnaire about an impersonal moral dilemma. Also, the language of the question can bias the
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___________________________________________________________________________ questionnaire result. For example, some bilinguals show higher self-esteem when they speak English than when they speak Chinese. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
References
[1] Costa, Albert. Foucart, Alice. Hayakawa,Sayuri. Apesteguia. Heafner, Joy. Keasar, Boaz. (23/4/2014). Your morals depend on language. US national library of medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3997430/ . Retrieved; 19/11/2016.
[2] Caldwell-Harris, Catherine. (20/5/2014). In a Foreign Language, ‘’Killing one to save ve’’ May Be More Permissible. American Scientist. https://www.scienti camerican.com/article/in-a-foreign-languag e-killing-1-to-save-5-may-be-more-permissible/ . Retrieved; 21/11/2016.
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___________________________________________________________________________ ・NEUROETHICS・
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Talking Heads: The Ethical Consequences of a Neuroscienti c Understanding of Language
Nicholas Chrapliwy
Introduction Language as a human tool for survival has ubiquitous import. It is not only capable of relaying complex and original messages across space and time, but also of changing the course of human actions. Compared to the predictable consequences of chemical communication between cells and tissues of biological organisms, the e ects of human language are nuanced and subtle enough to be mistaken as chaotic. However, as our understanding of the neuroscienti c sources of language improves, we are ever more able to inform our ethical decisions with information gained from this eld of study. My goal in this article is to outline three instances of human action which are currently crossed by lines of study in both ethics and neuroscience: marketing, education, and the law.
Neuroethics and Marketing “I'm just an advertisement for a version of myself.” ― David Byrne [1] As in the sentiment expressed above by David Byrne, many of us are personally aware of the stealthy subversion of which advertisements are capable. On the part of those creating consumer ads there is no shortage of interest in discovering a scienti c foundation for their marketing goals. In a paper published in the Journal of Consumer Behavior in 2008, Emily Murphy et al. outline corporations’ interest in neuromarketing by summarizing how “... companies are springing up to o er their clients brain-based information about consumer preferences, purporting to bypass focus groups and other marketing research techniques on the premise that directly peering into a consumer’s brain while viewing products or brands is a much better predictor of consumer behavior” [2]. While a company’s motivation to e ectively market a product can be readily understood, any conversation about the practice of neuromarketing should include mention of the ethical boundaries surrounding it. Murphy et al.’s paper points out at least three of those boundaries [2]. The rst concerns the standards for ethical treatment of subjects employed by marketing researchers, which are not always of the same quality –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 41
___________________________________________________________________________ as those used by academic researchers [2]. The second pertains to the responsibility of neuromarketing researchers to accurately present the e cacy of their ndings to businesses [2]. Irresponsibly depicting a neuromarketing strategy as more e ective than it really is crosses a clear ethical point of honesty. Finally, concern for the autonomy of marketing targets is the focus of the third boundary recommended in the paper [2]. With the possibility that subliminal advertisements can prime consumer action in any direction they please, especial care should be taken to prevent violations of personal autonomy [1]. Neuroethics and Education “Psychology, the talking cure, linguistics, and semantics - they're all like dogs poking around and sni ng their own vomit. There might be some gems in there, you never know. For certain you will at the very least know what you had for lunch. And you can ascertain what not to eat again.” ― David Byrne [6] A paper by Kimberly Sheridan et al. from the Harvard Graduate School of Education starts o with an important point about education that is essential to the discussion of how it intersects with neuroethics: “Education is above all a value-laden profession, with its values in perpetual dispute” [7]. Keeping this in mind, the discussion in this article about how neuroethics, education, and language intersect will focus on two areas: cognitive enhancement and professional alignment among educators. The conversation surrounding rst issue is familiar to any high school or college student who has spent long hours in front of a book or computer studying. To many who are a part of that group, the apparent advantages of focus and stamina that neurostimulants provide far outweigh the risks taken to obtain them when they are not prescribed. The mere possibility of achieving a higher score on a high-stakes test motivates many students to buy Ritalin or Adderall from friends to whom those drugs have been legitimately prescribed. But just like the response to discussions of illegal steroid enhancement use by athletes, the ethical direction for students in this instance should be to refuse to use any drugs that have not been prescribed by their physician. The ethical principles underlying this direction are ones of equality that seek to keep the eld of competition between students level and fair. Language used in policy that governs the prescription of such stimulants should therefore be very clear, and campaigns to deter students from cheating by using such drugs should include language that is unambiguously against their use. The second issue concerning the professional alignment of educators is the one most thoroughly addressed by the authors of the paper cited above [7]. ‘Professional alignment’ refers to ideas generated by the GoodWork Project, which “...focuses on the contexts and professional structures that either support or discourage ‘good work’, particularly during times of rapid cultural or technological change” [7]. Seeking to encourage work that is both excellent and ethical, the GoodWork Project found that professions which are better aligned with their constituencies more easily achieve that kind of practice [7]. Boldly pointing out in their paper “...that the profession of –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 42
___________________________________________________________________________ education is currently misaligned,” Sheridan et al. note that the forces in uencing education such as research, business, and government have at times inappropriately contradictory goals [7]. This situation leads to educators acting illegitimately as neuroscientists when they are called on to interpret the consequences of neuroscienti c data for their students [7]. It also leads to neuroscience researchers acting illegitimately as educators when they prescribe practices that don’t take into account the full scope and history of classroom pedagogy [7]. To remedy the complex ethical tensions caused by the misalignment of the educator’s profession, Sheridan et al. recommend the formation of a new professional class of neuroeducators. Describing this new class, Sheridan et al. write, “To do good work, neuroeducators will need to be knowledgeable about neuroscienti c theories and ndings for educationally relevant tasks and be able to evaluate their validity and usefulness for education” [7]. This new group will be able to resolve ethical con icts in both elds, acting like the dogs in the above quote by David Byrne. Their informed critical analysis of current issues will teach us what we’ve ‘eaten’ for education, as well as ‘what not to eat again’ [6]. Neuroethics and the Law “The more you know, the more you know you don't know and the more you know that you don't know.” ― David Byrne [5] A cliché of the criminal trial depicted in television dramas is the polygraph lie-detector. Notoriously debunked as a reliable means of actually detecting when someone is lying, the machine nevertheless represents a signi cant point in the conversation about how neuroscience can be used to assess truth-telling. Along with advances in neuroimaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans, new investigation into the relationship between brain states and telling the truth have been opened. In a paper published in the journal Neuroethics in 2010, Thomas Nadelho er critiques the assumptions of Michael Pardo and Dennis Patterson about the relationship between brain states and lying [3]. Incorporating the philosophical work of Ludwig Wittgenstein on language, Nadelho er di erentiates between the criteria for an event such as lying and the symptoms of that event. The latter do not necessarily con rm that the event is occurring -- they act as mere descriptors of the event in a way that doesn’t necessitate that the event positively occurs. On the other hand, the criteria for an event positively con rm it, making statements about the event of lying necessarily contingent on the criteria for it. To exemplify these terms, Wittgenstein often used the example of a case of in uenza, which he called angina: “If medical science calls angina an in ammation caused by a particular bacillus, and we ask in a particular case “why do you say this man has got angina?” then the answer “I have found the bacillus so-and-so in his blood” gives us the criterion, or what we may call the de ning criterion of angina. If on the other hand the answer was, “His throat is in amed”, this might give us a symptom of angina. I call “symptom” a phenomenon of which experience has taught us that it coincided, in some way or another, with the phenomenon which is our de ning criterion” [4]. Nadelho er’s critique focuses on Pardo and Patterson’s assumption that brain states, as measured by an EEG or fMRI, can act as criteria for lying [3]. He concludes that brain –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 43
___________________________________________________________________________ states normally coinciding with lying should be considered not as criteria for the event, but as symptoms only [3]. The neuroethics of lie detection in cases of criminality is greatly informed by Nadelho er’s critique in this direction. Dealing carefully with the language we use to describe an event such as lying prevents us from wrongfully convicting those on trial based on the insu cient evidence of a measured brain state. In the spirit of the David Byrne quotation above, we should orient ourselves humbly with respect to how we use the knowledge gained by neuroscience. Note: David Byrne is the lead singer of the band ‘Talking Heads’.
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References
[1] Byrne , David. (Unknown). Goodreads. https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/27078.David_Byrne . Retrieved: 30/11/2016.
[5] Byrne, David. (30/08/2001). The New Sins. p. 76. Retrieved: 30/11/2016.
[2] Murphy, Emily. (30/7/2008). Neuroethics of neuromarketing. Journal of Consumer Behaviour. pp. 293–302. Retrieved: 30/11/2016.
[6] Byrne, David. (Unknown). Goodreads. https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/27078.David_Byrne . Retrieved: 30/11/2016.
[3] Nadelho er, Thomas. (17/03/2010). Neural Lie Detection, Criterial Change, and Ordinary Language. Neuroscience. pp. 205 - 213. Retrieved: 30/11/2016.
[7] Sheridan et al., Kimberly. (01/01/2005). Neuroethics in education. Neuroethics: De ning the Issues in Theory, Practice, and Policy. pp. 265 - 275. Retrieved: 30/11/2016.
[4] Wittgenstein, Ludwig. (1965). Blue and Brown Books. p. 25. Retrieved: 30/11/2016.
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___________________________________________________________________________ ・INTERVIEW・
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Interview: Studying Dyslexia
Guinevere Eden, D.Phil. interviewed by Megumi Sano
Dr. Guinevere Eden
I had the pleasure of interviewing Dr. Guinevere Eden, Director of the Center for Study of Learning and full Professor at the Department of Pediatrics at Georgetown University Medical Center and previous President of the International Dyslexia Association. Dr. Eden talks about how she came to study dyslexia and the major role of technology in her research. She also o ers her thoughts on the importance of translating research into practice.
Megumi Sano (MS): “What questions are you trying to answer in your research?” Guinevere Eden, D.Phil. (GE): “We use non-invasive brain imaging technology (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, fMRI) to study the brain-bases for reading and the reading disability developmental dyslexia. One goal is to understand why, in addition to reading di culties, children with dyslexia exhibit other behavioral manifestations, in areas such as visual processing or motor control. We use the information from our neuroimaging studies to distinguish those brain di erences that can be attributed to dyslexia directly, from those that are the consequence of poor reading experience. A second goal is to understand the neural correlates of successful reading intervention (i.e. intensive tutoring of reading, phonological and orthographic processing) and to use this information to understand which brain areas are used when children and adults with dyslexia make gains in reading. Our third goal is to expand this work to the area of math disability (dyscalculia), which also presents a barrier to academic success and which often co-occurs with dyslexia.” MS: “How did you become interested in this subject and speci cally in neuroscience?” GE: “I always liked biology, and I was fortunate to have wonderful biology teachers, who made it even more fun. I was not, however, comfortable working with animals, which many physiologists do, of course. So I was lucky in that I was at the right place at the right time during my postdoctoral training and to have access to MRI to study humans and follow up on the behavioral work that I did as a graduate student. I also want to mention that I was lucky in that whilst I was doing my DPhil (PhD) in Oxford, I had the opportunity to visit a lab in North Carolina many times for an extended time. I collected data there which became the focus of my thesis work, but more importantly, I received additional training from investigators with a neuropsychology background and I experienced a very di erent working environment to the one I was used to in the UK. This helped –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 45
___________________________________________________________________________ me not only in my science, but also in navigating future decisions and career-choices. Two things that attracted me to the US were role model women scientists and strong advocacy e orts around learning disabilities. These are still important aspects of my work and how I came into this eld.” MS: “What is your educational background? Were there any pivotal moments that changed your career path?” GE: “I did the International Baccalaureate at a Sixth Form College in Oxford (St. Clare’s Hall), took a gap year, and then went on to get a BS in Physiology from University College London and a DPhil in Physiology from Oxford University. Then I left for the US with one suitcase and all intentions to return to the UK after training as a postdoctoral Fogarty Fellow at the National Institutes of Health in Maryland, USA. During that time I learned about brain imaging and instead of returning to the UK, where there were only few brain imaging labs, I stayed in the Washington DC Metropolitan area and started a faculty position at Georgetown University. I have been there ever since (20 years). “There were two important career choices for me. The rst was the postdoctoral training. Do I stay in research or go into industry? My parents had a company that produced medical equipment, but I opted to stay in research. And then where? I chose to go to the US for a postdoctoral training, but since I was not planning to stay for more than a few years, it was not a di cult decision to make. So it was the right choice and as fate would have it, it just so happened that it was the time fMRI has become available and presented the perfect research tool by which to study reading and dyslexia (which cannot be studied in animal models). The second was the decision to remain in the US and go to Georgetown University for my rst faculty position. At the time I was torn between staying in the US and returning to the UK. Georgetown University o ered many advantages: a research dedicated MRI system and a very supportive environment for the research; a geographical location with several schools specializing in students with dyslexia and one that o ered a stimulating, international and multicultural environment.” MS: “What is the role of technology in your research? How has its development over the years in uenced your work?” GE: “The impact of fMRI for my research is huge. Because it is non-invasive we can study children and scan our volunteers at multiple time points. This means we can look at the brain much earlier in life and not worry about whether our observations in adults are the cause of dyslexia or the consequence of having lived with dyslexia. We can also study children and adults often, for example prior to and following interventions. Finally, since reading is uniquely human, we rely on imaging techniques to provide us with the insights, as we cannot simulate them via animal models.” –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 46
___________________________________________________________________________ MS: “What has been or will be the impact of your research?” GE: “Our research has helped to resolve contrasting theoretical frameworks that have been put forward to explain the etiology of dyslexia. For example, if you observe that children with dyslexia have altered visual processing and altered phonological processing, then you need to know which of these is causing their reading di culties and which is an epiphenomenon of their dyslexia. This is important when it comes to considering appropriate and e ective intervention. There is still much confusion amongst parents and practitioners about how to best go about treatment. It does not help that the internet is full of promising programs that have no research to back them. Here I think we can make an important contribution by examining the brains of people with dyslexia to better understand the origins of their reading problems.” MS: “What is the most signi cant challenge your area of research faces?” GE: “It continues to be hard to take the research into practice. We have known for decades now how to identify children who are at risk for having reading di culties. There are some simple and brief pencil-and-paper tests that can be given to kindergarteners that will give you a good sense about whether they will likely struggle with learning to read. Since dyslexia runs in families, knowing if other family members have a history of reading di culties is another way of knowing which children are at risk. Unfortunately children who are at risk are not identi ed and given the early intervention that they need. As a result, they fall behind over the early years of schooling and the problem is often not addressed until a time when it becomes huge, at which point that child has not only lost valuable time to learn (since reading is the gateway to knowledge acquisition) but also has developed problems with self-esteem, anxiety about reading or depression. “Our imaging research has helped increase the understanding that dyslexia is a brain-based disorder and has heightened awareness. At the same time we need to work on more professional development for teachers to help them identify the signs of dyslexia and how to teach children who have this reading disability. It should be noted that brain imaging is purely a research tool. It is not used to diagnose dyslexia. And in fact, we have the simple behavioral tests in place that can be used for this purpose - we just need them to be implemented and acted on in the educational setting.” As Dr. Eden mentioned, bringing into play research ndings in potential interventions is one of the most demanding aspects of this eld of neuroscience, which places a substantial focus on learning disabilities. The ultimate challenge we face is how to approach the large amount of data we have gained through rapidly developing technology and apply it for a better world. –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 47
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Vitreous Humor: The Official Satire Column of the IYNA
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New Research Paper Uses Simple “Hands-On” Language IYNA Satire Team
The paper, “A New Protein-Thingy in the Pink Squishy Stu Inside Your Head”, o ers a user-friendly version of a recent university research paper. The neuroscience paper does not include the words “brain,” “neuron,” “cell,” “human,” or “body.” For example, the authors initially stated, “a gene gun was used to create transgenic mice expressing mutant copies of Tryptophan Hydroxylase”. In a later edition of the paper, the authors rephrased the above statement as “pew pew pew shoot the evil genes pew pew pew.” One esteemed scholar, Ulysses Rumsfeld, had especially harsh words for the team’s immunohistochemistry, noting that they “didn’t mention a single scienti c method, but rather ‘pouring paint on the squishy stu .’” In response to this, message board commenter RagingJoe47 contends that “Ulyses DUMBSFELD needs to stop judging other people acting like HE has experience?? well let me ask you how many times have YOU poured paint on squishy stu ?? complete MORON!”. As of yet, the paper has received zero citations in peer reviewed journals, but 5257 citations on Twitter. When asked why they accepted the paper with minor revisions, the three peer reviewers explained in their o cial statement, “Lol, it’s better than most of the boring stu that we read XD XD”. Although scholars have called the paper a “major setback for scienti c research”, Google analytics shows otherwise. Since publication, searches for “science”, “how to science”, “where to sign up for scientist,” and “can do science no middle school diploma?” have shown a massive surge in popularity. Though ostracized from the scienti c community, the authors have already received several awards from blogs and meme accounts. With these endowments, they hope to continue researching Anterior Cingulate Gyrus activity to determine why certain gorilla images elicit much stronger emotional reactions than others. The authors’ university has since banned the team from continuing research on university grounds. In response to this, the lead author has set up a replacement lab in the Cincinnati Zoo. –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 48
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Contributors Page We could not have made this issue of the IYNA Journal possible without the following people:
IYNA BOARD OF DIRECTORS:
Presidents: Jacob Umans and Nicholas Chrapliwy Executive Vice-Presidents: Janvie Naik and Alexander Skvortsov Outreach Director: Kyle Ryan Treasurer: Shreyas Parab Board Members: Megumi Sano IYNA EDITING TEAM: Editor In Chief: William Ellsworth Senior Editors: Jordan Bart eld, Brendan Mitchell, Megumi Sano, Alexander Skvortsov, Jacob Umans CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS: General Neuroscience Head Writer: Alexander Skvortsov Disease Head Writer: Christian Gonzalez Disease Assistant Writer: Priya Vijaykumar Research Head Writer: Jacob Umans Research Assistant Writer: Meenu Johnkutty Neuroethics Head Writer: Nicholas Chrapliwy New Technology Head Writer: Dhanya Mahesh New Technology Assistant Writer: Sohan Shah Featured Writers: Lorrayne Isidoro, Tamir Vultz, Kento Arendt, Megumi Sano, Norhan AlGharabawy –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 49