Spark [1] - Origins

SPARK

[1]

The University of York Student Science Magazine

October 2012

ORIGINS EVERYTHING STARTS SOMEWHERE

The Believing Brain Putting religious belief under the microscope

First Words

Investigating how your language was learnt

Jurassic York

Exposing the modern day dinosaurs on campus

Lords Reform

Considering the impact on science and politics

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News

The latest in the world of science from York and around the globe

Interview

Nobel Prize winner Venki Ramakrishnan gets quizzed www.YorkSpark.co.uk

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Editorial Editors-in-Chief Matt Ravenhall Will Ingram Editors Jessica Wynn James Cameron Photography Ellen Rawlins Philippa Grafton Credited Sources Web Team Tree Jervis Chris Armstrong James Williams Cover Images Credits: Philippa Grafton

EMAIL: editor@YorkSpark.co.uk

WEB:

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@YorkSpark

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cience is only as good as the person who wields it, you will read on page five.

Over the last 200,000 years, since Homo sapiens first came on the scene, science has been wielded to do amazing things. It has heated our caves, it has put a man on the moon, and it has caused revolutions.

This point is an unfortunate cliché, but it cannot be denied that science plays an ever-increasing role in the world.

While our politicians and economists are frequently heralded as the worst perpetrators not valuing science, the UK’s public are also hardly science-literate to a safe level. The tools are just not there to prevent falling for bogus health claims, to make reasoned political judgements, and to take a glimpse at the true beauty of the universe.

A changing planet, improving wheat genetics, and pandemics are more ex-

amples of issues that affect everyone, yet these topics are desperately in need of an enhanced public understanding. It is vital that the public and the politicians alike properly engage with science. An easy thing to write from the comfort of a bedroom in Fulford, but this is something that Spark will try hard to get its teeth into.

It takes time and effort, both rare resources, to sift through the scientific literature and polish the gems of relevant information; it falls upon those who are more scientifically involved. Our mission: to find and polish those gems and convey them to those who don’t have science as a primary focus in their lives.

This premier edition aims to fill the void that is science writing at York, and to finally represent the 40% of us here who study sciences. As this first hatchling edition, the theme is Origins, and this broad and

often confusing topic has allowed us to include food for thought of all flavours.

This is something we’re keen to carry on with, as it demonstrates the extent to which science touches our lives. Our writers touch on philosophy, politics, language, disease and religion, along with some news and, of course, a crossword.

Hopefully you intrepid humanities and arts students who picked up this science magazine will discover interest and worth in the dark chasms of the laboratory. What’s more, you’ll find links with your own subjects and when you go out into the world as lawyers and bankers and artists, we hope that you hold onto them.

Enjoy our magazine. After reading this, the York student should see science as both a body of knowledge and a vital way of thinking which is of monumental, ever-growing and unavoidable importance.

Supported by:

Printed by: FulPrint Heslington Road York

Word of Thanks

Spark is a student-run popular science magazine based at the University of York with the aim of opening up the world of science. The creation of this magazine could not have been achieved without the contributions of all those involved; whether they were writers, technicians, designers, photographers or researchers, our thanks go out to all who did their part. Special thanks go to the National HE STEM Programme, York Annual Fund for grants, a number of departmental staff, particularly Annie Hodgson, for their help in a variety of manners, Ellie Burch, various university science societies for aiding distribution, and FulPrint for the printing.

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Contents 3-4

News

The latest in science from York and beyond

5-8 5-6

Features

Origins: an examination

Introducing origins in the light of science

7-8

9-10

Centrefold

Witness the birth of a supernova

11-14 11

Articles

Viral beginnings

Just where did viruses come from?

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What the Higgs?

Why you should care about the Higgs

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The ABCs of your ABCs Finding out how babies learn to speak

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Dinosaurs among us They’re closer than you think

15-16 15

Comment

Science must open up

Is free-to-access science the future?

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17

Crossword

Train your brain with our crossword

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Interview

With Nobel laureate, Venki Ramakrishnan

Belief under the microscope What causes religious belief?

Lords vital for science Reform will put scientific expertise at risk

And much more online at YorkSpark.co.uk

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News

World Snippets Japan stops nuclear

Genome ENCODE’ed

Streambed on Mars

http://tinyurl.com/93n89ar

http://tinyurl.com/btu4p5h

http://tinyurl.com/9m4btfb

Japan joins Germany and Switzerland as the latest country to phase out nuclear power. Prompted by the Fukushima accident in March 2011, when Japan was the world’s 3rd biggest nuclear producer, the formerly pro-atomic Japan plans to stop using nuclear power by the 2030’s.

An even greater analysis of the human genome has been released by a US National Human Genome Research Institute launched consortium. Among its findings was the revelation that 20% of non-coding DNA (doesn’t make proteins) is functional in some form, whilst another 60% lack a known function.

Curiosity, the latest Mars rover, has found considerable evidence for an ancient river on the red planet.

NASA scientists estimate that a shallow stream ‘vigorously’ flowed on location anywhere from thousands to millions of years ago. Notably, such an environment may have been able to support life.

Cull faces delays

Famine DNA studied

http://tinyurl.com/8ojn7qq

http://tinyurl.com/8rhowts

Protesters against the proposed badger culls that are due to take place this autumn are loosening their muscles as the argument gets heated, and Lord Krebs – a senior governmental science advisor - brands the scheme ‘crazy’.

Badgers spread Bovine TB, a disease that devastates livestock.

Rothamsted associated researchers have analysed the DNA of 170 year old potatoes to better understand the spread of potato blight; the disease of the C19 Irish famine. The study also proved that their technique could be useful for testing for other diseases which affect food production.

No more red balloons

New element created

Scientists in Japan think they have successfully synthesised a new element (number 113 on the periodic table). The team collided zinc nuclei with a thin layer of bismuth to create the element, which quickly decayed but left enough data for them to analyse.

A professor of sustainable chemistry at imperial college London has expressed concerns that helium is being wasted in party balloons when really it is needed to supercool the magnets in MRI scanners.

If we continue to use helium at the current rate we could have serious problems for medical instruments in 30 to 50 years time. http://tinyurl.com/c4zd2wk

Ig Nobel Awards

Harvard annual Ig Nobel Prize which aims to honour research that ‘first makes people laugh, then make people think’ was hosted this September, . Two French researchers won this year’s Prize for Medicine for advising doctors who perform colonoscopies on how to minimize the chance of their patients exploding. http://tinyurl.com/bo6r8cd

http://tinyurl.com/92unteq Totally justified picture of a kitten

Photo credits: PCB75

Kittens enhance focus

Making genius snails

http://tinyurl.com/8kcxnkz

http://tinyurl.com/8tnw3qc

A Japanese study has shown that looking at cute pictures of kittens and puppies may enhance subsequent productivity in activities which require careful behaviour.

This work drew on the observation that people tend to slow their speech when speaking to a child and postulated that this may extend to other cute creatures.

Work led by a Canadian undergraduate suggests that epicatechin, a compound found in chocolate and green tea, may boost the memory of snails.

This surprising find may have positive impacts for the chocolateaddicted students out there, but further research is required in regards to its effects on humans.

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News

Equality affects biases

While men often look for a young and fertile sexual partner and women seek one with resources, the Department of Psychology has shown that these traditional biases vary across cultures. In societies where gender equality is more equal, these biases are reduced. http://tinyurl.com/9vg65ld

Around York

Plant-mining for metal

Radio-packed ants

http://tinyurl.com/8td885u

http://tinyurl.com/9ekasxk

The Green Chemistry Centre of Excellence and the Centre for Novel Agricultural Products are working together to develop techniques to extract precious metals from plants. Certain plants soak up the materials used in catalytic converters, and this ‘phyto-mining’ removes them for use.

In a world first project, researchers are busy gluing tiny radio transmitters to ants with the aim of investigating communication and distribution between complex nests.

It is thought that the project “may even have implications for our information and telecommunications networks”.

Tech aids learning

Primary school children may benefit from the use of hand held technology in class, suggests the Institute for Effective Education.

The randomised study, featuring 40 schools, found enhanced grammar achievement, particularly for low-achieving pupils.

An emphasis on concealing each child’s answers and providing instant feedback may be key. http://tinyurl.com/8pxwzhy

Brand new York Plasma Institute technology is demonstrated

Photo Credit: Ian Martindale

York Plasma Institute Opening

1st October saw the official opening of the York Plasma Institute by Chief Scientific Adviser to the Government, Sir John Beddington. After a day of events, Beddington gave a key-note lecture to delegates where he emphasised the institute’s contribution to the UK’s already leading role in plasma physics. “This is really important work”, he said.

The institute, headed by York’s Professor Howard Wilson, was set up with a £1.8million grant from the EPSRC. Along with postgraduate teaching and links with industry, it will be focusing on laser-plasma interaction, magneticconfinement fusion, and low-temperature plasma research. http://tinyurl.com/8m5bj22

Upcoming Events

Neuroscience & the Novel: Strange Bedfellows?

Unnatural Predators: The Folklore of Fear

Embryos, Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine

Interested in where science and creativity mix? Dr Charles Fernyhough reflects on his experiences in combining neuroscience and fictionwriting, asking what the two can learn from one another.

A York Skeptics event hosted by Deborah Hyde, editor of ‘The Skeptic’.

Join them for an evening in which they will discuss why the dead chew in their graves and why ghosts live in electric clocks.

Professor Cheryll Tickle, FRS, presents an open lecture on the key role of embryos within regenerative medicine. Identifying vital lessons which may underpin medical advances of the future.

Berrick Saul - October 18 - 5:00pm

More info at http://tinyurl.com/8wntxub

The Phoenix Inn - October 22- 7:30PM

More info at yorkskeptics.org.uk

P/X001 - October 31 - 1:15pm

More info at tinyurl.com/9p8zftt

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Feature

Origins

Where did it all come from?

“although science is a tool incapable of bias in itself, it is only ever as good as the person who wields it”

Justin Byrne introduces the topic for this issue: ‘Origins’

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t may be impossible for science to ever tell us exactly how everything began.

Although scientists push our knowledge of, say, the origin of the Universe back to moments after the big bang, we are yet to fully understand what was going on right at the start.

Even if theories attempt to account for how time and the fundamental forces of physics came into being will we ever be able to claim that we know how it happened?

A similar situation exists in biology.

Although the mechanism of evolution by natural selection is accepted as the means by which we have become what we are, our origins story, whether that of Homo sapiens or that of life itself will always be a subject of academic debate.

When it comes to our own origin story, although the majority of our scientific community holds the view that human evolution occurred in Africa with waves of replacement outwards – ‘Out of Africa-with-replacement’ – there are alternative theories such as a the ‘multiregional’ theory that human evolution occurred all over.

These alternative theories are not without evidence, but as Dennis McCarthy, biogeographer and author, points out “each of these two views could be alluring to some people due to their general geopolitical persuasion.”

It is important to remember that although science is a tool incapable of bias in itself it is only ever as good as the person who wields it. As much as we try and hide it behind esoteric language and formal methods, it is conducted by people and not machines.

This understanding accounts for why science is so rich and varied, but also why mistakes are made.

Finally a good scientist asserts only what can be shown from the facts and often the specifics of a situation are truly unpredictable or unknowable. It is continually seen as a failing of science that it often cannot be pinned down to a yes or no, but you can’t get a screwdriver to hit in a nail and sometimes the facts can only tell you what is probable to happen rather than what will happen.

Because of the tentativeness of scientific claims it may never establish with certainty how humanity, or indeed life itself, began.

Perhaps chemistry is the only science that approaches real origin stories.

We know where our heavy elements are formed; deep inside the burning heart of each star nucleosynthesis occurs powered by thermonuclear fusion.

After billions of years these radiant bodies go supernova, spewing out all the building blocks of chemistry.

Though destructive, these events are landmarks in our own origins too, because the heavy elements they eject into space coalesce into bodies such as planets.

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Feature

“you are all stardust”

This reminds us of the beautiful fact that because our atoms come from the Earth, in some form or another we are a product of stella events. As Laurence Krauss, a physicist and science communicator famously stated: “[The] atoms in your left hand probably came from a different star than your right hand. It really is the most poetic thing I know about physics: You are all stardust.”

Perhaps, however, the mysterious origin stories of the universe are best kept that way: mysterious. Much like their comic book counterparts, the key to a good origin is ambiguity. In a world where there are still great mysteries, such as the origin of life, the universe and everything, there is room for culture, belief, hope and discovery.

The ability to change an origin, to interpret it in our own way and make it fit for ourselves is what enables us to turn origins into epics. And, in this universe, anything less would be unjust.

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Feature

Belief under th

Imogen Breen considers the origins moving in the same pattern will elicit of complex religious belief a surprised response. Even babies know that boxes cannot move around umans display a collection of by themselves; something with a will unique traits which, though must be behind the phenomenon. exhibited individually in Early humans could have applied this some other species, are not all pre- reasoning to things which they did sent in any one. Notable examples of not understand. Something must be this include tool-using crows, com- causing rustling in the bushes; where municative dolphins and altruistic else could it come from? meerkats.

But what is this combination that makes us “human”? All cultures across the world show three big ideas that seem hard-wired into our brains as they develop: complex language, music and, of course, religion.

The origins of religion were not, until quite recently, much studied from a scientific perspective, perhaps because of a fear of causing offence.

The idea that we may be evolutionarily programmed to have faith in divine, all-knowing beings can raise the hackles of both theists and atheists.

Can religion arise simply as a result of the way the human brain works?

Children (especially younger infants) are a good way of investigating the “default settings” of the human brain,

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Another childish tendency is to attribute purpose or design to inanimate objects. Ask a small child why the sea exists; they reply “so the fish have somewhere to live”. It would make much more sense to think “these berries have been made for us to eat” rather than “through millions of years of trial and error adaptations we have evolved to be able to eat these ber-

“Can religion arise simply as a result of the way the human brain works?” and do show a strong tendency towards believing in gods, or, at least, in higher powers at work.

Paul Bloom, a psychologist at Yale University, suggests that this is because the human mind uses distinctly separate cognitive systems when considering inanimate objects (boxes, trees and the like) and things with minds – or at least, those which can move under their own free will.

Show a five month old child a person moving in a stop-start way about a room, they will be content, but a box

There’s no doubt that York Minster is a stunning construction fueled by religious fervor, but what caused that passion?

Our early ancestors might have been those who had thought it could be a demon and ran away. What mind is behind lightning? Who is creating it?

Some of the first humans probably thought it would be a good idea to be nice to something so powerful, perhaps leave some food out for it just in case it came for them.

ries and by-pass their possible toxic effects”. In modern times, we apply human characteristics to animals or technology (albeit in a more knowing way). Our pets have personalities and our computers only crash when they know we have nearly finished the articles we are writing.

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he microscope Pre-school children, when asked why things exist, are likely to suggest that life and the world were created by a higher, unseen power, and incredibly unlikely to suggest theories that would necessitate an understanding of long periods of time.

If a human can create a pot out of clay, surely a more powerful being with an endless supply of clay could

that it plays a key role in the acceptance of disembodied minds.

By the age of four, over half of all children will have, or have had, an imaginary friend. These are regarded by some child psychologists as being a way through which young minds can learn empathy. Those who have learnt such skills may become more successful in most societies.

Feature gods, adults are projecting a series of assumed behaviours on another imaginary being. People with autism or autistic traits are less likely to believe in gods and rarely have imaginary friends in childhood as they find it harder to imagine what another would be thinking.

But these traits all have an awareness built in. People know that they aren’t actually speaking with their long departed grandmother and only the very delusional truly believe that

“People with autism are less likely to believe in gods or to have an imaginary friend”

create the mountains?

Jesse Bering in her book “The Folk Psychology of Souls” outlines the concept of ‘common-sense dualism’. This is the process whereby we briefly accept things we know not to be true in order to plan “what-if” situations, as well as for allowing us to empathise with others. It is therefore suggested

Photo Credits: Ellen Rawlins

In adults, these traits are still seen.

In a non-religious setting, this can involve maintaining a mental relationship with a dead loved-one or creating a fantasy life, often with fictional characters or celebrities. In these cases, desired behaviours in the character are projected from the believer.

It is suggested that, in believing in

Ryan Reynolds is their boyfriend. So, how do beliefs in gods avoid this rationalisation?

This is where organised and group religion comes into play. You believe what everyone else believes. No one tells you otherwise. Religion-as-anadaptation, as it were. The shared religious beliefs of a group of our ancestors would bring the tribe closer together, cooperating better in hunting and food gathering. This would allow the religious group to out-compete other tribes.

Religion may have started and spread as a by-product of our evolutionary success, but does this invalidate it?

Possibly, but many could argue against that. Religious beliefs are one of the things that set us far apart from the other animals. They may have given us the first moral law systems, the first large buildings and beautiful artwork. However, they have also excused wars and genocides, stalled scientific progress and catalysed all sorts of discrimination.

Considering the evidence that the potential for religious beliefs may be hard-wired, perhaps we will always have them? For better or for worse.

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The birth of a supernova This double-page image is a still from a computer animation of a gamma-ray burst destroying a star. The blue Wolf-Rayet star - containing about 10 solar masses worth of helium, oxygen and heavier elements - has depleted its nuclear fuel. This results in a spectacular Type Ic supernova / gamma-ray burst event being triggered.

The core of the star has collapsed causing a black hole to form inside the star, surrounded by a disk of accreting matter. Within seconds, a white plume is launched from the black hole which ultimately produces a gamma-ray burst.

The jet is seen breaking through the outer shell of the star, about nine seconds after its creation. This blast of matter, along with vigorous winds of newly forged radioactive nickel-56 blowing from the disk inside, shatters the star within seconds.

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Image Credit: NASA / SkyWorks Digital

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Articles

Viral beginnings

Ashley Ferro addresses the origin and be visualised came the opportunity evolutionary purpose of viruses to gain a much more comprehensive understanding of phylogenies (evofter a week of intense scratch- lutionary relationships between speing from incessant mosquito cies). These technologies have probites, I began in frustration to vided clues to the molecular origins consider the reason for the existence of viruses, and have since allowed us of parasites and what purpose they to evaluate their importance in the could possibly fulfil in nature. evolution of humans. It is now hyNot surprisingly, I discovered after a pothesised that preceding the evoluquick Google search that, mosquitoes tion of cells, an ancient ‘virus world’ play a fundamental role in the circle existed, containing a pool of genes of life, despite their blood-sucking with remarkably different origins. tendencies. They provide a reliable Upon the evolution of the first cells, food source for predatory aquatic an- integration of viral DNA and RNA into imals and many terrestrial mammal their genomes and the subsequent species within the ecosystem. rearrangement of genetic material I then began to consider the posi- encouraged mutations to drive the tive impacts of less obvious obligate evolutionary process. parasites, such as viruses and bac- Hypothetically, coevolution between teriophage (bacterial viruses), but viral and cellular genomes could have the answer to this was not quite as initially contributed to the emerapparent. In fact, scientists have de- gence of both complex cell types and voted their entire careers to studying complex viruses. this very purpose.

In addition to contributing to early Perhaps the purpose of viruses can cellular evolution, scientists have be discovered from their evolution found evidence to suggest the inand the very origins of our own spe- volvement of viral infections in the cies. With the advent of new technol- establishment of the primate imogies which allow entire genomes to mune system, influencing divergence

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of MHC types (a cell surface molecule essential in immunity).

Science is just beginning to scratch the surface in the endeavour to understand the role of viruses in life and evolution. It was once misconceived that all bacteria are harmful.

Since then, we have come to realise that bacteria are fundamental for life, driving ecological processes such as decay and nitrogen fixation.

I have little doubt that with further scientific advances in comparative genomics, we will realise the importance of viruses in maintaining life.

Already, we see viruses exploited in medicine, agriculture and dentistry.

Bacteriophages can be used in ‘phage therapy’ to destroy pathogenic bacteria, and retroviruses can be used in gene therapies to treat hereditary diseases.

If you fancy a challenging read, refer to the following for more information on the origin of viral genomes and their involvement in cellular evolution: tinyurl.com/9zmjgyg

Herpes simplex virus infected cells, one example of the diversity of viruses

Photo Credits: Yale Rosen

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Articles

What the Higgs?

Connor Macrae explains why you erties, such as its charge. should care about the Higgs boson In 1970, a unified theory which formed the basis of the standard his year’s Independence Day model was born; initially with the proved to be a celebration electromagnetic and weak forces and not only for firework-toting later with the inclusion of the strong Americans, but for the whole scien- force. However, for the mathematics tific world with possibly the biggest to work the force-carrying particles announcement of the past few dec- needed to have zero mass, someades. Physicists at CERN’s LHC (Large thing which had experimentally been Hadron Collider) discovered a brand shown to not be possible. new elementary particle which could The breakthrough came when physiquite possibly be the ellusive Higgs cists Peter Higgs, François Englert Boson. and Robert Brout theorised that a The standard model of particle phys- mass-giving Higgs field existed over ics, presented as a ‘theory of almost all space with the interaction particle, everything’, explains the unification the Higgs boson. At the moment of of the electromagnetic, weak nuclear the Big Bang, it is theorised that all and strong nuclear forces as well as matter in the universe had no mass; how they act within the known sub- but as the temperature fell below a atomic world. Originally, the three critical value, the Higgs field came forces were seen as separate due to into existence. As particles began to the differing manners in which they interact with the field, they gained act. mass dependant on the amount they Electromagnetism is the attraction interacted. and repulsion between stationary and To be accepted this solution required moving charged particles; it is similar observations of the Higgs boson, to, but stronger than, gravity. It is the but no theoretical mass or energy dominant force in holding negative had been determined for the boson; electrons in orbital shells around the meaning that physicists barely knew positive nucleus of an atom. where to look!

The strong nuclear force binds the After 14 years of construction, and oppositely charged protons together another year of repairs, the LHC within the nucleus, being 137 times (which was designed in part specifithe strength of the electromagnetic cally for this search) began collecting force. In fact, it is this force which, data in 2009. when overcome, releases the energy This 27km long collider was a colossal in nuclear fission. (and expensive) undertaking which The weak nuclear force occurs be- made headlines repeatedly, reignited tween particles such as quarks (con- a passion for science in the youth of stituents of protons and neutrons) the time. After two years, a peak of and leptons (fundamental particles activity was found at the mass range such as electrons) and is one millionth of 124–126 GeV, but it remained unthe strength of the strong force. On certain. After a further year, it was ana sub-atomic level, the weak force nounced that a new boson had been governs flavour change, where some discovered with a mass between 125 particles can expel or absorb a short- and 126 GeV and a certainty of 4.9 lived boson particle (W +, W - and Z); sigma; equivalent to a 99.99997% allowing that particle to change prop- chance that the find was a new dis-

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The Compact Muon Solenoid at CERN

Photo Credits: AuAu

covery. As the only missing boson from the standard model is the Higgs, it is highly likely that this is the illusive particle that physicists have been searching for.

With the findings from both the ATLAS and CMS teams recently being published in Physics Letters B and passing peer review, the results are now on the brink of becoming ratified science. However the search is not over yet, as so far we know very little about this possible Higgs. To solve this, the LHC intends to upgrade and continue analyzing the find in order to achieve a better understanding and determine if it truly is the Higgs.

It is both worrying and exciting for physicists to think that the find may in fact turn out to be something unexpected and new entirely; in which case it would mean going back to the drawing board for modern physics.

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Articles

The ABCs of your ABCs Rebecca Debnath investigates how young children pick up language

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ick a baby – any baby. Place it in an environment where a language is being spoken and within hours of exposure it will begin to pick it up without any formal learning. If left in this environment, by age three the baby will have mastered the speech sounds specific to that language, started to form grammatically correct sentences and will be rapidly expanding its vocabulary. It’s a process that has mystified scientists and philosophers for centuries.

Recent developments in neuroscience have enabled more research into language acquisition over the last decade; however, our understanding of the process is still in the embryonic stage. This article will draw primarily on the work of Patricia Kuhl, a leading researcher in the field, to try to answer a deceptively simple question: how do babies acquire language?

Language learning itself is a complex process that has many different elements to it. It is well known that language has a critical period. This can be seen from the follow up from cases of feral children – despite intensive speech therapy, they never learn to talk as they had missed this window of opportunity. What isn’t as widely known is that there are different critical periods for each aspect of language: phonemes (speech sounds), syntax (grammar) and lexical (vocabulary).

Firstly, babies must learn to distinguish between the different phonemes, which act as building blocks for a language. Most languages have around 40 different phonemes, although some have over 100. Babies are able to produce and recognise them all – but between 6-12 months, this ability declines. This is because as

Learning to speak is perhaps the most complex and valuble lesson we ever learn

they are exposed to a language during this critical period, they learn to recognise the phonemes of that language and to ignore those that are not present.

Kuhl refers to this as the perceptual magnet effect. She carried out an experiment where American and Swedish six month olds were exposed to variants of the American “i” and the Swedish “y”. The babies did not distinguish between variants of their native vowel, but recognised the variants of the non-native vowel. This suggested that the babies’ perception of speech had been altered so that they grouped the variant with their familiar native “prototype”. This enhances the baby’s ability to spot phonetic patterns specific to their language, which acts as a blueprint for future language learning, a process referred to as neural commitment.

The perceptual magnet effect is a form of statistical learning in humans.

It is believed that babies also learn grammar through statistical learning between 18-36 months. When exposed to a stream of words, infants as young as 8 months are able to recognise the frequency of groups of pho-

Photo Credit: Myles Grant

netic units – and implicitly calculate the transition probabilities which cue the start of a new word.

With the foundations of phonetics, vocabulary rapidly develops from 18 months as the baby learns to associate meaning with words. Unlike phonemes and syntax, there is no critical period for this – we continue to expand our vocabulary throughout our lives.

Although it is clear babies are equipped with powerful computational strategies to learn language, it is not quite enough. As cases of feral children show, social interaction is essential for language acquisition. It is only through the combination of social factors and a baby’s innate ability that language can be acquired.

For those who are wondering how the responses of pre-verbal babies are measured, here’s how: traditionally, researchers relied on behavioural cues such as the rate of sucking on an artificial nipple and head turning in response to stimuli.

Nowadays however, more sophisticated modern neuroimaging methods, such as fMRI and EEG, are used.

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Articles

Dinosaurs among us

Matt Ravenhall reveals the surprising disbelief should begin to vanish. ancestry of our campus’ waterfowl In essence, modern birds could be considered as fully-feathered and flyhe dinosaurs never died out. ing Velociraptors, to a degree.

In fact, I’ll bet that if you’re However, it should be noted that currently on campus and you just having a wealth of similarities were look out of the closest window, between birds and their supposed you’d spot one or two of them quack- ancestors does not prove that they ing away. But it’s not just the ducks; are descendants. After all, many it’s the geese, coots and moorhens creatures around the world appear too. similar as a result of convergent evoIn fact, all birds are the dinosaurian lution; whereby different species find descendants of the survivors of that the same evolutionary solution to a famous mass-extinction 65 million selection pressure. years ago, just as we are descendants One striking example of this is the of the mammals of the time. beak of the mammalian duck-billed Unconvinced? Then perhaps I should platypus being very similar to the explain. Yes, certain dinosaurs have bill of a duck (hence the name). To gone extinct. We definitely have no fully support the dinosaurian origin more Iguanodon, Diplodocus or Ty- of birds, it must both be biologically rannosaur Rex stalking the planet, plausible (which it is) and be demonbut there were far more dinosaurs strated via the fossil record and/or beyond those captured in popular fic- genetics. tion.

In regards to the genetic approach, Birds are thought to have descended this is highly problematic due to our from Theropods (think T Rex, Ve- inability to obtain dinosaur DNA. lociraptor and the like), more spe- Unfortunately, the process is somecifically Maniraptors; omnivorous what more difficult than the Jurassic dinosaurs with breast bones, simple Park ‘extract-from-insect-in-amber’ feathers and, for some members, the method. In reality, genetic material is ability to fly. In fact, upon elabora- broken down under these conditions; tion on more on the characteristics of instead we must rely on the fossil reTheropods, such as the presence of cord. wishbones and bipedalism, any initial When it comes to considering the

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You could be forgiven for being sceptical about the nature of this little guy’s great grandparents

Photo Credits: Ellen Rawlins

Fossil of a feathered dinosaur

Photo Credits: Marjorie Lipan

fossil record, it should be noted that this method is similar to proving that the child in an old photo used to be your father. There is no video of your father’s face from age five to fiftyfive, but there are snapshots. Images of his face at high school, graduation, an office party, on holiday, last week at the dinner table and so on and so forth. Between each picture, the differences are obvious; he’s got slightly taller, gone a bit grey, lost his marbles, gained facial hair. The analogy isn’t perfect but it demonstrates the fact that over time changes occur which result in one giant difference over time. So-called ‘gaps’ in a fossil record (missing photos in our analogy) are not problematic so long as there are a sufficient number of ‘links’ (photos) present.

If anything, birds are a testament to the fact that life, in all forms, clings to life. No matter the odds, something will survive. Most of the time this will simply mean bacteria or viruses (although whether viruses are alive is debatable), but given enough diversity, even larger creatures can survive.

This is why biodiversity is essential, with variation comes survival; evolution demands it.

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Comment

Science must open up David Newstead explains why free-to cine. However, the papers published access science is needed in the UK via this method represent only a tiny fraction of the current research on ofhis summer, a momentous de- fer. cision was reached. The ma- While looking for a paper a few jority of journals in the field weeks ago, the IOP were attemptof particle physics are switching to ing to charge me (an IOP member) free-to-access publishing, including £43 purely for the right to access one such influential studies as those tak- journal, containing around thirty paing place at CERN and MIT. pers. For a student looking for help, This milestone is the result of years or perhaps even for inspiration from of campaigning by the Sponsoring previous studies, such a cost is unafConsortium for Open Access Pub- fordable, and frankly ludicrous. lishing in Particle Physics, who have Naturally, subscription fees provide finally signed up twelve leading phys- the income which keeps these jourics journals to its cause. With 7,000 nals going, but the whole concept of papers published in these journals scientific progress revolves around last year alone, there will soon be a the freedom to share ideas and to criwealth of scientific knowledge avail- tique other peoples’ work. Scientific able to access for free. But why has it progress should not be restricted by taken so long? pay-walls, so it is fortunate that the The New Journal of Physics, funded participating journals will receive an by the Institute of Physics (IOP), has average of €1,200 for each free-tobeen using the free-to-access mod- access paper they publish. el for several years, during which it Science has barriers enough these moved to the forefront of physics days; mostly in the form of governjournals; covering diverse areas such ment spending cuts and a sceptical as cloaking devices and plasma medi- public; in the face of such obstacles,

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it would make sense for the scientific community to do as much as possible to help further the progress that is being made, and to encourage a new generation of scientists. Before I came to university, I would have loved to read some papers on recent studies, to ignite my enthusiasm (as I might have written on my personal statement) for the subject.

Currently, our access to papers is granted through the university, and I’m afraid to think that upon graduation we will no longer be able to read up on new work. By implementing a free-to-access model, the research community would not only be open to those wanting to keep up with what’s going on, but also those starting out as scientists; young people looking for a calling, or those just interested in current research. It’s clear that as soon as more journals follow the example of particle physics, then science as a whole will advance inexorably both in terms of reputation, and in human progress.

Our university currently provides us with access to a wealth of scientific literature, yet upon graduation we may lose this privilege

Photo Credit: Thiago Jacomass

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Comment

Lords vital for science

Harry Lambert argues that Lords reform may remove scientific expertise

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ver since the bonds of feudalism began to weaken, the people, in their march towards a fair meritocratic utopia, have looked to shed every bastion of privilege it spawned. The House of Lords is to some the final obstacle in this endeavor.

Indeed, for Liberal Democrats, this constitutional reform ranks as one of their most cherished aims. For them the almost entirely appointed chamber strikes at the very heart of the democratic process and society we all supposedly live under. What we need, they contend, is an almost wholly elected chamber. For them democracy is an inherent good which cannot be outweighed by the faults it brings or the benefits it rids us of.

These democratic devotees disregard the range and depth of knowledge an appointed system can provide.

Unsurprisingly, many smart, enterprising and experienced people are uninterested in the enduring trials of electoral democracy – an appointed chamber allows them to help shape legislation without doing so. Nowhere is this more true than in the sciences.

By charging incontinently towards democracy, reformers risk ridding the chamber of the expertise which furthers parliamentary debate, challenges party dictates and improves this country’s laws. There are currently 37 peers serving in the Lords with a scientific background. A survey by the Campaign for Science and Engineering has shown just six would stand for an elected chamber.

Lost would be the former Presidents of the Royal Society, British Academy and British Medical Association. No longer would Robert Winston have

Upon these famous red seats have sat some of the UK’s most eminent scientists

the stage which allowed him to usher through controlled work into hybrid embryos, Phil Willis the opportunity to make the NHS the most research led health service in the world, or zoologist John Krebs the chairmanship of the Lords Science and Technology Committee.

The Lords is built for such experts.

Replacing them with a ‘seraglio of eunuchs’ – inexperienced party devotees without the depth of knowledge or inclination to challenge a scientist can provide – would make a second chamber redundant. What is its point if not to be a body where minds from all backgrounds, the sciences included, can debate to help construct legislation when it touches upon their area of expertise?

I would understand the clamour for electing all our representatives if the Lords were a body with the power of other second chambers, such as the US Senate. But it isn’t. Ever since the 1911 Parliament Act, the Lords has only been able to delay legislation.

In 1949 the length of time they could do so was reduced to just two par-

Photo Credits: UK Parliament

liamentary terms, or one year. And in 1997 all but 92 of the hereditary peers, just 12% of the chamber, were removed.

The Lords is there to provide expertise, not to be a pawn in Coalition negotiations. It is a product of centuries of deliberation, compromise and resolution over the way our laws should be shaped. We need its experts, and especially its scientists. Not only can they contribute to their specialism when legislation touches upon it, but they bring the type of questioning minds that elected democracies too infrequently produce.

Scientists succeed by being meticulous researchers, rigorously testing their assumptions, and challenging received wisdom. Martin Rees, Royal Astronomer and one of our Lord scientists, was right to say “we are all depressingly ‘lay’ outside our specialisms”. The point is, regardless of the subject, the scientist’s questioning mind is a useful (and refreshing) contrast to the passive political partisans who dominate the Commons. Let us not rid ourselves of them.

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Crossword Created by Arthur Coulson

Down: 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 11 13 15 18 19 21 24 25 27 28 29 31

Unit of mass equal to 200mg (5) Closest substance known to ideal gas (6) Alternative name for aluminium oxide (7) Vegetables which can form part of a rudimentary battery (8) ___ effect, healing power of a dummy drug (7) Small insect whose Latin name gave rise to methanoic acid’s non-IUPAC name (3) Take a wasp, make it more terrifying (6) Unit of power (4) Common name for Lutra lutra (5) Class of particles with integer spin; a new one has recently been discovered! (5) Highly contagious class of deadly pathogenic viruses (5) Fluid transported around the lymphatic system (5) Model that shows how the planets orbit the Sun (6) Biomaterial found in skin of mammals (4) Negatively-charged particle-wave found in atoms (8) Straight line which touches the edge of a curve (7) A liquid is doing this when its vapour pressure is equal to ambient pressure (7) The only element after which a country is named (rather than the other way around) (6) Unit of resistance (3) Molecular units of heredity in organisms (5)

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The solution for this crossword will be found in the next issue. For details about when that issue will be on campus - keep an eye on our website, facebook and twitter feeds. Details for finding these are within the inside cover.

Any comments, requests or criticisms on the crossword are happily received; you can encouraged to email the creator at crossword@YorkSpark.co.uk

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Across:

4 Unit of gaseous pressure (6) 5 Neurotoxin also known as carbolic acid (6) 7 Serbian-American who developed (among many other things!) AC-electricity supply systems (5) 8 A solution with pH < 7 is said to be this (6) 9 Enamel-covered bone protrusion in buccal cavity (5) 12 Mixture of sulphuric acid and sulphur trioxide; ‘fuming’ sulphuric acid (5) 14 Shapeless unicellular organism (6) 16 Colourless, tasteless, inert gas used in bright signs (4) 17 Antiquated apparatus for measuring angles at a distance to determine e.g. latitude (7) 19 Sugar found most usually in milk (7) 20 Measure of disorder in a system (7) 22 Rock with a grain size no less than 256mm (7) 23 The lightest hydrocarbon (7) 26 Hot, large gaseous cloud in which nuclear fusion occurs (4) 28 Class of subatomic particles which are made up of three combined quarks (6) 29 Sound navigation and ranging (5) 30 He of elastic modulus fame (5) 33 A population will slowly ____ under a selective pressure (6) 34 Victorian anaesthetic (5) 35 General term for a species in which another species is dissolved (7) 36 Nerve cell (6)

18

Interview Kate Dunning pins down Venki Ramakrishnan, an ‘interdisciplinarian’ who won the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for mapping the structure of the ribosome.

KD: How did your transition from physics to biology come about?

VR: Well, I did my undergrad and post-grad in physics.

But really I was finding physics quite hard going. The real problems in physics are really quite hard – and they didn’t particularly interest me. I think also at the time, there had been many breakthroughs in biology; it was an exciting area to be in. And there were also many physicists that had gone into biology and been successful and done well.

KD: In terms of this transition, do you feel that it’s been an advantage to you?

VR: It’s hard to say, not in any tangible way. But I think that it helps in the sense that you understand crystallography, it’s not hard to understand diffraction, computers and the data collection. So that far, it does help you. On the other hand, you know, I have a serious weakness in chemistry. I wish I knew a lot more organic chemistry and reaction mechanisms, because I think that’s something I didn’t really learn as a physicist and I didn’t really learn enough of when I was making the transition. Once you start doing research, you don’t have much time to really learn it all. So if I had to change something, I think I would learn a lot more chemistry... which is a little ironic as that’s what my prize is in.

Eminent Nobel Prize winning scientist Sir Ramakrishnan

Photo Credits: Prolineserver

KD: Do you feel now that science is becoming more interdisciplinary?

VR: I think it always was, that’s slightly a myth. In the old days, there was really no separation – take somebody like Hook. Hook was a physicist but he did work on microbes, microscopes... they didn’t think of themselves as this, that or the other, they did work on anything they found of interest. And then you know, I think people just got more specialised.

KD: Being in research must be stressful at times. How do you relax?

VR: Well, I have to be honest with you, I’m a senior scientist so I have very little stress. The people who I really admire, who work in my lab - that’s post-docs and students - those are the people who are under a lot of stress.

I’ve been under stress in the past but I don’t know... I mean I’ve always had a pretty balanced life. I have a family with two children; we go walking often, we have hobbies. So I think I’ve never been someone who’s a complete maniac obsessed with my work. Except for those times when you can sense you’re on the verge of something – then you do have to become completely obsessed.

KD: If you had any advice for undergraduates, what would it be?

VR: Probably the most important thing is to take up a field or an area that you really find interesting. Because of the ‘routine’ of science, if you had a football player or truck driver come and watch someone working in a lab, they’d be bored in 5 minutes. The reason we do it is because it’s the goal which is interesting; the problem is interesting. So if you’re uninterested in the problem, you’re not going to want to do all that hard work to get there. So you have to really care about what you’re doing – if you’re not interested in it, you shouldn’t be doing it.

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