Young Scientists Journal Issue 19

s pe c i a l

s p a ce

i s s u e

YOUNG SCIENTISTS nanotechnology in space iss uncovered

BEYOND EARTH space food andrés ruzo interview

plus interview with gordon buchanan

rosetta: an astronomical milestone rising carbon dioxide levels

danko antolovic talks science, communication, tech and philosophy

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ISSUE 19

EDITORIAL

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e’re proud to present our 19th issue! Over the past few months, we’re delighted to have strengthened many of our partnerships with the likes of Zooniverse, The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) and the London International Youth Science Forum (LIYSF), to name just a few.

We’ve also been busy planning our 3rd annual science and science communication conference which will be held on 18th October 2016.

Unfortunately the tickets went very quickly, in eight days, but if you log on to events.ysjournal.com you can keep in touch for future events and join our waiting list for the conference.

Here at The Young Scientists Journal, we’ve been very excited to follow Britain’s first ever official astronaut, Tim Peake on his first six month stay aboard the International Space Station (ISS) – that’s why we’ve dedicated this issue to Tim Peake. Throughout this issue we’ve got articles on the ISS, Tim Peake’s role when he was up in space and what it takes for someone like you to become an astronaut.

We teamed up with the RHS challenging you to write an article on growing food in space. On pages 51 and 29 you can have a read of the winning and runner up articles.

As part of our partnership with LIYSF, we ran a competition to write an article for us. You can read the winning article, written by Sofia Fuster (18) titled “Rosetta: An Astronomical Milestone” on page 44.

We would like to apologise as in our last issue (18), we omitted Adam Shine’s article on the Rising Levels of CO2 due to an editorial error. This can be found on 30. We also have a couple of other original research articles on wide ranging subjects from making aspirin to how wormeries work.

Lastly, I would like to use this opportunity to say a massive thank you to everyone who has contributed to this issue and all of the team for their hard work over the past year. If you’d like to be a part of our amazing team, the take a look at www.ysjournal.com/join-the-team/ to see how you can get involved!

To the left, you can see an image of the Earth Rise. This

was seen as one of the “the most influential environmental photographs ever taken.”

It was taken by astronaut William

Anders in 1968, as part of the Apollo 8 mission.

/YSJournal

CLAIRE NICHOLSON CHIEF EDITOR @ysjournal

@YSJournal

www.ysjournal.com

Local Teams: Global Reach Hubs are local hotspots of Young Scientists Journal in secondary schools, universities, institutions and other organizations around the world. Teams of students come together to work on the journal, promoting the values of the organization and helping in all aspects of the journal. Become a Young Scientists Journal Hub today and help inspire and nurture the scientists of the future. Visit www.ysjournal.com to find out more.

HUBS YOUNG SCIENTISTS JOURNAL

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STUDENT TEAM

A Global network of people with a passion for Science

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t Young Scientists Journal we have a relentless passion for science. We celebrate the scientific and creative thinking of young scientists, aged 12 -20 and encourage them to share their love of science by communicating their ideas, research and opinions with other young scientists around the world. We give young scientists the tools in science communication for a great career in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM). We achieve this through the scientific journal you are reading (which is also online). The journal is run from across the globe entirely by young scientists for young scientists making us the only peer review science journal for this age group.

Chief Editor The Chief Editor oversees the whole journal and coordinates the efforts of the team leaders.

Claire Nicholson, UK Claire (18) studies Biology, Chemistry and Global Perspectives and Research (a Cambridge Pre-U) at A Level. She hopes to pursue a degree in Zoology with a view to a career in science communication.

Creative Director The Creative Director coordinates the design and marketing of the journal from print design through to web and social media.

Michael Hofmann, UK Michael (18) is managing director of Invicton Ltd and is studying Design at university.

Editorial Team The Editorial Team is responsible for overseeing the editing and publishing of articles.

Team Leader: Rachel Hyde

Assistant: Rahul Krishnaswamy

Assistant Vickey Leigh

Sophia Aldwinckle Corrie Crothers Hannah Glover Lauren Smith Fiona Bell Mustafa Majeed Nathan Day Pierce McLoughlin Samir Chitnavis Sunniva Haynes Jamie Howie Lizzy Aviss Iman Mouloudi Fiona Bell Toby Clifton Anju Anna Paris Jaggers James Tunsley Sansith Hewapathirana Ben Hall Peter He Saumya Maheshwari Aminah Ahmed Rebecca Williams Joseph McGrath Williams Fionn Bishop Jade Askew Christopher Boulos Wim van der Schoot Cormac Larkin Imogen Lindsley Regan Mills Laura Patterson Miao-ying Ouyang Helene Miravalls Anita Azavedo Rebecca Dixon Sreya Coomer Esther Choe Abdul Sumad Jeffrey Park Hal Cowling Benjamin Shi Communications The communications team runs social media, email marketing and public relations.

Team Leader: Stephanie Leung

Team Members: George Tall Tolu Atilola Anosh Bonshahi Varun Murthy Aman Kumar James Cheng

Assistant: Abbie Wilson

Outreach The outreach team manages the Journal’s relationship with schools and colleges, particularly our Hubs.

Team Leader: Sanjay Kubsad

Assistant: Gurneet Bhela

Team Members: Nick Curtis Research-in-Schools Leader: Rose Meddings

Assistant: Anand Siththaranjan

Technical The Technical Team manages and develops the website and its content

Team Leader:

Amartya Vadlamani

Assistant: Muhammad Hamza Waseem

Team Members: Irina Mironosetskaya JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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CONTENTS ISSUE 19 | JULY 2016

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ISS UNCOVERED

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HOW TO BECOME AN ASTRONAUT

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ON THE RELATION OF ENTROPY WITH GRAVITY

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THE BOILING RIVER

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TENNIS AND DRUGS

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THE FUTURE OF SCIENCE WITH DANKO ANTOLOVIC

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PURE ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID SYNTHESIS

29

SPACE TOMATOES

38

A STEP INTO THE WILD WITH GORDON BUCHANAN

44

ROSETTA: AN ASTRONOMICAL MILESTONE

53

TIM PEAKE: WHAT IS HE DOING?

57

REMEMBERING HARRY KROTO

60

WORMS AND COMPOST

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NANOTECHNOLOGY IN SPACE

27

DESTINATION: LUNAR SOUTH POLE

30

RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS

42

NEW ALZHEIMER’S DIAGNOSIS

51

FOOD PRODUCTION IN SPACE

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QUANTUM TELEPORTATION

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THE UK SPACE DESIGN COMPETITION

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SUPERSTRING THEORY

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60

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44

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REVIEW ARTICLE / ISS UNCOVERED

ISS UNCOVERED

Fin O’Connor talks you through the International Space Station, what it is, and what it’s used for.

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Introduction

n the 15th of December 2015, British Astronaut Tim Peake boarded the International Space Station for the ISS Expedition 46 and 47. His mission has been named ‘Principia’, a reference to Isaac Newton’s ‘Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica’ [1] in which Newton writes about the laws of motion, universal gravitation and various other laws of physics. A direct quote from the official Principia Mission website explains that the mission “will use the unique environment of space to run experiments as well as try out new technologies for future human exploration missions.” The website also explains how anywhere on Tim’s mission will allow him and his to crew to “work on experiments that cannot be done Earth.” So what can be done on the ISS which can’t be done on Earth and why?

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ISS UNCOVERED / REVIEW ARTICLE

What is the ISS?

The International Space Station is a spacecraft inhabited by groups of astronauts and cosmonauts as they use the ISS as an active science laboratory. Its operators are a diverse collaboration between different space agencies of diverse locations: NASA (North America), JAXA (Japan), The Canadian Space Agency, the European Space Agency and Roscosmos State Corporation (Russia). The first component of the ISS was a collaboration between the US and Russia. It was known as the ‘Functional Cargo Block (FGB)’ but nicknamed ‘Zarya’. The US designed and funded ‘Zarya’ and the Russians built and launched it on November 20th 1998 on a Russian ‘Proton’ rocket. At the time of writing this, it remains the largest man-made object in Earth’s orbit. As of 15th of December 2015, there have been 376 flights to the ISS and 221 people on the ISS in total from 18 different countries and 10 different space agencies.

There have also been 7 tourists on the ISS from the Virginia based space tourism agency Space Adventures, Ltd. There have been 46 expeditions on the ISS with 100 different crew members. The current expedition: Expedition 46 consists of the following crew: Commander Scott Kelly, Sergy Volkov, Mikhail Kornienko, Timothy Kopra, Tim Peake and Yuri Malenchenko.

What does the crew do on the ISS?

One of the main purposes of the ISS is to research and perform experiments which cannot be carried out on Earth. These experiments fall under various categories: Biology and Biotechnology, Earth and Space Science, Educational Activities, Human Research, Physical Sciences and Technology. According to an official NASA FAQ [3], it is also the duty of the crew to make sure that the station is in top shape which includes having to clean the ISS and its equipment, maintain equipment and repair and replace it if necessary. Crew members also have to exercise around 2.5 hours a day to keep their bones and muscles strong.

If they don’t, they begin to lose bone and muscle and they become weak, severely limiting their ability to work aboard the ISS. The crew uses treadmills, resistance bands and other equipment to exercise efficiently onboard the ISS. Maintaining the ISS often means the astronauts must work outside the station. It is known as Extra-Vehicular activity (EVA) and examples include repairs, maintenance, experimentation, satellite deployment and repair etc. To leave the space station astronauts equip a pressure space suit and begin depressurisation in an airlock. The same procedure is carried out to re-enter the space station.

How does the ISS communicate with Earth?

The ISS crew spends time communicating with Earth.

This is done through a satellite system called the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS). The system was set up in the early 70’s and is the same relay system the Hubble Space Telescope uses to send images captured back to JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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REVIEW ARTICLE / ISS UNCOVERED

ISS UNCOVERED / REVIEW ARTICLE

Major Tim Peake, on board the International Space Station

earth. There are 3 generations of TDRS satellites. Each TDRS satellite has a letter for identification, the newest being TDRS-M which is available for launch this year.

The last TDRS satellite used was the TDRS-L on January 23rd 2014. When one of the satellites reaches their orbit, the identification name turns from a letter to a number (e.g. TDRS-A became TDRS-1). Older first generation satellites communicated on the microwave IEEE S-band which ranges from 2 to 4Ghz. However newer second and third generations communicate using microwave IEEE S-band, IEEE Ku-band which ranges from 1218Ghz and IEEE Ka-band which ranges from 26.5 to 40Ghz.

“

The ISS and its unique environment has allowed for some amazing scientific and technological experimentation.

The satellites then send all signals down to a ground terminal (receiving antenna) which is relayed to Mission Control Center. The two primary ground terminals are both located in the White Sands Complex in New Mexico, the first being ‘White Sands Ground Terminal’ and the second being the ‘Second TDRSS Ground Terminal’. Video, Audio and Experiment data is all sent to the ground terminals.

Experiments on the ISS One of the main purposes of the ISS is to be a laboratory for all kinds of scientific and technological research and experimentation. Robonaut [4] is one of the greatest 10

examples of technology being developed on the ISS. Robonaut is a humanoid robot created to work aboard the ISS. According to NASA’s experiment webpage, Robonaut can “manipulate hardware, work in high risk environments, and respond safely to unexpected obstacles.”Robonaut is designed like a human, so it will be able to work human jobs. Robonaut is currently able to use switches, install handrails and perform other maintenance jobs on the ISS. Robonaut 1 was an upper body humanoid which could optionally be attached to a rover, however Robonaut 2 has recently has had climbing legs developed which could aid with certain work on the ISS. A system known as “The Robonaut Teleoperations System” will allow the crew members to remotely control Robonaut through motion control.

Motion control gloves, vest and mask will allow a crew member to see through Robonaut’s perspective and control various parts of the body.

This would allow the crew members to operate hazardous work aboard the ISS, and with further developments, may soon be able to operate EVA work safely without putting anyone in danger.

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A biological experiment known as the Vegetable Production System or Veggie takes place onboard the ISS. It is a unit which can produce “salad-type crops” so the crew is able to grow and eat vegetables in space. It will provide the crew with a safe and continuous source of food. It form the basis for new experiments on how plants

ISS UNCOVERED / REVIEW ARTICLE

The first ever flower to be grown in space was grown on the ISS in January 2016

react with gravity and what the difference is between the plants grown in space and on earth. It will also give us a better understanding of plant growth and give us new ways to improve plant growth on earth. Seeds are placed on small pillows in the chamber. The pillows are put into a root mat into one of the bellows built into Veggie.

The pillow is layered with a specific fertiliser and clay to improve aeration. It uses the environment of the cabin as a source of carbon dioxide and thermal control as well as using LEDs to provide lighting to the plants. Water is routinely injected into the root mats to start the seed germination. Veggie will allow astronauts to have a source of fresh food to improve astronaut wellbeing and nutrients intake. It would also mean the ISS would not have to get re-stocked/re-supplied as often, which would save fuel and other valuable resources. Also, growing food would allow for longer expeditions, and more importantly, further expeditions, which could allow astronauts to go to distant planets without needing re-supplies. This could end up being a critical part of NASA’s long distance journey to Mars.

BIOGRAPHY

The ISS and its unique environment has allowed for some amazing scientific and technological experimentation and future innovation to say the very

least. It’s exciting to see what experiments Principia will bring.

Further Reading • •

Tim Peake’s Mission: https://principia.org.uk/ The UK Space Agency: https://www.gov.uk/ government/organisations/uk-space-agency

References •

Space Flower Image: http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/ files/thumbnails/image/iss046e009018.jpg

•

Tim Peake Image: http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/ Images/2016/04/Road_to_the_stars

1. Newton’s Principia http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newtonprincipia/Accessed 9th March 2016 2. The International Space Station-http://www.nasa.gov/ mission_pages/station/main/index.html Accessed 3rd April 2016 3. Robonaut http://robonaut.jsc.nasa.gov/default.asp Accessed 15th March 2016 4. NASA FAQ ‘Astronauts Answer Student Questions’ PDF www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/569954main_astronaut _FAQ.pdf Accessed 10th March 2016

FIN O’CONNOR, 14, ST MARY’S CATHOLIC SCHOOL, UK Fin (likes listening to shortwave radio, researching computers and making small scientific DIY projects (like a TV antenna out of tinfoil and cardboard) in his my spare time. He hopes to pursue an exciting career in science.

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THE BOILING RIVER

Chief Editor Claire Nicholson interviews geoscientist and National Geographic Explorer, Andrés Ruzo on the publication of his first book, The Boiling River.

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any of us have childhood dreams, perhaps of long lost places, imaginary worlds we might once be lucky enough to visit. We might be told stories, ones which we believe at the time but they never come true. This one did – and it was real.

As a small boy, Andrés’ grandfather told him a legend.

This legend is one a lost city of gold hidden deep in the Amazon—and a legendary river which boils. His Aunt later mentioned that she too, had visited this mysterious river.

Expecting that this story was merely a legend, he set out to visit this mystical area – ‘The Boiling River’. It runs so hot that locals brew tea in it. Animals that are unfortunate to fall in are instantly cooked.

Before he spoke to his aunt, Andrés had questioned geologists and other colleagues about the existence of this section of the Amazon River. Most said it was probably an exaggerated legend. Andrés was told by a geologist to “stop asking stupid questions… you’re making yourself look bad”. Thankfully, he ignored this advice, continuing to ask questions and be curious about the world around him. This led him to take the journey to find

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the Boiling River. He was shocked to discover that the river did actually exist and perhaps more shocked by the sheer size of the river.

This incredible story follows Andrés’ journey as he battled with all kinds of obstacle on his mission to protect the river.

Now, the Boiling River faces an even bigger challenge – deforestation has reached the sacred area, and the river’s jungle is disappearing.

Being about 90% the size of the United States, the Amazon basin plays host to such a wide range of species and so many different cultures. Unfortunately this brings up a multitude of issues including illegal gold mining, dam construction and even some terrorist groups.

When it comes to looking at how we’re going to protect the jungle, we need to look more inventively about how we do it, and address local problems, with locally-relevant solutions.

Policies, rules and regulations alone are not enough to drive off illegal loggers. Andrés mentioned that in a weird

BOILING RIVER / INTERVIEW way, the local answer for the threats facing the Boiling River and its jungle lie in eco-friendly and economic development, he calls this “sustainable sustainabledevelopment”. The idea is that this form of development drives funds to this high-poverty area of the developing world and it will reward locals for protecting, rather than clear-cutting the remaining jungle.

Perhaps one of the biggest problems is illegal logging.

These are people who illegally come into the jungle and illegally harvest large and valuable trees. Incredibly, just a single tree can sell for anywhere between 5 and 10 thousand US dollars. Very surprisingly, in much of the Boiling River’s jungles are still intact because of an oil company that keeps the illegal loggers and poachers out.

Protecting this area is of paramount importance, and has proved full of obstacles. As he mentions in the book “…In less than a year a large part of the Boiling River’s Jungle has disappeared…” There’s now a huge question posed of how we protect this area in the short and long-term.

Andrés has found part of his solution by bringing together the local shamans and the oil company—both of which have a vested interest in protecting the jungle from loggers and clear-burners.

The Boiling River really is where legends come to life.

For more information on Andrés’ work and the Boiling River, check out these links!

Boiling River Project www.boilingriver.org Facebook: www.facebook.com/theboilingriverproject Twitter: https://twitter.com/TheBoilingRiver Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/theboilingriver/ The TED talk: http://www.boilingriver.org/tedtalk/ The Book: https://www.ted.com/read/ted-books/tedbooks-library/the-boiling-river

Follow Andrés: Twitter: @georuzo Instagram: @andresruzo

As discussed at length on boilingriver.org INSERT URL, the goal of Andrés’ efforts is protect the river and its surrounding jungle from being clear-burnt.

One of the most incredible things is that at the river, science and culture really do blend. Andrés’ expedition is all about honouring the traditions and working together to ensure legal protection.

So what’s next? As far as the Boiling River is concerned there’s still a lot more to do. The first thing on the agenda is to make the river a Peruvian national monument. This would make the area a national landmark and become a prominent feature on maps – rather than an unknown, and relatively unvisited area. The local shamans have tourist centres that help bring essential income to the region, and allow these native groups to fund their efforts to protect the jungle.

As far as Andrés is concerned, he will continue working to scientifically study, as well as protect the Boiling River area. He also plans on finishing his PhD in geophysics this year, and plans on continuing with his exploration work.

Having read the book, it’s an incredible account of his expedition to the Boiling River which will intrigue even reluctant readers. One of the biggest things that comes across is the fact that science isn’t just researching an idea, it’s about finding an area, pursuing it, exploring the subject and coming up with solutions to issues and questions.

Andrés with a thermal camera

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REVIEW ARTICLE / HOW TO BECOME AN ASTRONAUT

HOW TO BECOME AN ASTRONAUT

William Payne-Smith, takes a look at what it’s like to become an astronaut onboard the ISS.

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ajor Tim Peake became only the second British person to become an astronaut when he was launched into space on board the Russian made Souz TMA-19M rocket on the 15th of December 2015 sparking a frenzy of British media coverage and interest in space travel.

What must an astronaut-to-be learn?

Whilst Tim Peake is the second British national to be launched into space (the first was Helen Sharman who travelled as part of a NASA Shuttle mission in 1991), he is the first to do so as a member of the European Space Agency (ESA). Peake beat over 8,000 other applicants far across Europe from all over Europe for one of six places on the ESA astronaut training programme in 2009 and underwent two years of rigorous training before graduating as an astronaut in November 2010. Trainee astronauts are expected to be extremely physically fit in order to deal with the physiological and psychological effects of being living in very confined space and in zero gravity for between six and twelve months in space.

Face of concentration: Tim Peake Training [ESA]

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The preferred age range is between 27 and 47 and the applicant should be between 153cm and 190cm as someone taller than this would struggle in the confined space of the Soyuz command module and the ISS. Applicants must have a university degree (in Tim Peake’s case this is in Flight Dynamics and Evaluation from the University of Portsmouth), at least three years professional experience and, preferably, have flying experience. Already a fully qualified military pilot, during his training Peake had to learn about the physics of space flight, how to control the various elements of the Soyuz rocket, how to repair any parts of the rocket or the International Space Station (ISS), how to deal with emergency medical situations and even how to perform in front of the world’s media. Much of the training is done in a mock-up facility of the ISS based in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich in Germany called the Columbus Laboratory. The Columbus Laboratory allows astronauts to train in a weightless environment that simulates the zero gravity environment of space.

Tim Peake was born in Chichester, West Sussex in 1972.

He attended Chichester High School for Boys during which time he was a member of the school’s Combined Cadet Force, finishing at the rank of Cadet Warrant Officer. He then joined the army and after graduating from Sandhurst Military Academy in 1992 he joined the Army Air Corps initially serving in Northern Ireland with the Royal Green Jackets. He was awarded his Army Flying Wings in 1994 and was then based in Germany serving as a pilot until 1998. Tim then became a test pilot for the military until his retirement in 2009 with over 1000 hours of flying time under his belt. By this time Tim had already responded to an advertisement by ESA which was recruiting for its new astronaut training programme. After being chosen to take part in ESA’s screening process, Tim was selected to join the programme in May 2009. In 2011 Tim and five other trainee astronauts spent a week in an underground cave system in Sardinia to monitor their behavior and performance in extreme conditions and in 2013 it was announced that he would part of the mission to the ISS that would launch in December 2015. Tim’s mission is to perform experiments on himself to test the effects of prolonged space flight on the human body. The data he generates could be of importance in the planning of future missions to Mars.

Tim Peake training in a pool to simulate zero gravity prior to his mission on the ISS [ESA]

↓

BIOGRAPHY

Below: It’s not all physical, here Tim Peake is learning about the robotics on the ISS [CSA]

WILLIAM PAYNE-SMITH, 14, ST MARY’S CATHOLIC SCHOOL, UK

William is in year 9 at St Mary’s Catholic School in Bishop’s Stortford. He is currently preparing for Grade 8 exams in piano and violin. In addition to science, William also enjoys studying history (particularly ancient history) and would love to study a subject at university which combines the two like forensic anthropology.

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REVIEW ARTICLE / TENNIS AND DRUGS

TENNIS AND DRUGS

Chief Editor Claire Nicholson discusses the science behind Maria Sharapova’s failed drug test.

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couple of weeks after the Australian Open, five time Grand Slam winner and Olympic silver medallist, Maria Sharapova, announced that she had failed a drug test following her defeat to Serena Williams.

The drug in question was Meldonium. It was only entered onto the World Anti-Doping Agency’s (WADA) banned list of substances on January 1st 2016. It is sometimes called by its trade-name ‘Mildronate’ and was taken by Maria Sharapova for virtually 10 years. She stated that she did not open emails warning about use of the drug, released in December and so was unaware.

It was originally designed to treat ischemia. Ischemia is a condition in which there is a reduction in blood supply to the body tissue and this may also have benefits for diabetics.

Meldonium adjusts the body’s use of energy; stimulating glucose, the metabolism and helping to clear fatty build up in arteries. You can get Meldonium mainly in Russia and Latvia but the drug is banned in the US. The drug was often given to Soviet troops in the 1980s to

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[Desk.bg]

boost their stamina whilst fighting in Afghanistan. Since Sharapova’s story came out, the manufacturers of Above: The chemical meldonium have structure of Meldonium come out to say the normal course of treatment is 4-6 weeks. Having said this, the degree of benefits all depend on the dosage: only at a very high dosage is it considered to be performance enhancing.

In an Olympic year, this has brought up all kinds of debates about drug testing in sports. Some say players can get away without any kind of punishment; others say that sport, in general, needs to implement a system of using a “Biological Passport”. This would enable even smaller changes in an athlete’s body to be identified.

Of course, the level of the benefits depend on the dosage, something of which Maria Sharapova will need to provide strong evidence of when she goes before an ITF (International Tennis Federation) panel.

ON THE RELATION OF ENTROPY WITH GRAVITY / REVIEW ARTICLE

ON THE RELATION OF ENTROPY WITH GRAVITY

Muhammad Hamza Waseem (19) ponders the connection between gravity and entropy Abstract

This paper hypothesizes a connection between gravity and entropy. Gravity, which has not been successfully unified with other fundamental forces yet, is now alternatively explained as an entropic force that is caused by change in information associated with the positions of material bodies. We consider the statistical definition of entropy and ultimately conclude that gravity and entropy are two sides of the same coin and their inter-conversion is what we call ‘time’.

Above: The Four Fundamental forces of nature

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[2]

Introduction f all the four fundamental forces of nature known to this day, gravity is clearly the most universal. Gravity is intimately connected with the nature of space-time as explained by Einstein. At large distances, gravity dominates while at smaller scales, it is very weak. And thus it is considerably harder to combine gravity with quantum mechanics than other forces for a grand unified theory. The attempts to unify gravity with other forces at microscopic level may not be the right approach as it leads to many contradictions and paradoxes.

In this paper, we try to draw a hypothesis on the relation between gravity and entropy, exploring questions as to how they may or may not complement each other and whether they rely on each other to exist.

The second law of Thermodynamics states that in any cyclic process the entropy will either increase or remain the same. [1] Entropy is a measure of the disorder or multiplicity of a system, or the amount of energy unavailable to do work. For an isolated system, the natural course of events takes it to a more disordered and higher entropic state.

FULL TEXT & BIOGRAPHY ONLINE

Gravity, on the other hand, knows only attraction and thus tends to keep the things in orderly state by keeping them close to one another and thus reducing the volume occupied as well as the possibilities of the possible states.

We make the modern theory of “Entropic Gravity” our assumption, which states that gravity is an entropic force and not a fundamental interaction but a consequence of physical systems’ natural tendency to increase their entropy.

We concluded by stating a relation between entropy and gravity and discussing its wider implications.

References:

1. “Second Law of Thermodynamics.” 2000. http:// hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/seclaw. html#c4.

2. “WHY DO MAGNETIC FORCES DEPEND ON WHO MEASURES THEM.” Accessed July 7, 2016. http://www. ph.unimelb.edu.au/~dnj/teaching/160mag/160mag.htm

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THE FUTURE OF SCIENCE

Muhammad Hamza Waseem (19) explores the history, strengths and weaknesses of the Scientific Method and its future potential in this interview with scientist and author Danko Antolovic.

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THE FUTURE OF SCIENCE WITH DANKO ANTOLOVIC / INTERVIEW

anko is a scientist, technologist and author who lives in Bloomington, Indiana. His latest work titled “Whither Science?” is a series of three essays exploring some of the most fundamental questions faced by science in the 21st Century.

In this interview, Danko takes a look at the history, strengths and weaknesses of the Scientific Method and its future potential. Perhaps most importantly, he takes a look at the problems faced by science today.

Hamza: How long have you been writing for?

“

Danko:Well, it depends on what kind of writing you mean.

I have been doing technical writing for most of my life, but I have engaged in nontechnical, essay style writing for a couple of years now.

Hamza: What is the idea behind your new book, “Whither Science?”?

book and it was a long time ago.

Hamza: Are there any scientists that you look up to, of past or present?

Danko: A few names which influenced my thinking and writing would be Richard Feynman, Gottfried Leibniz and Rene Descartes. The latter two are early scientists, not in contemporary terms, but understood how to tackle problems with a scientific approach.

Hamza: Do you think popular science helps in educating the masses?

Danko: It’s difficult to say. I’m all in favour of extending education and people understanding science better than they do currently, especially in the US where scientific education has a problem.

Popular science propagates futuristic fantasy about‘how everything’s going to be great’

Danko: Well, as the title says, I try to address the order of science in contemporary times, to lay out what the actual practices of science are today, how people do what they do when they say they are involved in science.

And the book also asks them what their opinions are and how much we should trust them.

I talk about what I see of the future direction of science and I maintain it’s the understanding of the human mind and the human instinct.

Hamza: Who are your favourite authors?

Danko: I don’t really have many preferred science writers because anybody who can explain a scientific field is usually okay. One of the fiction writers I could single out is Thomas Mann, a German writer who had a very interesting sense of humour and a very keen eye for the essence of situations.

Popular science doesn’t talk much about the underlying issues, such as why we should trust scientific method. It propagates futuristic fantasy about ‘how everything’s going to be great’ in so many years from now.

I have very little sympathy and very little faith in these futuristic predictions because they mostly got things wrong.

Hamza: So, do you think popular science resembles fiction or storytelling?

Danko: If I may expand, science fiction is very different to popular science. People tend to confuse things a bit.

Science fiction is really only vaguely related to science. It is storytelling based on some dramatics derived from some

There is an Italian writer, Italo Calvino, who wrote fiction stories you could almost qualify as science fiction stories. He was slightly surreal in his approach and I like him very much. There are others I could think of, but they come and go.

Hamza: What was the first science book that you read?

Danko: It was a chemistry textbook, not popular science. It was more of a technical

Danko giving a workshop JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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INTERVIEW / THE FUTURE OF SCIENCE WITH DANKO ANTOLOVIC scientific discovery. Most scientists really do not read science fiction stories to decide what to do next.

On the other side, science fiction writers do not really write about science. They write about something else.

They either write an adventure story or perhaps a social commentary or intellectual essay or something like that and they couch it in the form of a scientific discovery.

These two things are not one and the same. Proper scientific education should be talking about the scientific method and about how you become a good scientist. A good science fiction writer is something entirely different.

Hamza: How would you define a scientist?

regulations and so forth. Science, in the proper sense, is the acquisition of new and basic knowledge. It’s a different thing. Obviously scientists depend on engineers to build their devices and to help them conduct experiments.

Some of these experiments are great; for example, particle accelerators and Mars probes are great feats of engineering. I talk about them a little bit in one of my essays as well. But then, in science, there are intricate machines put together by very talented people but they in themselves are not scientific advancements. Science is asking questions about the unknown things about the natural world.

Hamza: Do you think that eventually we will have a Grand Unified Theory, a theory of everything?

Danko: I better fall back onto the idea of the scientific method, and that’s ultimately what qualifies a scientist Danko: We have something close to it already. The only as a scientist. I will bring up another point which I also thing still missing is how to incorporate gravity into the talk about in my essays, which is that science is not only quantum mechanical description of the world, because observation and classification. Science must contain an gravity is difficult to quantise. element of imagination and speculation, and I like to quote All kinds of speculation are going on. I don’t know how Richard Feynman, “The soon or whether it will ever happen. If, by a theory game I play is a very of everything, you mean the theory of the four The game I interesting one. It's play is a very elemental forces that we know about, and some sort imagination, in a tight interesting of explanation of why particles are as they are; why straightjacket.” one. It’s they have mass and why they have charge, these will imagination, It was on a TV show eventually be sorted out. in a tight where Feynman was straightjacket. Now, can you have a theory of making theories? talking to some students Creating a theory is also a part of everything, isn’t -Richard Feynman and he was trying to it? So by ‘everything’, you have to limit yourself to explain to them what it means to do scientific work. He something. I do believe that eventually there will be a said “imagination in a straightjacket”. You have to have relatively close physical picture of the four forces and the imagination first, to ask “what should I look at?”, “why is particles, but then again it’s always possible that what we something the way it is?”, “why should I get a telescope know today as the standard model of theoretical physics and look at the stars?”, and “what is there to see?” That’s is incomplete. imaginative, the speculative part of science. Any good scientist has to have that, has to be curious about things, There may or may not be a fifth force. It’s entirely and ask “what is there to see, is there something worth possible, you know. Every physical picture that we build seeing?”, and once you get to actually seeing things, is provisional in the end. At one point, people thought observing things and thinking about them, you have to fall that classical mechanics according to Newton was all back into the straightjacket. You have to be rigorous about understood, right? Until somebody discovered that you it. You have to be scientific in the sense that only what couldn’t explain black-body radiation with it, nor an atomic you can demonstrate as true is really true, and the rest is model. And so the whole thing fell to pieces, and here you simply fiction. have quantum mechanics. So it’s very possible, at some point, some observation will not fit into anything that we Hamza: Do you think engineering is science in its know and you have to expand our picture and possibly go essence? How are engineering and science related? to another cycle of scientific discovery.

Danko: Engineering is not science. It is obviously based Hamza: What advice would you give to young scientists on the knowledge of the world that science provides, and and researchers? very often people can be both scientists and engineers.

I myself have scientific education and done other Danko: A couple of things, and I’m falling back on engineering in my life. I have great respect for engineering these essays that we were talking about earlier. When but it is essentially a different field. you are at an age when you are deciding what profession to choose, it is easy to be idealistic. One should be It goes with established knowledge and perfects things, idealistic; one should want to be something for the beauty makes sure things work robustly and safely within of it. But I would also say to the young scientist, future

“

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THE FUTURE OF SCIENCE WITH DANKO ANTOLOVIC/ INTERVIEW

Future scientists: what you will eventually become or what you will have to do will not be only beautiful and exciting.

scientist: what you will eventually become or what you will have to do will not be only beautiful and exciting.

Science, as it is practiced, is a very ambivalent operation and it has some structural problems that perhaps the young scientist could address at some point. I won’t go into much of it now, but my advice would be to go into your chosen profession with a healthy dose of scepticism and an open mind about how science is being done and whether you will like that. Will you like working in a university department, where you will have to be very careful about what you say to your superiors? Will you like having to run around looking for funds to support your research? Will you like having to be somewhat two-faced about what you say at home, which is very common for scientists?

BIOGRAPHY

So these are the things that you really have to think of when you choose your profession as a scientist. At the same time, I think you must also know that our discipline doesn’t come out of a comfortable career; it comes out of an effort to take off a much falsified hard ideology of the Church of Rome. This is not to be forgotten. People have paid with their lives for the privileges that we have, of saying “show me the evidence”. If I say something to you, you always have the right to tell me “show me the evidence; I’m not taking your authority on what you are saying; show me that it’s so”. And this has not always been the case; in the 16th and 17th century, it was dangerous. If you were questioning the dictum of the church, you could be killed in a very unpleasant way because you questioned the authority on which the dogma was based. So there is a very significant jump in the way that we approach reality and our questions about reality, and if you want to be a scientist you should never forget that. Our roots are not in a comfortable career. Our roots are in a difficult, strenuous, sometimes personally risky revolution against the uncertain but dictated truths. That would be my advice to young scientists.

Keep an open and sceptical mind about everything, including your own career.

Download Danko’s essays exploring further basic questions facing contempory science “Whither Science?” at https://www.smashwords.com/books/ view/521589

Follow Danko on Twitter - @DankoAntolovic

MUHAMMAD HAMZA WASEEM, 19, UET, PAKISTAN

Hamza, is a freshman in Electrical Engineering at University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. He is a physics enthusiast, editor and visionary. He divides his time between academic and extra-curricular endeavours, and aims to do something ground-breaking in science. (Transcribed by Cormac Larkin) JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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REVIEW ARTICLE / NANOTECHNOLOGY IN SPACE

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN SPACE

Liam O’Brien from the University of Wollongong discusses the future of space exploration.

N

anotechnology is at the forefront of scientific development, continuing to astound and innovate. Likewise, the space industry is rapidly increasing in sophistication and competition, with companies such as SpaceX, Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic becoming increasingly prevalent in what could become a new commercial space race. The various space programs over the past 60 years have led to a multitude of beneficial impacts for everyday society. Nanotechnology, through research and development in space has the potential to do the same. Potential applications of nanotechnology in space are numerous, many of them have the potential to capture and inspire generations to come. One of these applications is the space elevator. By using carbon nanotubes, a super light yet strong material, this concept would be an actual physical structure from the surface of the Earth to an altitude of approximately 36 000 km. The tallest building in the world would fit into this elevator over 42 000 times. The counterweight, used to keep the elevator taught, is proposed to be an asteroid.

This would need to be at a distance of 100 000 km, a quarter of the distance to the moon. The benefits of such a structure would be enormous. 95% of a space shuttle’s weight at take-off is fuel, costing US$ 20 000 per kilogram to send something into space.

BIOGRAPHY

However, with a space elevator the cost per kilogram can be reduced to as little as US$ 200. Exploration to other planets can begin at the tower, and travel to and from the moon could become as simple as a morning commute to work. Solar sails provide the means to travel large distances and incredible speeds. Much like sails on a boat use wind, the solar sail uses light as a source

22

of propulsion. Ideally these sails would be kilometres in length and only a few micrometres in thickness. This provides us with the ability to travel at speeds previously unheard of. Using carbon nanotubes once again, a solar sail has the capability to travel at 39 756 km/s which is 13% of the speed of light! This sail could reach Pluto in an astonishing 1.7 days, and Alpha Centauri in just 32 years. Space travel to other planets, other stars, could be possible with solar sails. The Planetary Society is funding for a space sail of itself, and has successfully launched one into orbit. NASA has also sent a sail into orbit, allowing it to burn up in the atmosphere after 240 days. Investing time and resources into nanotechnology for space exploration has benefits for society today. Materials such as graphene are being used in modern manufacturing at an increasing rate as the applications become utilised.

Carbon nanotubes will change the way we think about materials and their strength. These nanotubes have a tensile strength one hundred times that of steel, yet are only a sixth of the weight.

Imagine light weight vehicles using less petrol and energy as well as being just as strong as regular vehicles.

With potentials to revolutionize the way we think about space travel, nanotechnology has a bright future. As a new field of science, it has the capability to push the human race to the outer reaches of our galaxy and hopefully one day to other stars. It will inspire generations of explorers and dreamers to challenge themselves and advance the human race into the next era. As Richard Feynman said in his 1959 talk ‘There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom’ “A field in which little has been done, but in which an enormous amount can be done.” There is still plenty more to achieve.

LIAM O’BRIEN, 19, UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG, AUSTRALIA

Liam currently studies Nanotechnology (Physics, Chemistry, and Materials Engineering) at the University of Wollongong in Australia. He likes to talk about small things like atoms and molecules. He wants to talk about science and show people how amazing and beautiful it is.

In his spare time, he likes to watch YouTube, go swimming and exploring different places.

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PURE ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID SYNTHESIS / ORIGINAL RESEARCH

PURE ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID SYNTHESIS Claudio, 20, explores the process of synthesizing the organic compound acetylsalicylic acid

Abstract

This paper explores and proposes a more efficient method for the synthesis of organic compounds using a technique of process intensification – condensing synthesis and purification into one step. Studies were conducted regarding the production of acetylsalicylic acid (more commonly known as Aspirin) and a hypothetical installation was designed.

The results are of significance as they improve upon current production methods, can be used in the synthesis of many different chemicals and could have direct applications to chemical production on an industrial scale.

A

Introduction

lmost all industrially-synthesised chemicals require purification, a separate process that takes extra time, money, space and expertise.

The initial aim was to design a more efficient installation, condensing the purification process into the synthesis to obtain a pure product without any further processing. This study was conducted on the industrial production of acetylsalicylic acid as neither the reactants nor products are toxic or carcinogenic; the reaction temperature and pressure can be easily reached in lab and the reaction is quick so that many experiments can be made in a short time. Furthermore the reaction used in-lab is the same as the reaction used industrially.1 In the case of acetylsalicylic acid, the purification phase is recrystallization, which involves dissolving the impure product in a warm solvent and then cooling the solution slowly. In this way, the product of interest precipitates, leaving all the impurities dissolved. Following simple filtration, the product is purified. However, in order for the two steps to be performed together, the solvent needs to have some “extra” features: • It must withstand the reaction conditions (it mustn’t boil, polymerize or decompose) • It must not react with any of the reactants or the products • It must be cheap and possibly ecologically friendly A preliminary study was carried out to choose the right solvent. A further study was then made to determine the right quantity of solvent as this affected the time taken by the whole process.

Literature Review

A number of extremely efficient processes already exist for the production of acetylsalicylic acid. These involve the use of catalysts2 which speed up the reaction without affecting its outcome. However, the catalyst itself is lost in the batch and cannot be recovered; no studies seem to

tackle the problem of purification itself.

Methods

Finding a suitable solvent The first series of experiments were carried out to identify a suitable solvent. Alcohols and water were excluded as they would have hindered the reaction.

Alkanes and alkenes were excluded due to their low boiling points and difficulty of use; short-chained aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids were left out too.

Experiments carried out with formic acid showed that the reaction seemingly did not take place, perhaps due to the dehydration of the acid by the acetic anhydride.3 This reaction, competing with the esterification, might have vitiated the outcome. Another effect that might have played a role is the Le Chatelier principle – structural similarities or acid strength may have meant that the reaction was already in equilibrium. Experiments with acetone, however, yielded interesting results – simply evaporating the solvent resulted in extremely pure product.

The procedure used in all the experiments (similar to those described in the literature)4 , is the following: 5g of salicylic acid was added to 10 ml of acetic anhydride plus the chosen quantity of solvent in a 75 ml flask5. The mixture was then gently stirred into flask which was placed into a water bath at a temperature between 55°C and 60°C. Different experiments were carried out to explore the influence of open and closed systems. After fifteen minutes, the flask was placed to cool at room temperature, or under cold water. The product was then filtered by vacuum and washed with cold distilled water.

After being dried, a few milligrams of product was placed in a capillary test tube, which was put in a melting point instrument, and a measurement was taken.

A known quantity (≈0.02 g) was weighed, put in a 100 ml volumetric flask and dissolved with 10 ml of denatured alcohol. Distilled water was added up to third of the flask.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH / PURE ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID SYNTHESIS

Left Fig 1: 3ml of solvent with open system.

Right Fig 2: 3ml of solvent with closed system. The shape of the crystals may be due to the slower cooling

Fig 3: Results for 5 and 10 ml of solvent. The crystals are blue due to an indicator (Congo Red) used to highlight them

Results

Table 1: The precipitation time was measured from the end of the reaction though the measurement was of a subjective and purely observatory scope. The melting point of pure acetylsalicylic acid is 136°C8; in the last two experiments the reaction didn’t complete.

Quantity of Solvent (ml)

System (open/ closed)

Precipitation time

15

Closed

24h

Nature of Crystals Vitreous, needle like, 1-2 cm long

Melting point (°C) 135.7

10

Closed

24h

Vitreous, needle like, 1-2 cm long

5

Closed

18-24h

Vitreous, needle like, 0.5-1 cm 135.6 long

3

Closed

10-15 min

3mm cubes, white

135.5

3

Open

5 min

White shiny dust

135.5

1

Open

//

//

//

0

24

Open

//

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//

135.6

//

PURE ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID SYNTHESIS / ORIGINAL RESEARCH After mixing it until the solid was dissolved, 3 ml of 1% FeCl3 solution was added. The flask was filled with water and the whole solution was mixed again. The FeCl3 reacted with salicylic acid, the only pollutant left from the filtration, giving a strong purple colouration, which can be measured using a colorimeter.6 Finding a suitable amount of solvent Having completed the first series of experiments (which indicated acetone to be the most suitable solvent), further experiments were conducted to ascertain what the best proportion was. With 15 ml of solvent 7, it took a short time for the salicylic acid to dissolve though it took a night for the product to precipitate. The same thing had happened with 10 ml; it took a few hours for the product to precipitate when 5 ml was added. When 3 ml was added to the mixture, it took almost five minutes for the salicylic acid to dissolve, but the precipitation happened immediately as the mixture reached room temperature.

It was noted that the quantity of crystals precipitated depended on whether the system was closed or opened.

When 1 ml of solvent was added to the solution, the salicylic acid did not dissolve completely within 15 minutes. The shape of the crystals was heavily influenced by the precipitation time which in turn depended on the quantity of solvent used. Finally, a control experiment was made adding neither any solvent nor any acid catalyst.

The salicylic acid did not completely dissolve into acetic anhydride, which meant that the precipitate obtained at the end of the reaction was a mixture of both reactant and product.

Analysis

The colorimetric test was only conducted on the 3 ml open system experiment as the product was most interesting – the crystals were extremely small and tended to form a paste-like suspension. This is advantageous as it is not only easy to move between containers, but is also very easy to filter.

The results are shown below: The standard was prepared with 0.0259 g of salicylic acid diluted using water in a ratio of 1:10 (it would otherwise be opaque).

Type

Weight (g)

Absorbance

Standard

0.0026

0.229

Sample

0.2140

0.017

The equation of the line of best fit is Y= 88.077X. Solving it for the Y (ABS) value 0.017 yields 2Ă—10-4 g of impurities after washing and filtration the product indicating a purity of: 99.9065%

Conclusions

The installation shown in figure 4 is still a just a sketch.

Some wasted energy can be reused in the installation itself (the steam obtained during the distillation can be used to heat the reactor; the hot products can be used to pre-heat the reactants, cooling themselves, etc). No calculations about the liquid fluxes or the energy were made; however, it still shows how the results can be easily applied to an industrial context.

The results show that is possible to synthesise pure products from the synthesis environment with a high yield, between 60% and 70% . The experiments have demonstrated the crucial role of the solvent, indicating that it is necessary to dissolve the products to take them to a reactive state (though it keeps the acetylsalicylic acid dissolved, reducing the yield). This led to the idea of opening the system right after the salicylic acid is dissolved. In this way, much of the acetone to evaporates which is necessary in order to keep the impurities dissolved in solution.

In addition, when the product is washed with water the acetic anhydride in the remaining solution undergoes hydrolysis, which produces acetic acid. The remaining solid, which is a mixture of acetylsalicylic and salicylic acid10 can be recycled. All this led to the design of an installation, which worked continuous process and an ecologically-friendly manner. The installation is highly efficient as no product is lost in transferring batches.

Furthermore, the recycling of waste reduces the loss of reactants, making it, theoretically, the best method of producing acetylsalicylic acid at the moment.

As said, many other processes are used in manufacturing acetylsalicylic acid. Some employ catalysts, particular solvents or even no solvents at all. What has been demonstrated in this study is that this solvent will not only aid the synthesis phase but also act as a means of separation in the purification phase which is extremely convenient. In the first phase it speeds up reaction (having a similar effect of a catalyst) and is mostly recoverable (none of it ends up in the final product) as it starts evaporating shortly after reaching the temperature needed for the reaction to occur.

In conclusion, the method of synthesis proposed in this paper has been shown to be more efficient than existing methods in terms of efficiency, providing better yields11 and purer products12 without a separate purification process. The experiments have demonstrated that the idea (process intensification) behind the process is valid and that after necessary refinement, it would be able to be used in an industrial context to manufacture chemicals more cheaply and efficiently.

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PURE ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID SYNTHESIS / ORIGINAL RESEARCH S1: Acetic anhydride reservoir S2: Acetone reservoir S3: Salicylic acid reservoir R1: Reactor D1: Distillation column B1: Continuous oven, for drying the salicylic acid.

P1: Feed pump relative to S1 P2: Feed pump relative to S2 P3: Feed pump relative to S3 P4: Feed pump for acetone recovery P5: Feed pump for salicylic acid recovery P6: Feed pump for washing water (recovered from distillation) P7: Feed pump for acetic acid SC1: Heat exchanger for the mixture SC2: Heat exchanger for acetone SC3: Heat exchanger for the washing water SC4: Heat exchanger for acetic acid F1: Rotary drum filter for acetylsalicylic acid recovery F2: Rotary drum filter for salicylic acid recovery

Acknowledgements

Without the help of many people, the completion of this work would have not been possible: • First of all Peter (the editor), and his seemingly endless patience.

• The LIYSF organization for giving me the opportunity to write for this journal.

• Prof. Francesca Clerici, for her kind help in clarifying some issues encountered during the work.

• Maddalena, without whom all of this could have not been possible.

• My family and many friends that supported me physically and morally throughout all this work.

To all of them I would like to give my most grateful thanks.

References 1.

Riegel, Emil Raymond, and James Albert Kent. Riegel’s

Handbook of Industrial Chemistry. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. Pages 1002 and following 2.

https://www.google.com/patents/US3373187 , http:// www.google.com/patents/US2731492

3. Comprehensive organic functional group

4. http://www.chemistry.mtu.edu/~kmsmith/SYP/ Student/Tuesday/Aspirin.pdf. It is easy to note that the quantities of reactants are not the same, but the proportion they are in is. Some procedures may use different quantities, but usually the acetic anhydride is in excess.

5. Note the fact that an acid catalyst had been added.

6. Note the fact that an acid catalyst had been added.

7. The purification procedure suggests this volume of 1:4 mixture of ethanol and water (http://web.williams.edu/ wp-etc/chemistry/epeacock/EPL_AP_GREY/LABS/ LAB5Asprin.pdf) 8. Pavia, Donald L. Introduction to Organic Laboratory Techniques: A Small Scale Approach. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005. Page 60 9. The products were not weighted precisely, due to time limits. The usual in lab procedure, cf. 4, has an outcome between 30% and 40% 10. No tests were performed; however, these two compounds are the only solids that can result from the forward and reverse reaction.

11. Synthesis of Aspirin, A.J.J. Madrid 12. http://www.odinity.com/characterization-of-aspirin/

transformations” volume 5, A.R. Katriztky, O. Meth-Cohn,

BIOGRAPHY

C.W. Rees, Page 185

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CLAUDIO PAPOTTO, 20, UNIVERSITY OF MILAN, ITALY After specializing in chemistry at a polytechnic high school, Claudio currently studies both chemistry and pharmaceutical technologies at the University of Milan due to his passion for medicine. Apart from his studies, Claudio possesses curiosity about science in general, especially regarding space. He hopes to become a researcher.

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DESTINATION: LUNAR SOUTH POLE / REVIEW ARTICLE

DESTINATION: LUNAR SOUTH POLE

Cormac Larkin (18) discusses the next exciting phase of Lunar Mission One, a Young Scientists Journal partner.

L

unar Mission One is the most inspirational Moon project since the Apollo landings. Funded by the public it will perform world-leading science into the origin of the Moon and the planets, and it will leave a permanent archive of human life buried at the Moon’s South Pole.

mission, we want to leave a record of all life on Earth down there, a lasting record of human existence that will endure millions of years on the lunar surface. To do this, we need help. Lunar Mission One need interested and engaged young people to help make this mission a reality. We need you.

Up until now, space exploration has been almost exclusively the preserve of national governments. Lunar Mission One is an amazing organization who wants to change that. This is a mission which is publicly funded and belongs to everyone. They want to send an international robotic lander to the South Pole of the Moon, an as-yet unexplored region, to drill up to 100 metres into the Lunar surface and analyse rocks that will give us clues to how the moon and the planets were formed.

Lunar Mission One is set to launch in 2024, but before that can happen a lot of work needs to be done.

The archive of information needs to be compiled for preservation in the 21st century’s version of a time capsule. The fine details of the spacecraft must be decided on. The exact landing site must be confirmed, the craft itself must be built and so much more.

Other scientific aims of the mission are to assess whether the South Pole would be suitable for a future manned base, and to determine the location’s suitability for deep space radio astronomy.

When we are finished with the research element of the

However, the most important thing of all is to get the general public behind the mission. Lunar Mission One is establishing links all over the world in order to do this. The primary aims of these links are to generate public interest and spread the word of the mission. This is why we need your help. We need the message of Lunar Mission One to be shared on social networks, discussed in classrooms and featured in the media. This might include discussions JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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REVIEW ARTICLE / DESTINATION: LUNAR SOUTH POLE

based on….

Education which will inform and inspire the next generation of scientists and the public in general.

•

Technology, which will design a data storage capsule that can survive on the moon for generations.

•

Science, which will estimate how long the archive could survive under the Lunar surface, and project possibilities for its future recovery.

•

BIOGRAPHY

•

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Art, which will raise awareness of the future of humanity, Earth and the Universe.

We also aim to provide our website and literature in local languages.

“

Come September, the Pilot Schools Programme is set to launch, marking the start of Lunar Mission One’s education campaign. The aim is to trial some of our workshops and interactive activities in schools all over the world and use the feedback generated to improve our educational resources. At present, around 50 schools have signed up and we look forward to welcoming many more in the near future before the Pilot Schools Programme begins.

Lunar Mission One is your chance to get actively involved with this unique mission to the moon. We welcome any and all offers of help and assistance and we would love to hear your ideas.

Lunar Mission One is your chance to get actively involved with this unique mission to the moon

If you’d like to get involved (including as a pilot school), you can contact Lunar Mission One here: www. lunarmissionone.com/aboutus/contact-us We look forward to hearing from you.

CORMAC LARKIN, 18, COLÁISTE AN SPIORAID NAOIMH, IRELAND

Cormac (18) is a future astrophysicist who has completed placements in the University of St Andrews and University College Cork. He is a Research Collaborator with Armagh Observatory on the characterisation of massive OB stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud. He is currently in the 5th year, studying for his Leaving Certificate.

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SPACE TOMATOES / REVIEW ARTICLE

S

SPACE TOMATOES

Harry Evett and Daniel Forrest explore the Tomatosphere an innovative Canadian programme for space food.

pace – we find it fascinating yet we still know so little. Man has dreamt of putting people in space and we have succeeded. Our next dream is to make it possible for people to live in space.

To do this they must have a sustainable food supply and the only way to maintain a food supply in space is to farm there. This may sound simple but there are a number of challenges which scientists have to overcome in order to successfully grow plants in space.

The Tomatosphere Programme

BIOGRAPHY

The tomatosphere program addresses the challenge of growing food in space by involving schools to help investigate the problem. To do this, each participating class is sent two packages of tomato seeds, one of these is the control, the other full of seeds which have been exposed to space or space simulated conditions.

The students aren’t told which bag is which. The students monitor and compare the seeds’ growth – more specifically their germination and their early development. Students then gather data over a period of three months - the time required to produce a ripe tomato. They then pass their data to their teachers who will submit it to the tomatosphere for comparison with other growers and for a full evaluation. Although this is currently just in USA and Canada, this scheme is being replicated by the Rocket Seeds program in the UK.

The Story of the Space Tomato

Tomatoes are extremely versatile and nutritious with some essential vitamins including lycopene, an ingredient which may help prevent some cancers and other diseases. They are relatively easy to grow, take up little space, and the seeds used in the experiment have not been altered in any way. The tomatoes do however have to be carefully monitored in order to ensure that they are safe to eat. In space the seeds are exposed to violent ionizing radiation.

In space they could help to decrease the effect of the radiation by surrounding the plants with water vapour which would weaken the radiation and at the same time

provide moisture for the tomatoes. One may ask “Why not surround the tomato with lead? That would stop the radiation.” There are two problems with this – one is that lead is highly toxic and would contaminate the tomato, the other is that this would prevent the tomatoes getting enough light.

HARRY EVETT & DANIEL FORREST, ST MARY’S CATHOLIC SCHOOL, UK

Harry Evett loves palaeontology and geology. In school, he’s also really enjoyed Physics and Chemistry where he particularly likes learning about our planet and space in general. Daniel Forrest has a deep interest for the metals and materials up in space, as well as being fascinated by anything generally beyond earth.

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REVIEW ARTICLE / RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS

RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS Adam Shine, 18,

A

uncovers the complex world of climate science.

lthough many natural processes release enormous amounts of carbon dioxide, this is balanced by the level of carbon dioxide taken in.

However, when artificial carbon dioxide is released, overall the level of atmospheric CO2 increases which causes noticeable effects.

Figure 1 shows global carbon dioxide levels for the last millennia which has been measured from air trapped in ice cores. 1 Marked on the graph is 1769, the year that James Watt patented his steam engine. From this, we can see that the industrial revolution, which followed this invention and was powered by burning fossil fuels, causing this enormous rise.

Recent data from EDGAR (the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research) shows that currently, 90% of global greenhouse gas emissions are caused by our energy needs 25 (this includes power stations, transport, industrial processes, fossil fuel processing and energy use in buildings). But what will be the consequences for us? This question is hotly disputed in scientific circles.

RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS / REVIEW ARTICLE Many climate sceptics object by saying that the second law of thermodynamics states that energy spontaneously transfers from a warmer object to a colder object.

Therefore upper, colder areas of the atmosphere cannot reflect infrared radiation back towards the lower part of the atmosphere because heat moving from cold to hot areas violates this law.2 However; this law applies to whole systems, not to parts of a system. The net movement of heat is to the colder areas, but some heat can move from the cold upper atmosphere to the lower atmosphere.

Figure 1: Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations (in parts per Figure 2 3 shows the reductions million) for the last 1100 years, measured from air trapped that we have to make in our carbon in ice cores (up to 1977) and directly in Hawaii (from 1958 dioxide emissions to avoid a certain onwards) probability of a 2˚C increase in global

The Greenhouse Effect

Climate science is a complex and mostly speculative field. The majority of people now accept that there is a greenhouse effect, but exactly what it is and to what extent it affects us is still uncertain. Many scientists state that greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide absorb infrared radiation that would otherwise leave the atmosphere and emit it in all directions. Essentially, this changes the direction of infrared randomly so that more stays in the atmosphere, retaining the heat. More carbon dioxide means more scattering, reducing the probability that infrared radiation will leave the atmosphere, thereby heating the planet.1 Two future climate models by Baer and Mastrandrea paint a grim picture for us:

Figure 2: Global emissions for two scenarios considered by Baer and Mastrandrea, expressed in tons of CO2 per year per person, using a world population of six billion Both scenarios are believed to offer a modest chance of avoiding a 2°C temperature rise above the pre-industrial level.

temperatures. This is predicted as the point after which extremely bad things start to happen, with rising sea levels and extreme weather among the consequences. It is already too late to meet the first line, and we are also very close to missing the second. The main problem with the climate change debate is that it is fuelled by external intentions, as opposed to statistical evidence.

What Are The Effects For Us?

Whether the greenhouse effect is real or not, higher levels of carbon dioxide are harmful to our wildlife. The atmosphere balances itself out with ocean surface waters, and our carbon dioxide emissions add approximately two gigatons of carbon dioxide per year into the ocean.

Carbon dioxide is continually absorbed by the oceans forming carbonic acid, which gradually decreases the pH of our ocean waters. Since measurements began, ocean pH has decreased by about 30%. If we continue to emit carbon dioxide at a continual rate, ocean pH will have decreased by about 150% by 2100. This will cause mass extinction of marine wildlife, especially those that use calcium carbonate as a skeleton or shell, and this massive disruption of the ecosystem will inevitably affect most life on earth.4

Carbon Neutral Energy

One of the UK’s main targets as far as Global Warming is concerned, is to reduce its carbon footprint. There are a number of ways that this can happen. Firstly, we must replace our power stations with new, carbon-neutral energy sources. However, our electricity consumption JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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REVIEW ARTICLE / RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS by turbines. A more reasonable figure is probably a third, so 16 KWh/d per person. Assuming deep wind did become feasible and an area of about 80,000 km became available and we filled a third of that with turbines that would still only be 32 KWh/d per person.

Figure 3: The process through which atmospheric carbon dioxide acidifies ocean waters.4 contributes to only part of our total carbon output. It is also necessary to start using electric cars and replacing gas-fired heating with electric heating. Essentially, we need to source clean electricity and make sure everyone is using it. To determine a plan that works, we need to look at the numbers.

Wind Power

The sustainable development commission said that “The UK has the best wind resources in Europe”5, so wind is definitely the first power source we should look at in order to solve the problem of rising carbon dioxide levels.

We can make an estimate of onshore wind possibilities by multiplying the wind power per unit area by the area available per person. Current wind turbines generate about 2 W/m2 6 and the current population density is over 250 people per km2 24, equivalent to about 4000m2 per person.

Assuming turbines were packed across the whole country then they would produce 8000W per person or 200 kWh/d per person. However, realistically, perhaps 10% of the country would be covered by wind farms. This gives a figure of 20 KWh/d per person, about half the energy used by driving a standard car 50 km a day.1 While it is clear that onshore wind could make a big difference if it was properly managed, it is not nearly enough to cope with our current huge consumption.

Offshore wind comes in two forms, shallow (water depth below 25m) and deep (between 25 and 50m). Currently, deep is not considered to be economically viable, 17 but shallow is already in use. At sea, wind speeds are higher so there is a slightly higher power output of about 3 W/m2.

The total area in British water of the correct depth is about 40,000 km2, twice the size of Wales.8 Using our previous calculation we get a figure of 48 KWh/d per person, assuming the entire area surrounding Britain was covered 32

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A problem with offshore wind is the corrosive sea air. A farm in Denmark had to be dismantled after just 18 months of use as a result of the corrosive sea air9. Another problem is its enormous expense. To produce all these turbines would need 60 million tons of concrete and steel.6 Effectively, this means that a huge quantity of wind is needed to offset these differences.

Solar Power

Solar energy is not in abundance in the UK, but this can still make a large contribution to our energy budget. The simplest solar technology is solar thermal, using sunlight to heat water. Average solar intensity is about 100 W/ m2 in the UK 10 and the best solar panels convert this to heat with 50% efficiency.11 If everybody covered their roofs with these panels, the area used would be about 10m2 per person so solar heating could deliver 12 KWh/d per person. The big problem with this energy is that it is heat, which is very difficult to store, so if it is not used when available it will be wasted. It will also be concentrated in the wrong areas, as roof area per person is much less in urban areas, where more people need the energy.

Solar photovoltaic panels are much less efficient, but they produce electricity, which is much more useful. The most expensive panels have 20% efficiency12 which is an additional 5 KWh/d per person. Of course, we can’t have both of these, and it is a difficult decision between energy loss from thermal and the low efficiency of photovoltaics. HelioDynamics have addressed this with their solar combined panel. This is a photovoltaic unit which has water pumps running behind it and high focus mirrors which in total would deliver 69 KWh on an average day. This is half of a European’s average daily energy consumption. However, they are very expensive, so not economically feasible on a large scale.13 Photovoltaic farming is currently only a fantasy because the mass-production of these panels is very expensive.14 However; if a breakthrough caused this price to drop and we covered even 5% of the country with 10% efficient panels then the energy produced would be 50

RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS / REVIEW ARTICLE

“

If we continue to emit carbon dioxide at a continual rate, ocean pH will have decreased by about 150% by 2100.

Figure 4: A solar farm in Morocco.26

Figure 5: Loch Sloy hydroelectric power station.27 JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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REVIEW ARTICLE / RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS KWh/d per person. This is an enormous number of panels, 100 times as many as there are in the world today. If we were going to make this many panels, it would be better to install them in a sunnier country and send the electricity back.

Solar biomass is a promising idea because it involves something we are already very good at - farming. This is a form of solar power which uses plants’ natural photosynthetic ability to harvest energy from sunlight.

Usually, plants such as sugar cane are used as they can then be harvested and converted to fuel via fermentation or other processes. However, it has a number of limitations. The maximum amount of harvestable energy in Britain is 100 W/m2 and the most efficient, most wellfertilised plants in Britain convert this sunlight into energy with about 0.5% efficiency,15 so 0.5 W/m2 is achievable.

Although they are not even close to the efficiency of photovoltaic panels, they are much cheaper and so we can cover 75% of the country with them, the amount of land currently used for agriculture in the country.

This would theoretically yield 36 KWh/d per person. But this is before we have considered the energy costs of farming and converting the crops into a fuel we can burn. For example, most wood boilers lose 20% of the heat up the chimney.

A more realistic figure is probably two-thirds of the efficiency, producing 24 KWh/d per person.

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The improvement to this is the tidal lagoon. It is the same concept but it is built into the sea rather than across a river. This means that both directions of flow are harnessed and over a much greater area. Also, two lagoons can be built next to each other, so the power produced by one can be used to pump water out of the other to produce an even lower level than usual. This energy is then repaid by the extra range at the next tide.

Due to this, the estimated figure for lagoons is 2 KWh/d per person. Tide is very promising for the UK for a number of reasons. It does not require expensive equipment like all the other forms of energy so far. It is very reliable, consistent and easy to predict. Because a tidal flow has a greater power density than wind, it is much more efficient.

Although now tide can only contribute a small amount, it has a lot of potential. 17

Because a tidal flow has a greater power density than wind, it is much more efficient.

Tidal Power

The Tide is a relative unknown in the energy field and has never been capitalised on a large scale. However, as an island nation, it is definitely something we should consider.

There are three options for tide: Tidal farms, barrages, and lagoons. Tidal farms would be similar to wind turbines but underwater - something that only currently exists in Norway. To estimate the power from these we will have to make a number of assumptions. The first of which is that they will have a similar arrangement and efficiency to wind turbines. Using the same equations as for wind, we find that if tide was placed in all of the fastest tidal areas of the coast with speeds of about 2 or 3 knots, tide could be a valuable investment for the country, producing 9 KWh/d per person.16 The current method of using tidal power is the tidal barrage. This involves building a dam across a tidal area.

There are sluice gates which allow the tide to come in and 34

these gates then close while the tide goes out. This traps the water in the bay, creating potential energy. This water is then released back to the sea via a turbine. Although this is the most widely used form of tide, it is probably the least efficient. Because it only harnesses the energy of the tide coming in, the total estimate for these barrages at the places where tidal range is greatest is only 0.8 KWh/d per person, which is not worth including in our estimates.1

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Hydroelectricity should be a very promising energy source for this country because we have large mountainous regions and it rains a lot. However we currently only get 0.2 KWh/d per person from hydroelectric dams. This is because although our rain may seem relentless to us, its potential power is actually very low.

Kinlochewe in the Scottish Highlands gets 2278 mm of rain per year and large areas are above 300m. By multiplying these figures and others, we can get a potential energy of roughly 0.24 W/m2. 1 Should all catchment areas above 1300 metres be utilised then the potential power is 7 KWh/d per person, assuming water stopped evaporating and every drop was perfectly exploited. Unfortunately, people also live in these areas which we would need to be flooded, so a more realistic figure is using 20% of the land 1.4 KWh/d per person.

Geothermal Power

Geothermal is a very exciting technology because it harnesses the enormous power of Earth’s core. However, it requires us to drill very deep holes and pump water down them. Because there is a limit to the depth that we can drill to, there is also a limit to how much energy we can

RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS / REVIEW ARTICLE

Figure 6: The new control room at Beloyarsk.28

Figure 7: Figure 7 The two-millimetre fuel capsule. 23

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REVIEW ARTICLE / RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS take out. As we pump water down, it cools down the rocks to which we have drilled. For this to be sustainable, we would have to pump the water down at the same rate as heat from the core reaches the rocks, which is slow. The optimal depth for this currently is 15 km and if 10% of the country was filled with these holes, the power generated would be a tiny 0.2 KWh/d per person. It is obvious that, sadly, there is little potential for geothermal power in this country.19

Nuclear

There is one final power source that I have neglected to mention so far because unlike the others, it is not sustainable. There are currently two possibilities for nuclear power: Fission and fusion. Fission is the source that we know how to use and is the splitting of heavy

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Should this reactor be deployed across Britain then we can estimate a power of 33 kWh/d per person. However, current attitudes are that this is a dangerous, unreliable technology. This will have to change if nuclear is to fill the gap left by fossil fuels.22 The other possibility is fusion. This is combining the nuclei of lighter elements to form heavier ones, releasing energy. This is what powers stars and so is an enormous

Decision making on fundamental questions are, unfortunately, often driven not by scientific reasoning, but by political expediency.

nuclei to become smaller ones, releasing energy. An advantage of fission is that its energy density is very high. 2 grams of uranium in an inefficient fission reactor provides the same amount of energy as 16kg of coal.

The method currently favoured by the United States and others is the once-through reactor. It burns only the fissile uranium-235, about 0.7% of any mined uranium, and the remaining uranium-238 (U-238) is left as waste. This is because to be fissile, the uranium must be able to sustain a chain reaction with neutrons. This cannot take place in U-238. These reactors are extremely inefficient (although still more so than a fossil fuel power plant) and without great improvement cannot contribute very much at all.20 There is another type of reactor, the fast neutron reactor, specifically fast breeders. These reactors are designed to enrich U-238 to fissile plutonium-239, which can then be used in the reactor. These reactors are far more efficient, but more dangerous. This is because they also utilise minor actinides which are produced as waste, which can be very dangerous. When curium is irradiated by neutrons it forms very heavy californium and fermium which undergo spontaneous fission. This makes planning these reactors very difficult and very expensive. Sadly, they have dropped off many countries’s energy plans.21 36

However, Russia, Japan and France have persisted.

France had an extremely successful reactor called the Superphénix. This operated successfully from 1985-1998, but was closed because many people feared that it was dangerous. Russia has built Beloyarsk with a slightly lower power output but a much stronger emphasis on safety. It became operational in April 2014 and should produce 789 MW.

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potential power source. However, it is still in its very early stages. There are a number of problems that must be overcome before fusion can supply commercial electricity.

Fusion requires enormous pressure and extremely high temperatures to start. The National Ignition Facility in America was set up to try to achieve a “burn and gain”.

This is a fusion reaction where the energy used to start the reaction is less than the energy generated. Although the energy required to start the reaction is huge, the energy produced by the fusion is even greater. The reaction uses the principle that when there is an explosion, there is an equal and opposite implosion. The fusion fuel (a mixture of deuterium and tritium) is placed inside a tiny spherical capsule. This capsule is then heated by a laser that for 20 billionths of a second produces power equivalent to 500 trillion watts. The capsule explodes but also implodes, providing enormous pressure and heat to the fuel. This starts the fusion reaction. It is apparent that the energy here is enormous, but this power is dangerous and very difficult to control or to harness. Should the technology ever be mastered, it would solve our energy crisis indefinitely, but until then it just isn’t possible.23

Conclusion

RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS / REVIEW ARTICLE

So, can Britain maintain its current life without fossil fuels?

When we add up the numbers we find Britain’s energy potential from carbon neutral sources could be 205kWh/d per person. The total British energy consumption is 195kWh/d per person. Some of the energy projects listed above such as the deep offshore wind or the photovoltaic farming would require some major sacrifices. For a while, electricity could become much more expensive and we are going to have to also consider ways to use less of it, striking a balance between investing in carbon-neutral sources and cutting our consumption.

So, what is the current UK government doing to tackle this problem? In January 2015, the government separated from the EU’s green energy plans because it felt that the plans were too extreme and they could not cut emissions by the amount required without driving up energy prices and creating a cost of living crisis. Decision making on these questions is, unfortunately, often driven not by scientific reasoning, but by political expediency.

Uncertainty on the underlying science may still remain and it is not possible to make guaranteed predictions about the future. We have to rely on the numbers, and have a plan that adds up.

References

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1. Mackay, David JC. 2009. Sustainable Energy- Without the hot air. Cambridge: UIT 2. Sceptic greenhouse guide. 2014. “Greenhouse effect.”

Access date March 29 http://skepticgreenhouseguide. blogspot.co.uk/2011/01/roy-spencer-defendsgreenhouse-effect.html 3. Baer, Paul. and Mastrandrea, Michael. 2006. “High Stakes - Designing emissions pathways to reduce the risk of dangerous climate change.” International Public Policy Research Report.

4. UK Ocean Acidification Research Programme. 2014.

“Ocean acidification.” Access date March 16. http:// www.oceanacidification.org.uk/ 5. Sustainable Development Commission. 2005. “Wind power in the UK.” Access date March 16. http://www. sd-commission.org.uk/presslist.php/50/wind-power-inthe-uk 6. General Electric. 2014. “Our turbines.” Access date March 16. http://www.ge-energy.com/wind 7. Renewable UK. 2011. “Offshore wind.” Access date March 16. http://www.renewableuk.com/en/news/ press-releases.cfm/2011-07-19-wind-industry-winsguarantee-of-compensation-on-offshore-leases 8. Dept. of Trade and Industry. 2002. “Future Offshore.” http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file22791.pdf.

9. Hornsrev. 2006. “Corrosion.” Access date March 16. http://www.hornsrev.dk/DA 10. Atmospheric Science Data Centre. 2014. “Surface

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meteorology and Solar Energy.” Access Date March 16. https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/sse.cgi?+s01 TGE Group. 2014. “Renewable energy case studies.”

Access date March 16. http://www.tge-group.co.uk/ case-studies/?cfilter[c3]=8 Trysolar. 2014. “Our solar panels.” Access date March 16. http://trysolar.com/solar-panel-types.php Heliodynamics. 2014. “Heliodynamics solar combined.”

Access date March 16. http://www.heliodynamics.com/ pages/technology/hd16.htm BP solar. 2006. “The Status and Outlook for the Photovoltaics Industry.” Access Date March 23.http:// www.aps.org/meetings/multimedia/upload/The_ Status_and_Outlook_for_the_Photovoltaics_Industry_ David_E_Carlson.pdf Schiermeier, Q., Tollefson, J., Scully, T., Witze, A., and Morton ,O. 2008. “Energy alternatives: Electricity without carbon.” Nature454:816–823. doi: 10.1038/454816a.

Nova Scotia Power. 2011. “Renewable energy.”

Access date March 23. https://www.nspower.ca/en/ home/about-us/how-we-make-electricity/renewableelectricity/default.aspx Carbonbrief. 2012. “Tidal Lagoons.” Access date March 23. http://www.carbonbrief.org/2014/02/tidal-lagoonsa-guide-for-the-confused/ Ross, A. 2008. “The Loch Sloy hydro-electric scheme 1950”. www.arrocharheritage.com/ LochSloyHydroElectricScheme.htm.

Shepherd, D. W. 2003. “Energy Studies.” Imperial College Press.

World nuclear. 2014. “Fast neutron reactors.” Access date March 29. http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/ Current-and-Future-Generation/Fast-Neutron-Reactors/ Everett, Bob, Godfrey Boyle, Stephen Peake, and Janet Ramage. 2011. Energy systems and sustainability.

Oxford: OUP World nuclear. 2014. “Beloyarsk 4.” Access date March 29. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Beloyarsk-4criticality-soon-3012131.html National Ignition Facility. 2012. “Laser initiation.” Access date March 29 https://lasers.llnl.gov/science/icf The World Bank. 2015. “United Kingdom.” Access date September 9. http://data.worldbank.org/country/unitedkingdom EDGAR. 2011. “Results of the emission inventory EDGAR v4.2 of November 2011.” Access date September 27. http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ background.php Morocco Solar Power. Access date September 29. https://media.npr.org/assets/img/2016/02/04/ gettyimages-508336438_wide-9ba35b5d12c8e1e087dc 237106f8b9f19695f3b8.jpg?s=1400Sloy Power Station, Loch Lomond. November 2005. Access date September Sloy Power Station, Loch Lomond. November 2005.

Access date September 29. http://www.drookitagain. co.uk/coppermine/displayimage.php?pid=846 Pavel Lisitsyn. Ria Novosti media library. 31 Marh 2011. Access date September 29. http:// visualrian.com/en/site/gallery/index/id/895485/ context/%7B%22lightbox%22%3A%22583%22%7D/

ADAM SHINE, 18, BOLTON SCHOOL BOYS’ DIVISION, UK

Adam Shine, a year 13 student, is currently studying Maths, Further Maths, Physics and Chemistry A-Levels at Bolton School Sixth Form. He’s interested in a wide range of scientific and mathematical topics with his preference towards engineering. He also plays the cornet, as a soloist and in several ensembles. I like to listen to a really wide range of music including Jazz Rock, Latin and Classical.

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INTERVIEW / A STEP INTO THE WILD WITH GORDON BUCHANAN

A STEP INTO THE WILD WITH GORDON BUCHANAN Chief Editor, Claire Nicholson speaks with renowned BBC wildlife filmmaker for the BBC Gordon Buchanan

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ecently, I had the awesome opportunity of speaking with BBC Wildlife Filmmaker and Presenter, Gordon Buchanan. Over his career he’s filmed some of the world’s most fascinating species, from Polar Bears and Snow Wolves to Western Lowland Gorillas – he’s been in the exclusive position of getting to know and understand these species.

Planet Earth is full of amazing beings, all with their own unique personalities, their own way of life and their own territory. They’re all fighting for one thing. Survival.

A select few have the incredible job of filming these animals, getting up close and personal with them to learn more about them and to show you what makes them so amazing. One of the lucky few is wildlife filmmaker, Gordon Buchanan. Born and raised on the Isle of Mull, he’s spent all of his working life taking pictures and filming with some of Nature’s wonders.

His career began as a 17 year old, fresh out of school when he was lucky enough to be invited to become Nick Gordon’s (late wildlife filmmaker and producer) camera assistant for a project he was doing in Sierra Leone. There, he spent almost a year working on the project alongside Nick before they had to abandon the project due to civil unrest.

After this amazing opportunity he worked alongside Nick in his following projects in Venezuela and Brazil.

In one of Gordon’s earlier series, he followed families of all kinds of animals – finding out more about each of them. In the collection of series he followed a Gorilla, Polar Bear, Black Bear and Snow Wolf family. He spent a year with each, understanding what makes each of them tick – how they survive and how they cope, either as the hunter or hunted.

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It’s never been easier to pick up a camera and get filming

Sadly, in many parts of the world, we hunt animals. A prime example of this is the American Black Bear – the situation has however, vastly improved in recent years. When he was filming for the “Bear Family and Me”, he followed a family of bears for a year, linking up with researchers to truly understand how we can stop people hunting these bears. Researchers Lynn Rogers and Sue Mansfield showed Gordon the process that they use to help protect the 38

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A STEP INTO THE WILD WITH GORDON BUCHANAN / INTERVIEW

[Image: kcwtoday]

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INTERVIEW / A STEP INTO THE WILD WITH GORDON BUCHANAN bears, particularly when they’re rearing their young. To do so, they’ve developed collars for the bears which mean they can collect data and perhaps most importantly, identify them immediately as research bears – this isn’t lab research, this is research in the most active sense where the effects are immediate.

During the series he managed to get up close and personal to the bears, and even got to hand-feed the cubs. You may well say that wild animals should never be treated in such a way that it might make them ‘less wild’ than they should be – and perhaps this is wrong.

Gordon explains that he’s “…all for blowing those myths out of the water…” He later discusses how all the animals featured have undergone a ‘socialisation process’ of sorts. This basically means that over time, the animals have slowly become accustomed to a human’s presence. This doesn’t just mean that we can get closer to them but we can also learn more about them and how we can best protect them going forward. One section of the Bear Family and Me shows one of the bear cubs investigating Gordon and his camera – he says that after all “shaking hands with a bear cub isn’t natural behaviour”. This kind of behaviour really shows how documenting wild animals not only educates others as to their behaviour, socially and individually but also could unlock vital information which may well mean that they’re better protected in the future.

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with us. He says that to enable us to do this, “we can’t view any of these animals as our enemy”. In another of his series “Tribes, Predators and Me”, he featured how one tribe was involved in helping science by catching Giant Anacondas to painlessly take small skin samples.

Gordon says that a similar method could well be used to help protect endangered species in other parts of the world. The tribal way of life is a unique one; it’s a way of life “that might not be around in 15-20 years’ time”. On his motivations behind doing this different series he mentions that some tribal groups have come and gone without any record of their lives – something he wanted to change as a result of the series. He says that it’s about “human beings and learning about us as a species”.

Give it everything and do as best as you can

“I’m all for blowing those myths out of the water”.

Much closer to home for a following series “Into the Wild”, Gordon took celebrities such as Alastair Campbell and Dermot O’Leary to various locations across Britain to get close to some of our own wildlife gems. During the series, Gordon showcased the ordinary and the extraordinary wildlife of the UK from the North to the South, he showed us that there’s wildlife scattered in every corner of the UK. Again, in complete contrast to his other series, it provided an opportunity to see some our most well-known celebrities in completely different locations – the intention was “to take interesting people and put them in completely different situations to learn more about them” On the subject of people that inspires him, unsurprisingly, David Attenborough features high up the list – next,

Perhaps one of the biggest factors which face conservation efforts worldwide is the “danger factor” of some of the larger animals like Lions and Tigers. Pretty much, if we could dispel the danger factor then we could see animals in more and more places living side by side

Left: When filming the “Polar Bear Family and Me”, Gordon had a very close encounter with a Polar Bear

[Guardian] 40

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A STEP INTO THE WILD WITH GORDON BUCHANAN /

INTERVIEW

Filming for the “Snow Wolf Family and Me” was arguably Gordon’s favourite series so far [BBC] perhaps unexpectedly, he mentions Graham Norton. He talks about how he has so much admiration for people who are passionate about what they do and are good at it.

It doesn’t matter what that skill is – pretty much, the fact he’s inspired by people who are good at what they do and are passionate about it.

“Give it everything and do as best as you can”

BIOGRAPHY

Despite the fact Gordon has done so much already, he’s still got loads of places he’d like to go and explore. In particular, he’d love to go back up to the Arctic and revisit the Snow Wolves he previously filmed. “The Snow Wolf Family and Me” offered an amazing opportunity to show what it was like 10,000 years ago before the domestication of dogs. He’s also getting the chance to fulfil one of his other dreams, filming with Elephants. He’s just starting filming for a new series which will be airing soon on the BBC.

If, after reading this, you’re interested in a similar career, Gordon says that it’s “never been easier to pick up a camera and get filming”. He explains that if it’s something you’re passionate about – then go for it. If you don’t have a camera then borrow one, nowadays, you can film on your phone and edit on a standard laptop. See if you can make a three minute film on some of your local wildlife. As he says, it’s a challenge to make a boring subject interesting.

It doesn’t matter where you are in the world or how old you are – if you’ve got the passion for it then go for it!

Follow Gordon: Twitter: @gordonjbuchanan Facebook: /gordonjbuchanan

CLAIRE NICHOLSON, 18, HERTS AND ESSEX HIGH SCHOOL, UK

Claire is the Chief Editor of the Young Scientists Journal. She studies Biology, Chemistry and Global Perspectives and Research at A-Level, next year she hopes to go on to study Animal Science in September. In the future she would love a career working with animals or in Wildlife Filmmaking.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH / NEW ALZHEIMER’S DIAGNOSIS

DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ANTIBODYBASED APPROACH FOR THE EARLIER DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

Krtin, 16, has developed a novel approach to diagnosing Alzheimer’s which could allow the condition to be diagnosed 10 years before the first symptoms appear which was awarded Scientific American Innovator Award at Google Science Fair 2015.

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urrent diagnostic approaches to neurodegenerative diseases are often flawed as they are often invasive and cannot effectively diagnose early-onset dementia. Antibodybased therapeutics for neurodegenerative diseases are very promising but often lack specificity to the type and stage of the disease, as well as the person affected.

Administering the treatment also requires invasive methods of administration such as a lumbar puncture.

In this study I report a novel quantum-dot (QD) conjugated bispecific-antibody (BsAb) diagnosis system designed for Alzheimer’s disease. This structure is easy to synthesize and displays specificity to a protein called oligomeric amyloid-beta (Aβ), which is often present before Alzheimer’s symptoms starts to manifest. The bispecific antibody also binds with a weak affinity to transferrin receptors – thus potentially allowing it to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) via receptor-mediated transcytosis and reducing the necessity for extremelyinvasive means of administration such as a lumbar puncture.

The CdTe/ZnS QDs conjugated to the BsAb have multimodal, non-invasive MRI and fNIR imaging capabilities and also displayed allow cytotoxicity to neuronal cells. The synthesized nanoparticles composed of CdTe/ZnS with a Gd-DOTA doped silica shell also displayed therapeutic properties by immobilizing the toxic oligomeric Aβ and increasing neuronal viability.

These novel BsAb-QD structures display promising diagnostic and therapeutic properties and represent an important evolution in neurodegenerative drug design.

which could allow for the earlier diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. This system proves to be less invasive and more accurate in comparison to existing tests of its kind.

FULL TEXT ONLINE

Definitions: Bispecific Antibody: An antibody which has two binding sites specific to two different types of antigens.

Affinity: A “liking” for something Transcytosis: A type of transcellular transport in which various macromolecules are transported across the interior of a cell. Macromolecules are captured in vesicles on one side of the cell, drawn across the cell, and ejected on the other side Brain Blood Barrier: (BBB) The BBB is a semi-permeable membrane which allows some materials to cross, but prevents others from crossing. Essentially, the BBB protects the brain from "foreign substances".

Lumbar Puncture: A procedure which involves taking fluid from the spine in the lower back with a hollow needle.

Cytotoxicity: This is the quality of being toxic to cells – essentially a toxic agent.

Multimodal: Something which has several modes of activity. fNIR : A non-invasive imaging method, similar to MRI scans which works by quantifying the concentration of the chromophore (an atom or group whose presence is responsible for its color). This is resolved by looking at changes in the measurement of near infrared (NIR) light.

BIOGRAPHY

I have created a novel nanoparticle-bound antibody

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KRTIN NITHIYANANDAM, 16, SUTTON GRAMMAR SCHOOL, UK

Kritin loves playing squash, playing the piano and science. His interest in the medical world began when he underwent a number of operations when he was younger - he was fascinated by the breakthrough science and technology used in medicine and by how specific drugs work inside our bodies. In the future, he would love to study medicine as this would allow him to learn about current drugs and help people at the same time. https://youtu.be/c67HkyQfr78

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NEW ALZHEIMER’S DIAGNOSIS / ORIGINAL RESEARCH

One of the biggest issues with the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease is that current diagnostic tools are identifying the wrong target Aβ Plaque

These β-amyloid plaques are present during the later stages of the disease.

Most diagnostic tools aim to identify these βamyloid plaques

Aβ Fibril

Possible target that would make diagnosis more effective.

Aβ oligomer

Research has also suggested that βamyloid plaques and fibrils are also present in healthy individuals

Aβ monomer

β-Secretase γ-Secretase

A β

Amyloid Precursor Protein

Method Processes: Generation of F(ab’)2 fragments from anti-TfR antibody (IgM)

Generation of F(ab’)2 fragments from anti-AB oligomer antibody (IgG1)

Generation of Fab’ fragments from F(ab’)2 fragments

Generation of Fab’ fragments from F(ab’)2 fragments

Determination of absorbance and excitation wavelength of CdSe/ZnS quantum dots in comparison to organic dyes

Developing bispecific antibody from Fab’ fragments using DTNB Conjugating bispecific antibody to quantum dots Determine QD-probe emission spectra Determining QD-probes’ affinity to TfRs and AB oligomers Direct fluorescence assay to determine probe’s ability to target AB oligomers and cross-reactivity

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ROSETTA: AN ASTRONOMICAL MILESTONE

INTERVIEW / ROSETTA: AN ASTRONOMICAL MILESTONE

The European Space Agency’s Head of Communications talks to Sofia Fuster Almenar about the historic Rosetta mission landing Philae on a comet.

Sofia's article won a competition held jointly by London International Youth Science Forum (liysf.org.uk) and Young Scientists Journal. LIYSF students and alumni were invited to submit an abstract; 4 were chosen from the 18 submitted to be written up fully and Sofia's was the winning article.

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ou’ve heard about it on the news, on social media and on many magazines. It’s everywhere, and it’s amazing. On very few occasions has a space mission had such a wide impact. ESA has managed to do the impossible: to perform a successful landing on a moving comet.

It was November 2014 when the space probe Rosetta detached its lander module, ‘Philae’, to study the geography and mysteries surrounding the comet 67P/

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Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P) after a 10-year flight. The prestigious magazine ‘Science’ decided to name it event of the year and National Geographic had plenty of indepth coverage. The European Space Agency (ESA) even released cartoons to illustrate the mission to its youngest fans. Rosetta Mission’s Cartoons can be found on ESA’s YouTube channel.

This adventure spans a lot further than that. Millions of kilometres from Earth, Rosetta and Philae have travelled

ROSETTA: AN ASTRONOMICAL MILESTONE / INTERVIEW through our solar system in an attempt to catch a comet, powered only by solar panels and the finest technology available.

Once they had achieved the impossible and completed the landing, Philae analysed the composition of the comet’s surface to determine whether life might have come to Earth via comets colliding with Earth’s surface.

With a remarkable team of international scientists behind it, Rosetta is a worldwide sensation. I had the pleasure of talking to the Head of Communications at ESA, Mr Doblas (FD) https://twitter.com/fernandodoblas who spoke about this unique and outstanding achievement.

Sofia: Firstly, let’s talk about one of the most important parts of the mission - the landing of the space module Philae. When Philae landed, there was a fault in the attachment gear3 and it started bouncing around the comet’s surface, right?

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FD: Philae was an extremely complicated mission on the whole, and from a scientific point of view, Rosetta alone fulfilled 85% of its scientific objectives. The probe was so close that the comet’s surface that the surface could be analysed with instruments measuring the following: water composition, soil composition, organic substances present and the comet’s magnetic properties.

first time it touched the ground, it produced so much dust that it was able to trap it and analyse the soil composition and obtain so much information that we were quite happy with our results. Although Philae’s mission didn’t work as planned, it turned out to be an outstanding experience.

Sofia: So we see that in space missions like Rosetta’s there is an unmeasurable amount of work behind the scenes. Rosetta is the result of over 20 years of designing and crafting, but really, what are the important steps from when a mission is proposed till when it is completed?

FD: Rosetta, like any other ESA scientific programme, was proposed by the scientific community. The European scientists are the ones who meet up, have their peers review meetings and decide on their long term plans and cosmic vision of the missions they want to carry out. Scientists decide what they want to do, and then engineers come into the game. They have the objective of translating those mission requirements into a working system. For example, Rosetta was conceived almost 30 years ago, but back then more than half of the technology required by the mission didn’t yet exist. So a really important lesson space gives us is that if we maintain our objectives, if we maintain hope, and if we maintain the excitement, in the end we can achieve everything. All the technology that we didn’t have back then for Rosetta was eventually developed. The solar panels are an example of this. As Rosetta was a space probe that would travel 6 AU away from the sun, where radiation is really low, the logical thing would have been to equip Rosetta with a nuclear system based on isotopes8 to power it. That was quite a dangerous option, so we had to develop large solar panels and very efficient technology to make it work. But 20 years is a typical time span from a mission’s initiation to its completion for ESA - but it can vary. The actual cost of the Rosetta mission was €1.1 billion over these 30 years, but EEUU has spent 10 times more than Europe on space science. It’s important to consider this difference when comparing NASA’s and ESA’s missions.

People have followed Rosetta, been interested in it, and have somehow felt transported there, as if they were the ones inside Philae itself.

Philae was phenomenal nobody had done it before - so we decided to make it happen. That meant having a space module orbiting a comet and suddenly ejecting a mass. We managed to land Philae without an engine on a specific chosen point, using only calculations.

Philae was designed to land on 67P’s surface, automatically releasing three harpoons which would penetrate the soil. Three of these harpoons we already knew wouldn’t work as earlier tests had failed. Instead, they bounced off three times, moving approximately 2km from the original position. This turned out to be good for us, as the craft ended up in a better place than before; it was supposed to land in a spot where it would eventually burn and wear off as the comet would get closer to the sun, but actually ended up in a darker region of the comet.

This meant it turned off, and later on when we were closer to the sun, it recharged and operated normally in a far more interesting phase of the comet. This was great as Philae’s original job was to land, work for a few weeks and stop functioning due to the high temperature of the comet’s tail, resulting in a short life span. Furthermore, the

Sofia: Right, so we already have our results and conclusions from Rosetta, but really what can they contribute to scientists as well as people’s lives?

FD: To people I think it contributes an essential element: inspiration. People have followed Rosetta, been interested in it, and have somehow felt transported there, as if they were the ones inside Philae itself. It also gives them pride, you see, as people tend to think that NASA is the JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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INTERVIEW / ROSETTA: AN ASTRONOMICAL MILESTONE

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ROSETTA: AN ASTRONOMICAL MILESTONE / INTERVIEW

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INTERVIEW / ROSETTA: ACHIEVING THE IMPOSSIBLE

Rosetta’s signal received at ESOC in Darmstadt, Germany (20/01/2014) only organisation that does important missions like this while no, the ESA is as good as them. Furthermore, it inspires young people who are interested in science to decide to embark on science-related career paths. This is really important as right now in Europe interest in science and engineering is declining, and if it continues like this, eventually there may not be enough European scientists and engineers to keep Europe’s position in the world. So the ESA is interested in promoting science and space in many ways. For example with ESA’s astronauts, when a child sees one of them and talks to them, he or she is instantaneously interested in science and space. ¬Apart from this, it’s all about discovery. One thing that we wanted to discover from this mission was if the composition of water molecules on Earth was the same as 67P’s. As you may know, water can be formed from different isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen. In Earth it has a certain isotopic composition, and from the results we obtained we concluded it wasn’t the same as 67P’s.

Another important question was whether or not 67P contained organic substances, which meant maybe life came to Earth through comets’ collisions. It’s all about developing our knowledge of who we are, where we’re going, etc…

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Sofia: According to recent news, Rosetta’s lander, Philae, hasn’t emitted signals since past July 2015, due to the conditions it is facing on the comet’s surface. What is the current state of the mission and what is the ultimate fate for both Rosetta and Philae?

FD: Philae was declared to be in “eternal hibernation” on 12 February 2016. As you know, in spite of the fact that its landing was not as expected, Philae completed 80% of its planned first science sequence before falling into hibernation in the early hours of 15 November when the primary battery was exhausted. The observations made by its 10 instruments during the dynamic landing process allowed to compile precious information that will take years for scientists to process.

Rosetta teams are planning to end the operational phase of the mission in a controlled impact of the orbiter on the surface of Comet 67P at the end of September 2016. The final observations that Rosetta will make before landing on the comet will be astonishing. The finale of the mission, with the two “mates” on the surface of their comet, will be highly emotional.

Sofia: We’ve almost wrapped up the Rosetta mission but the ESA’s already ready for the next. Can you tell us a bit

ROSETTA: ACHIEVING THE IMPOSSIBLE / INTERVIEW

Artist’s concept of LISA Pathfinder

UK Astronaut Tim Peake

Danish Astronaut Andreas Mogensen

‘Space Girls, Space Women’ Exhibition in Paris.

more about ESA’s upcoming missions for the next few years?

FD: The ESA has plenty of exciting missions for the years to come. Firstly, there’s ExoMars (launched March 2016) a two-phase mission. The spacecraft will arrive at its destination in October and will split in two parts: A lander (called Schiaparelli) and an orbiter (called TGO).

Schiaparelli will demonstrate key entry, descent, and landing technologies for future missions, and will conduct a number of environmental studies during its short mission on the surface. The orbiter, TGO, will study Mars’ atmospheric composition and will also image features on the Martian surface that may be related to trace-gas sources such as volcanoes.

In May 2018 we will launch ExoMars 2018. It will comprise a rover and a stationary surface science platform. The rover will be more advanced than Curiosity from NASA and will have a new ability: it’ll be able to penetrate more than 2 meters in the Martian soil, because if there’s life on Mars it’s unlikely to be on the surface, as radiation and temperature are too intense.

Also, there’s the LISA Pathfinder mission (launched on 2 December 2015). It’s called ‘Pathfinder’ because it’s going to be the one that opens up the way for the LISA probe,

so with this mission we’re preparing how LISA is going to work and the route it’s going to follow. LISA is going to try to analyse the value of gravitational waves as described in Einstein’s relativity theory, and in order to measure this we’re going to send two masses into space, millions of km apart, and analyse how they interact with each other.

Furthermore, we also have ground-based missions.

ESA is a world leader in this field, with programmes like the Copernicus program, Earth Explorers and Galileo. In the field of Telecommunications as well, we’ve got many satellites under development and application.

Finally, our astronauts: last year (2015) we had the ESA Danish astronaut Andreas Mogensen in the International Space Station for a short flight and in December (2015) we sent ESA’s British Tim Peake for a 6-month flight. Thomas Pesquet, a French ESA astronaut, will go to space by the end of 2016. Amazing programs indeed!

Sofia: Finally, what advice would you give to all those students interested in pursuing a space-related career?

FD: The best thing you can do is be interested in science.

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INTERVIEW / ROSETTA: AN ASTRONOMICAL MILESTONE related activities, but you essentially need to enjoy it and always work hard.

In a space exhibition we organised, ‘Space Girls, Space Women’ in Paris Exposition’s website: http://www. spacewomen.org, there was one girl, an astrophysicist, who came from a really poor neighbourhood in Paris.

She told us, “You see, once I finished school my mum was really proud of me, and told me to seek a job as a cashier in a mall. But I told her I wanted more than that.

With a scholarship I went to Japan to work in a laboratory and now I’m completing my PhD. And my motto is really simple: find a job that you love and you’ll never have to work again, because it won’t be a job any more, it’ll be a pleasure”.

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My motto is really simple: find a job that you love and you’ll never have to work again

Key Terms •

Space Probe: A robotic spacecraft that leaves Earth’s orbit and explores space, like Rosetta.

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Nominal: In this context, it means ‘expected’.

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Hibernation: In computing is powering down a computer while retaining its state (like the RAM).

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Operational Phase: The part of the mission involved in controlling the Rosetta probe.

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Orbiter: An object that orbits around an astronomical object such as a comet. Can be artificial or natural.

The Moon is an orbiter of the Earth, for example.

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Schiaparelli: A crater located on Mars’ equator. Its 461 kilometers (286 miles) in diameter.

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TGO: The ‘Trace Gas Orbiter’ of the Exomars mission.

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Trace Gases: A gas which makes up less than 1% by volume of the Earth’s atmosphere.

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Rover: A vehicle designed to study the surface of an astronomical object, in this case Mars.

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Gravitational Waves: disturbances in the fabric of space time.

References 1.

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Lander Module: The part of the space probe that is released and makes contact with the satellite or planet, like Philae.

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Attachment Gear: The system designed to attach Philae to the comet 67P.

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Thruster: An engine designed to produce a downward force on Philae to secure it to the ground.

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Peer Reviews: Evaluating the work done by an organisation where quality, performance and credibility is discussed.

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System requirements: What software/hardware does the spacecraft need to have in order to successfully perform its mission.

AU: Stands for ‘Astronomical Units’. 1 AU is defined as the distance from the Earth to the Sun (1.4960×1011 m).

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Isotope: An isotope is an atom with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons than its element.

BIOGRAPHY

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Science Magazine link: http://www.sciencemag.org/site/ special/btoy2014/ Documentary link: http://natgeotv.com/asia/comet-catcherthe-rosetta-landing Rosetta Mission’s Cartoons can be found on ESA’s youtube channel.

Fernando Doblas: https://twitter.com/fernandodoblas Rosetta’s Budget: http://www.itv.com/news/ update/2014-11-13/facts-and-figures-behind-the-rosettacomet-mission/ NASA’s Budget: https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/ files/Agency_Fact_Sheet_FY_2016.pdf Article: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/dec/10/ water-comet-67p-earth-rosetta Article: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/ Rosetta/Rosetta_s_lander_faces_eternal_hibernation Article: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/ Rosetta/Rosetta_mission_extended Exomars mission details can be found at: http://exploration. esa.int/mars/ LISA Pathfinder mission details can be found at: http://sci. esa.int/lisa-pathfinder/ Copernicus program details can be found at: http://www.esa. int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Copernicus Earth Explorers program details can be found at: http://www. esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_Explorers_ an_overview Galileo program details can be found at: http://www.esa.int/ Our_Activities/Navigation Andreas Mogensen: https://twitter.com/Astro_Andreas Tim Peake: https://twitter.com/astro_timpeake Thomas Pesquet: https://twitter.com/Thom_astro Exposition’s website: http://www.spacewomen.org All photographs are copyrighted by ESA and can be found at: http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages

SOFIA FUSTER ALMENAR, 18, VALENCIA, SPAIN

Sofia hopes to work in the development of spacecraft to explore our solar system. With this in mind next year Sofia will begin studying Aerospace Engineering at Imperial College London, having been inspired by attending LIYSF there. This interview came about after she met ESA’s Head of Communications, at TEDxESA 2015 held in ESTEC, Noordwijk, Netherlands.

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FOOD PRODUCTION IN SPACE / REVIEW ARTICLE

FOOD PRODUCTION IN SPACE

This is the winner of a competition held with The Royal Horticultural Society who have been helping Tim Peake with his rocket seeds experiment. We challenged our readers to write an article on the future of growing food in space. The runner up of the competition can be found on page 29.

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ood production in space has become a very important and significant aspect of space travel and exploration which would hugely benefit mankind if we were to find a viable method of doing so. To continuing exploring space, we need to work out how humans can live in space for even longer periods of time. One major factor of this is getting the food to sustain human life.

Actually finding this solution of growing and producing plants in space is one which has been bothering people for decades. However, some projects have already started and prototypes of a food production chamber on the ISS has been made and tested! What’s even better is that the results were successful! The main idea was to create an artificial environment for the plants to grow in space with zero-gravity and various other different surroundings to Earth.

tank on to the machine then we would have to re-fill it to effectively maintain the system. It’s also not worth it financially because they may not have enough money for the rocket fuel which will only bring the company bigger downfalls than benefits. Potentially, people could volunteer to stay on the other planets, harvest the crops and fill the water the tank for 2 years. Every 2 years a big organisation like NASA could send somebody up there in exchange and let the other person fly back to Earth. This would make it a viable solution but it would be VERY expensive!

A prototype has already been made under the name 'Veggie' with an internal growing room of 11.5 inches wide and 14.5 inches deep. This makes it the largest to date. It was created using red, blue and green LED lights for a light and heat source and a supply of CO2 for the plants. These tests were also successful! Many things have already been grown inside of 'Veggie' including lettuce and radishes! Scientists then Veggie on the ISS [NASA] carried out tests on these foods to see People would have to go up there and practically if they were safe to eat and they were! These tests build a house that will be stable for the existing included what microorganisms grew on them, how environment on the particular planet. A space car and much water it took to grow them, their size and how the 'Veggie' machines must stand all weather. Also long overall, it took to grow them. the person staying up there would need life support So far, the ‘Veggie’ program is going very well, as well, so they would be forced to eat some of the the only problem they’ve encountered so far is food that they would have grown and a bit that would that humans need to water it! This means it’s not have been sent up from Earth. This would cost a lot something that can be implemented on a planet of money. But all of this has a drawback because without any water or people to water it because all the company running this idea would have to take of the plants will die. Even if NASA did install a water into consideration how the food was going to stay JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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REVIEW ARTICLE / FOOD PRODUCTION IN SPACE Expedition 39 flight engineer and NASA astronaut Steve Swanson opens the plant wicks in the ISS Veggie plant growth system.

The six plant pillows contain 'Outredgeous' red romaine lettuce seeds. fresh for that long. They could do this, for example, by freezing it. From the test results the foods are still safe to eat in zero-gravity so the first batch to grow, can be eaten by the person in space or they could have their own 'Veggie' machine in their little house or both which will last them quite a long time if they ration!

If people work together then this theory could become a reality and humans could potentially colonise other planets but we would either have to build an oxygenated building where people could go or wear spacesuits. Which would benefit space organisations such as NASA hugely as they could find out a lot more about space than they could ever do before.

BIOGRAPHY

According to NASA, the astronauts would eat food from packets during the journey and if they wanted or preferred packets of food they could have their choice of food on the other plants. This will benefit the astronaut’s health as they will not be eating the same plain thing every day. Their psychology will improve and they will be more positively orientated and in a positive frame of mind. Since Mars is the closest planet to Earth that is the place where the first plants will grow! The similarities and differences between Earth and Mars are really quite interesting.

Mars' sidereal day (the time it takes for Mars to rotate once around its axis) is 24 hours 37 minutes and 22 seconds long, on Earth it takes exactly 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds! Contrary to popular belief it is not exactly 24 hours long that is just the rounded

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number. This would not really affect the plants in any way, shape or form as this is only about 40 minutes more sunlight that the plants would get at Earth! The temperature, however, will affect the plants a lot if they are not stored in a warmer environment as the average temperature on Mars is -46oc or -51F. (This temperature can differ from -143oC to 35oC or -225F to 95F!). This could have devastating effects on the plants but solar panels could be fitted that would pick up energy from the sun and use them to power very powerful heaters. This is the only way to heat them up. The planet is really cold because of its really thin atmosphere which cannot absorb the sun's heat for very long and releases it quickly. This thin atmosphere consists of 95% carbon dioxide. The characteristic red colouration of the planet is caused by aqueous iron oxide in the surface dust. One might say that Mars is rusty! Because of the fact that it takes Mars almost 2 Earth years to orbit the sun once (687 Earth days=1 Martian year) the seasons are almost twice as long as-well, making the cold and warm temperatures last longer, which can be both a good thing and a bad thing. This would mean that humans going outside would only really be safe during the summer when it is warmer and near the equator but even then wearing a space suit! During the summer treks could be held to go up to the polar points where all the ice is, to collect water and bring it back for the plants and animals.

People would, however, need a very big vehicle to carry all of that weight across Mars' rocky landscape.

The vehicles and the houses or common house would have to be very sturdy as sandstorms are very common and can sometimes envelope the whole planet as it is only about half the size of Earth. People could produce oxygen chemically by mixing yeast with hydrogen peroxide or with a lot of plants!

In conclusion, The 'Veggie' idea is a very good idea which is likely to become a reality however; the idea needs a lot of development. A lot of hard work will need to be put in and the budget will need to be carefully considered. There are 4 main factors in whether this plant is going to grow in space and they are: temperature, light, water, and oxygen. To make all of these things accessible to the plants it will take a lot of hard work but it is possible and is certainly possible aboard the ISS.

ALEKSANDER WOZNICZKA, 13, ST MARY’S CATHOLIC SCHOOL, UK Aleksander has always had a passion for science with a particular interest in astronomy. His interest was inspired by an opportunity to fly a small plane with his dad which changed his perspective on science and astronomy.

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TIM PEAKE: WHAT IS HE DOING? / REVIEW ARTICLE

TIM PEAKE: WHAT IS HE DOING?

Ben Callington (13) and co-writer Aiden Jones ask St Mary’s Catholic School ask what Tim Peake is doing in space

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ritish Astronaut, Tim Peake, launched an operation of taking seeds into space and observing what effect life in space will have on the seeds’ overall growth rate. The seeds have been taken to the ISS (International Space Station) for 6 months and will be brought back down to see how they grow after spending time in a different atmosphere.

atmosphere can change how different species cope with partially growing in an unnatural environment.

The reason this operation is happening is because of our world’s current state. We are surrounded by pollution and by evaluating how well different things can cope with an atmosphere, an atmosphere that differs to Earth, we can see if human being could be sent on a one-way journey to another planet (potentially Mars) to help planet Earth from suffering further damage.

BIOGRAPHY

The theory is that the lack of gravity will have an effect on the way and speed that the seeds grow at. This operation has a purpose of experimenting how a different

Tim Peake and the seeds [RHS]

BEN CALLINGTON & AIDEN JONES, 13, ST MARY’S CATHOLIC SCHOOL, UK

Ben Callington and Aiden Jones (both 13) go to St Mary’s Catholic School and are in the same science group. In the future, Ben would love to become a lawyer whilst Aiden would love to become a vet. Aiden loves animals and feels like he has a connection with them. In school, his favourite part of science is chemistry because he likes to see the colour changes and fizzes.

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REVIEW ARTICLE / QUANTUM TELEPORTATION

QUANTUM TELEPORTATION

In this article, Joseph Grealy and Daniel Fryday look at whether Quantum Teleportation is, in fact, possible.

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pace travel is currently a long and lengthy process; there are vast distances which with current technology would take decades if not centuries, to cross. With our fastest spacecraft (New Horizons which travels at 35,187 miles an hour) it would take approximately 90,000 Earth years to get to our nearest star, Alpha Centauri. However, there is a way we could travel these vast distances in no time at all. We could use Quantum Teleportation. Teleportation is sending atoms (or their properties) from one place to another without any physical movement, and Quantum teleportation is doing this using the laws of quantum mechanics.

at their destination (B). This however raises a number of problems: it would mean that there are then two copies of the atoms, one at A, and one at B; the first set of atoms would therefore have to be destroyed, especially if the same theory is to be used on humans. When copying the atoms, they must be copied extremely accurately, else the atoms will not be the same, and this will be very important when, and if humans would want to be teleported. In the end, the atoms (or in the future, people) teleported should be in the same condition when they arrive at the final destination as they would have been if they had gone by car, otherwise teleportation would not be as comfortable and not as safe.

Quantum teleportation works by copying a number of atoms and their properties (from A), and replicating them

In reality it is virtually impossible to teleport anything bigger than a small number of atoms, any distance via

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QUANTUM TELEPORTATION / REVIEW ARTICLE teleportation as is impossible to collect all the data about all the atoms, you could measure the positions of all the atoms, but then you couldn’t measure the momentum of them; and vice versa. (This is demonstrated by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle). However, thanks to a paper published in 1993, we now know that teleportation is not impossible, just very, very hard! This paper explained how quantum entanglement can help.

H e i s e n b e r g ’s uncertainty principle: This is one of physics’ most famous and most misunderstood principles.

Essentially, it states that there’s a ‘fuzziness’ in nature – pretty much that there’s a maximum, fundamental limit to the degree we can know about the behavior of quantum particles.

If you’d like to read more about this principle, then have a look at this link. h t t p s : // w w w. theguardian.com/ science/2013/nov/10/ what-is-heisenbergsuncertainty-principle When describing individual particles, we describe their quantum state; and sometimes, two particles can act upon each other, for example like how gravity and big objects act, they push and pull each other around. When particles act like this they become a single quantum system; it means that they are connected and behave as one; this means that if scientists change, or affect one of the particles, the other particle will be changed; however, it is not guaranteed that the other particle will be changed in the same way. Scientists are working to make bigger quantum systems which will be more controllable.

Quantum entanglement is one of the central principles of quantum physics, though it is also highly misunderstood.

In short, quantum entanglement means that multiple particles are linked together in a way such that the measurement of one particle’s quantum state determines the possible quantum states of the other particles. Quantum

entanglement is one of the odder aspects of quantum physics, it means that the properties of particles can be linked even when they are separated by large distances; and therefore for a long time, it was considered that the Quantum Entanglement Communication system could travel faster than the speed of light communication, but this was proven wrong by Einstein and his colleagues with the EPR paradox (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox): In a simplified version of the EPR paradox, consider a particle with quantum spin of 0 that decays into two new particles, Particle A and Particle B. Particle A and Particle B head off in opposite directions. However, the original particle had a quantum spin of 0. Each of the new particles has a quantum spin of 1/2, but because they have to add up to 0, one is +1/2 and one is -1/2. This relationship means that the two particles are entangled. When you measure the spin of Particle A, that measurement has an impact on the possible results you could get when measuring the spin of Particle B. An easier example of Quantum Entanglement would be if you consider that you have two envelopes that contain money. You have been told that one of them contains a £5 note and the other contains a £10 note. If you open one envelope and it contains a £5 note, then you know for sure that the other envelope contains the £10 note. The problem with this analogy is that quantum mechanics definitely doesn’t appear to work this way. In the case of the money, each envelope contains a specific bill, even if I never get around to looking in them.

The uncertainty in quantum mechanics doesn’t just represent a lack of our knowledge, but a fundamental lack of definite reality. Until the measurement is made, according to the Copenhagen interpretation, the particles are really in a superposition of all possible states.

Scientists can use quantum systems to their advantage to teleport particles, if two particles have been in the same place before, and entered an entangled quantum state, they could then be transported (manually) to separate labs.

Particles (and eventually people) could then be teleported to and from the two locations. However, each entangled state can only be used once so multiple entangled states would have to be created; and entangled particles can only be transported through normal means, so one normal journey to the destination can mean many future teleportation’s (as long as multiple entangled states are created).

A machine (called the Stern-Gerlacher machine) can measure the angular momentum (a measure of the amount of rotation of a certain amount of mass using the mass, rotation, motion, and shape) that an electron has (this is like measuring the spin of the particles). Physicists (and the Stern-Gerlacher machine) use: |├ v⟩ in order to show that a calculation is of a quantum state (spin in this case), JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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REVIEW ARTICLE / QUANTUM TELEPORTATION v is the quantum state, and the bar, and greater than sign are there to demonstrate this. If the quantum state of a particle (electron) is a spin (as it is here) it is demonstrated by: |├ ↑⟩ or |├ ↓⟩ and |├ ←⟩ or |├ →⟩ (up, down, right, and left respectively, because electrons spin horizontally and vertically).

Electrons that spin up or down are part of the z basis, and electrons spin horizontally (left or right) are part of the x basis, the x basis is calculated using the z basis states.

(Only one measurement can be taken from each particle) Most operations have reveal some information, but destroy other information about the particle; however unitary operations do not reveal anything but do not destroy anything either.

•

•

• • • • • • * * * *

•

The X gate and the Z gate are exactly the same as the x and z basis apart from that there is a 180˚ rotation on the respective axis; the only other difference between the gates and bases is that in the case of the Z gates, there is a negative instead of one of the positives in the formula (the formula is formed using the techniques I talked about previously) C-X (Controlled-X) is the final operation required for teleportation; it acts on two spins at a time by changing the second spin if the first is down; and if the first is up it does not do anything to the second.

The method for quantum teleportation is: Step 1: Use the C-X operation for the spins (1 and 2).

Step 2: Measure spin 2 using the z basis.

Step 3: Measure spin 1 using the x basis.

Step 4: The original location calls the destination and informs them what the two measurements are.

Step 5: At the destination they do the following: If the measurement results were down for spin 2 and right for spin 1: Do nothing If the measurement results were down for spin 2 and left for spin 1: Apply the Z gate to spin 3.

If the measurement results were up for spin 2 and right for spin 1: Apply the X gate to spin 3.

If the measurement results were up for spin 2 and left for spin 1: Apply the Z gate to spin 3 and then apply the X gate to spin 3. particles 1 and 2 are located in the original location, and particle 3 is located at the destination, and these correspond with the spins)

metres with 100% accuracy using the techniques I have explained above. They said that in the future it may be possible to teleport humans and other, larger objects longer distances. However, when, or if this ever happens, it will be in a long time, and probably not in our lifetimes.

It still however proves that traversing the vast distances of space instantaneously will eventually become possible.

References

1. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs312/en/ 2. http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-basics/type-1 3. Chiang, J. L., et al., “Type 1 Diabetes Through the Life Span: A Position Statement of the American Diabetes Association” Diabetes Care 37, 2034–2054 (2014) 4. Hex et al. “Estimating the current and future costs of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes in the UK, including direct health costs and indirect societal and productivity costs.” Diabetic Medicine (2012) 5. autoimmune.pathology.jhmi.edu/diseases 6. https://www.diabetes.org.uk 7. Lagani V., et al., “A systematic review of predictive risk models for diabetes complications based on large scale clinical studies.” Journal of Diabetes and its Complications 27, 407-13 (2013).

8. Diabetes.co.uk 9. Sarwar N, et al., “Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: A collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies”, The Lancet 375, 2215–22 (2010).

10. Schöler, Hans R., “The Potential of Stem Cells: An Inventory.”, Humanbiotechnology as Social Challenge.

(Ashgate Publishing, 2007) p. 28.

11. Thomson et al., “Blastocysts Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human”, Science 282, 1145–1147 (1998).

12. Pagliuca, Felicia W., et al., “Generation of Functional Human Pancreatic β Cells In Vitro” Cell 159, 428-439 (2014).l1, 861-872 (2007) 13. Szkudelski, T., “The mechanism of alloxan and streptozotocin action in B cells of the rat pancreas.”, Physiological Research 50, 537-546 (2001) 14. Jeon, K. et al., “Differentiation and Transplantation of Functional Pancreatic Beta Cells Generated from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Derived from a Type 1 Diabetes Mouse Model.”, Stem Cells and Development 21, 2642–2655 (2012) 15. http://oerpub.github.io/epubjs-demo-book/ resources/422_Feature_Stem_Cell_new.png 16. http://www.nature.com/nrendo/journal/v11/n1/images/ nrendo.2014.200-f1.jpg

BIOGRAPHY

In 2014 some scientists from Netherlands managed to teleport an atom/particle (The spin information of) three

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JOSEPH GREALY AND DANIEL FRYDAY, 14, ST MARY’S CATHOLIC SCHOOL, UK Joseph Grealy (14) is from Hertfordshire. He loves to understand how things work. He has a passion for the most complicated areas of science he can find. Joseph reads constantly and plays the cello and the piano very loudly! [For Daniel Fryday’s Biography see Superstring Theory]

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REMEMBERING HARRY KROTO / JOURNAL NEWS

REMEMBERING HARRY KROTO

Here at The Young Scientists Journal, we were deeply sad to hear of the death of former International Advisory Board member, Harry Kroto.

Abstract

Chief Editor, Claire Nicholson and Co-founder Christina Astin remember Ambassador and former conference speaker, Harry Kroto.

I

n March 2014 students from over 20 schools, including as far away as Chennai, India, gathered at the King’s School for our first ever conference.

We were lucky enough to have chemist Harry Kroto join us as our first ever keynote speaker. At the conference, he ran two workshops and titled his talk “The Educational Revolution and the Goo-You-Wiki World”. He helped the audience to appreciate the beauty, symmetry and elegance of mathematics and he spoke about the ways in which the internet has helped spread and democratise science. At the end of the day, he later joined the panel discussion. As Christina says, “...the students were swept along with his with his passion for science and roguish humour…”

He then presented the student poster presentation winners with their prize before joining the rest of the speakers for the speaker’s dinner.

Christina was first introduced to Harry in 2012. He had discovered us online and was keen for us to collaborate with his GEOSET project (Global Educational Outreach for Science, Engineering & Technology).

Following the conference, we collaborated further on GEOSET and had started to discuss a TV science project with various organisations in the UK when he became ill. In the short time Christina was lucky enough to know him; she “became infected with his limitless ambition and passion for science communication”.

“

The quote above is something we think Harry Kroto was driven from - full of imagination and creativity, and spent his life inspiring these qualities in others.

We were proud to support Harry’s Geoset project.

We were deeply honoured to count him amongst our Ambassadors.

We extend our deepest sympathies to his wife and champion Margaret and to his GEOSET collaborators Steve and Colin. The world has lost a disruptive genius and a lovely man.

“We especially need imagination in science. It is not all mathematics, nor all logic but is somewhat beauty and poetry.” Maria Mitchell JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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REVIEW ARTICLE / THE UK SPACE DESIGN COMPETITION

THE UK SPACE DESIGN COMPETITION

YSJournal Editorial Mentor Jess Wade - a recent Imperial College London Physics Ph.D. graduate - reports on this brilliant competition for UK secondary schools.

T

he UK Space Design Competition (UKSDC) is light years ahead of your average after school science club. The challenge is open to all secondary students in the UK, inviting schools to recreate their own aerospace company and respond to a futuristic proposal for the relocation of a space colony. Throughout the year, the schools compete either at regional heats or in an online video competition, the winners of which attend the UK final at Imperial College London in March. Twelve students from the winning team will be invited to NASA to represent UK in the international final later during the summer. We’ve been lucky enough to catch up with some of the 2015-16 winners and technical volunteers to hear about their experiences.

The two-day 2016 UK Final was held during British Science Week at Imperial College London. The five aerospace companies comprised of over 220 girls and boys representing 20 different European schools, colleges and science clubs. This year’s mission was to create a space cruise-liner that could accommodate 2,500 full58

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time residents on an 80-day transit to Mars. Before the designing began, each company appointed a president, vice-president and management team and was assigned an experienced engineer as Chief Executive Officer (CEO).

The companies designed living quarters, robots and maintenance systems, alongside detailed descriptions of their schedules and projected costs. A panel of industry experts and academics judged the proposals based on their thoroughness, credibility, balance and innovation. If you choose to enter the UKSDC, you’ll soon realise that it doesn’t take long for the companies to become experts in their own right. Beyond technical ability, the competition doesn’t only prepare the students for careers in the aerospace industry; it also encourages teamwork and creativity when tackling scientific problems. The winning team this year was formed of students from Bishop’s Stortford College, Haberdashers’ Aske’s School for Girls, St Mary Redcliffe and Temple School, Sutton Grammar School and St Lawrence College, Athens.

THE UK SPACE DESIGN COMPETITION / REVIEW ARTICLE How does the UKSDC compare to other science competitions?

For Victoria Farrant from Bishop’s Stortford College, it’s in the scientific content, “The UKSDC is an excellent opportunity to get to know pupils with similar interests from other schools and to work with them as a team.

Since our school first competed, we’ve been watching out for engineering developments in the international space station. During the challenge we had to consider all of the aspects of a real-life living and working community, including zero gravity exercises, high gravity play-areas, food, oxygen production, waste disposal and power generation, plus budgeting and producing a 50-page business case to win the investment.”

These finalists are thinking way beyond the constraints of the Earth’s upper atmosphere. Anthony Apostolakopoulos at St Lawrence College, Athens, says: “The UKSDC was a great experience packed with lots of excitement and work over such a short period of time, highlighting the importance of teamwork in engineering. Deep within the Earth Science building at Imperial College London, our company headquarters were alive with directors frantically trying to coordinate team members so that we could meet the pressing deadline. Having everyone working together for one common goal is a truly amazing experience and unlike our experiences of science at school. With competition being so fierce, we knew we were working with some of brightest young minds in the country.”

What did you enjoy most?

You’d be forgiven for expecting a £1,500 pizza delivery to top the list of the “most enjoyable” parts of the UKSDC. Remember, these aren’t your average students.

“By far the most satisfying part of the event was to see the project unfold and develop. At first there is a general excitement and chaos as everyone pitches in with new ideas and concepts for the cruise-liner. An endless array of new problems began to emerge, with each solution giving rise to countless new issues that need to be addressed.

After hours of debate and compromise, the structure began to materialise. After this our designs, enthusiasm and competitiveness increased exponentially, running late into the night as everyone frantically tried to finish for the morning deadline,” says Anthony.

Aside from winning, Victoria sees the world beyond her UCAS form – the UKSDC helped her to develop, “teambuilding skills, as well as offering the opportunity to work on an industry-like proposal”.

Was it worth the effort?

The winning team managed barely an hour of sleep between them before their 35-minute presentation to the judges. Victoria wasn’t at all fussed, “We worked all

the way through the night, having started at 9am on the Saturday, and finished at 4pm on Sunday, as the winning team, and now 12 of us are going to represent the UK in the International competition at NASA in Florida in July!

How cool is that?”

Anthony “felt an immense sense of achievement watching the final design being presented in front of the judges”. When “comparing the final product to the initial panic that our design was too far-fetched, we got an even greater feeling of accomplishment – in the end we pulled through andwe did this. There was an almost overwhelming feeling of pride as we defended our design from the judges’ demanding questions and tried to convince them to fund our company. What the UKSDC does best is to emulate what it would feel to work in a highly competitive but incredibly rewarding company.”

The finalists of the UKSDC are so enthusiastic they frequently come back as volunteers and senior advisors, with the constantly evolving competition sustaining their interest year-on-year. Trisha Saxena, an undergraduate physicist at Imperial College London, competed for two years with her school and, having been chosen to represent the UK at the international final last year, was inspired to continue working behind the scenes. Since then she’s been involved with the organisation of events, has judged regional heats and returned to the UK final as a company CEO. CEO Saxena supervised 50 students for the two-day challenge, inspiring the school pupils with her tales from the NASA space centre, sharing her inside-knowledge and circulating pizza deliveries. While her team certainly loved having such an experienced CEO, she wouldn’t give too much of the game away and let their imaginations take centre stage. Priya Pereira, another UKSDC alumni who represented the UK in Florida is always, “astounded by the ideas students come up with and the way relative strangers work together”. “Without a doubt participating in the competition was one of the most stressful experiences” she’s ever experienced, but it taught her some of her “most valued life lessons and helped forge friendships that will undoubtedly last a lifetime”.

This year’s finalists included GCSE students who dabbled in space science on their weekend and sixth form students who were keen to push themselves outside of the curriculum. While the majority are intent on studying engineering or physics at university, there were future doctors, journalists, and forensic scientists. With the turnover from the UK space industry reaching a staggering £11.8 billion annually, we see a bright future for our aerospace engineers.1 Reference:

The Case for Space 2015, The impact of space on the UK economy, London Economics http://www.ukspace.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/07/LE-Case-for-Space-2015-ExecutiveSummary.pdf JULY 2016 I ISSUE 19 I WWW.YSJOURNAL.COM

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH / WORMS AND COMPOST

IS THE COMPOSTING WORM EISENIA FETIDA REPELLED

BY LEMON PEEL IN COMPOST?

Each year the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) awards the Prince Philip Award and Marsh Prize to an A-Level (or Higher) student for an outstanding project in animal biology. This year, ZSL will award the prize to Ingrid Easton, of Queen’s Gate School, London, for her research into the effect of lemon peel on composting worms. For information on the award, please see https://www.zsl. org/science/zsl-awards

Abstract

Worms have been used to decompose organic waste for many years and purpose-built wormeries are becoming increasingly popular. However, there is conflicting advice about the use of certain foods in a wormery, particularly citrus.

This study focused on whether the worm Eisenia fetida is repelled by lemon peel and if the reaction is due to reduction in pH or other factors. An avoidance test was constructed, allowing worms to move into uncontaminated soil or into soil contaminated by different concentrations of peel. The results show that in low concentrations of peel, there were low levels of avoidance. In high concentrations of peel there were high levels of avoidance and higher levels of worm mortality. Acidity did not change appreciably with the addition of peel and thus it was not a factor in mortality or avoidance, indicating that other factors may affect the worms. This study shows that at low concentrations, lemon peel does not affect the health of worms or repel worms from the compost substrate, which would reduce the efficiency of the composting system.

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WORMS AND COMPOST / ORIGINAL RESEARCH

M

Introduction

any composting systems rely on composting worms such as Eisenia fetida, Eisenia andrei and Dendrobaena veneta.

Multiple guidelines are given on how to optimise compost conditions (Royal Horticultural Society, 2015) and people are often advised to not put particular foods into compost, such as onions and citrus fruits. However, a survey of 563 domestic compost bins threw doubt on the commonly held belief that citrus fruits make conditions too acidic for earthworms (Earthworm Society of Great Britain, 2015). This study was devised to investigate this issue further.

The earthworm Eisenia fetida was chosen for the experiment. These are the favoured worms supplied to home composters from commercial sources.

Worms are sensitive to acidity and tolerance of acidity varies between species (Dominguez and Edwards, 2010). Eisenia fetida tolerates pH between 5 and 9 but tend to move to more acidic materials, with a preference for pH 5. This contradicts the belief that acidic conditions are detrimental to worm health and raises questions about whether citrus peel in compost really is a problem.

Hypothesis

The purpose of this study is to determine if Eisenia fetida is repelled by lemon peel in its environment, and by monitoring pH, ascertain whether it is a response to acidity.

A standard avoidance test will show whether worms move towards or away from different concentrations of peel, or are unaffected by it.

Materials and Methods

Ten adult worms were exposed to a control soil and contaminated (test) soil in a specially constructed test vessel with two chambers. The worms could move towards the test soil or control soil and the preferred condition recorded. The international standard ISO 17512-1 was followed as closely as possible in non-laboratory conditions Table 1: Tests performed at different concentrations of lemon peel Number of repeats

Mass of lemon peel [g]

Mass of coir substrate [g]

% concentration by Mass of lemon peel

A

5

0

250

0

B

5

5

245

2

C

5

10

240

4

D

5

20

230

8

E

5

40

210

16

F

5

60

190

24

Total

30

-

-

-

Test

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH / WORMS AND COMPOST (International Organisation for Standardisation, 2008). Six tests with five repeats of each test were performed (Table 1.)

In order to create the two chamber test vessels specified in the ISO standard, thirty 10x20x10cm plastic food grade boxes were acquired. The lids of each of the boxes were punctured with 16 holes in order to allow air to enter each

of the chambers. The outside and bottom of each vessel was covered with foil to prevent lateral light from entering.

Dividers were cut out of PerspexÂŽ to fit the cross section of the vessel and to split the control and test side.

Dehydrated coir blocks were rehydrated in distilled water in order to create substrate with an appropriately high moisture level (Edwards, 2004) above 50%. Eight wax-free lemons were squeezed and the juice was discarded, as this parallels the normal composting process of putting peel but not juice in a compost bin. A food processor was used to macerate the peel for 20 seconds. Each side of the test chambers contained 250g of substrate and peel combined. The control side was filled with 250g of plain coir substrate.

The mass was weighed to an accuracy of 1g. The test side contained different mass ratios of substrate and macerated peel but the total mass remained 250g.

The lemon peel and substrate were mixed in order to ensure even spread throughout the substrate.

The two chambers were firmly separated by the divider to ensure none of the peel entered the control chamber. Six tests were carried out (A,B,C,D,E,F) each with a different mass of lemon peel and 5 repeats (1,2,3,4,5) were performed within each test as described in Table 1.

Table 2: The resulting percentage avoidance of the average of the five repeats done for each test.

Mass of lemon peel in test side (g)

% lemon peel by Mass

Average no. of worms in control side

Average no. of worms in test side

Total mortality (%)

A

0

0

5.2

4.8

0

4

B

5

2

4.6

5.4

0

0*

C

10

4

4.2

5.8

0

0*

D

20

8

5.6

4.4

0

12

E

40

16

9.2

0.8

2

84

F

60

24

9.4

0.6

92

88

*negative responses (i.e. the worms prefer the test soil) are considered 0% avoidance

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( % avoidance)

WORMS AND COMPOST / ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Preparing test chambers Moisture was measured in each chamber of each vessel using an electronic moisture meter and pH was measured using universal indicator paper. The pH of the substrate was approximately 5.5 at the start of the experiment which is a suitable pH environment for E. fetida.

The substrate was tamped down to ensure an even level of density. Using the divider, a trench was made between the test and control side. Ten E. fetida were placed into the trench and the container sealed with the lid. The earthworms were purchased from Yorkshire Worms (yorkshire-worms.co.uk). They were not fed before or during the test to avoid unknown variables that could affect the results. The worms are able to survive without additional food for this amount of time as they consume coir.

The test chambers were left for 48 hours without disturbance and the temperature of the room was kept between 21.1 and 23.5 oC. After 48 hours, each vessel was opened and the divider placed into the trench to stop movement of worms from one side to the other caused by the disturbance of the vessels. The substrate from each side was removed separately and worms counted to establish which side they preferred.

Observations were made on mortality and physical state of the worms. pH and moisture were also recorded from both control and test chambers. Healthy worms were released into an existing wormery composting bin.

Adding worms to test chambers

The test chambers were left for 48 hours without disturbance and the temperature of the room was kept between 21.1 and 23.5 oC. Observations were made on mortality and physical state of the worms. pH and moisture were also recorded from both control and test chambers. Healthy worms were released into an existing wormery composting bin.

Data Analysis and Results

In order to see if the worms were attracted or repelled an avoidance calculation was done, as follows, where is percentage avoidance (ISO 2008):

Where: = number of worms in control soil = number of worms in test soil = total number of worms per repeat (10) Further data analysis is shown in Table 2.

Results and Discussion

Very low levels of avoidance were found in tests A-C, with the lowest concentrations of lemon peel. In fact tests B and C had negative avoidance results, as more worms were in the test side than in the control. As the mass of peel increased there was an increase in avoidance, especially between tests D to E where the mass of peel was doubled, resulting in 84% avoidance. In tests E and F both living and dead worms were found on the surface of the soil with disfigured and discoloured bodies. In test E there was a low mortality rate but in test F it was high at 92% average mortality.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH / WORMS AND COMPOST Conclusion

In low concentrations E. fetida were not affected by the presence of lemon peel; in fact the results shows an attraction to peel. This may be due to the higher level of organic material in the soil or a marginally higher moisture level than the control soil. Thus in a domestic wormery, detrimental effects on composting worms due to small amounts of peel would be unlikely.

In higher concentrations worms showed clear avoidance behaviour which indicates that they detect the presence of lemon peel, but given the fact pH remained constant throughout, the avoidance is unlikely to be attributed to any increase in acidity.

compounds) affects worms is also unclear. For example, is the chemical absorbed through the skin from physical contact or is the volatile compound absorbed through respiration? Furthermore, the worms could have ingested lemon peel, resulting in the toxin being absorbed via the gastrointestinal system of the worm. Further experiments could be performed in order to investigate the mechanism by which the worms either detect or ingest d-limonene or other implicated compounds.

At high concentrations peel appears to have a lethal effect on the worms. pH remained relatively constant in the high peel concentration tests, only dropping from 5.5 to 5.0, but given that this pH is optimum for E. fetida, this suggests that the toxicity of the lemons at high concentrations had nothing to do with the pH. Thus, other factors must have resulted in the avoidance behaviour and high mortality in the higher concentrations.

In conclusion, the hypothesis that E. fetida is repelled by lemon peel in compost is supported by these results but the worms are not repelled by acidity, as previously believed. For domestic wormeries, low concentrations of lemon peel (less than 5% by weight) will have little effect on the worms and can be added to compost safely.

Ideas for further Research

BIOGRAPHY

Further reading on the chemical composition of lemons has highlighted that a possible cause of the toxicity and avoidance behaviour of the worms could be the compound d-limonene (Karr, 1989). D-limonene is a monoterpene, naturally occurring in trees, bushes, peel of citrus and plants such as celery, dill and fennel. D-limonene is highly toxic to earthworms, thus explaining the mortality of the worms at high concentrations by mass of peel in this experiment. However, in Karr’s (1989) research it was not proven that worms could sense the compound, thus the cause of the avoidance behaviour is still unclear.

Zirbes et al. (2011) established that olfactory cues are used by foraging earthworms and it is therefore possible that volatile compounds could repel as well as attract worms. Further research could use pure d-limonene rather than lemon peel to assess avoidance behaviour in E. fetida. The mechanism by which d-limonene (or other

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References

Earthworm Society of Great Britain. (2015). http://www. earthwormsoc.org.uk/ Dominguez, J. and Edwards, C.A.(2010) Biology and Ecology of Earthworm Species used for Vermicomposting, Vermiculture Technology. CRC Press.

Edwards, C.A.(ed.) 2004, Earthworm Ecology, p409, Second Edition, Florida: USA, CRC Press Ltd. International Organisation for Standardisation (2008) Soil Quality - Avoidance test for determining the quality of soils and effects of chemicals on behaviour - Part 1: Test with earthworms (Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei). Geneva: ISO (ISO 17512-1:2008(E)) Karr, L. (1989) Toxic Properties of d-limonene in insects and the earthworm Eisenia fetida, Iowa State University.

Royal Horticultural Society (2015) https://www.rhs.org.uk/ advice/profile?PID=726 Zirbes L et al. (2011) Earthworms Use Odor Cues to Locate and Feed on Microorganisms in Soil. PLoS ONE 6(7): e21927.

INGRID EASTON, 18, QUEEN’S GATE SCHOOL, UK

Ingrid is currently holding a conditional offer to study Biological Sciences at Oxford University.

Earlier this year, she attended an awards ceremony at the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) to collect the prestigious Prince Philip and Marsh Prize for this piece of experimental work on wormeries. The competition is run annually by the ZSL, who award the prize to a Sixth Form student for an account of practical work involving some aspect of animal biology.

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SUPERSTRING THEORY / REVIEW ARTICLE

SUPERSTRING THEORY

Daniel Fryday from St Mary's Catholic School in Bishops Stortford gives you an introduction to the Superstring Theory.

T

he Superstring Theory is a way in which scientists attempt to explain all of the fundamental particles and forces of nature.

The Superstring Theory is an idea that explains how our universe is just one in a long string of others. This concept can be used to solve many of our problems in our universe. For example if we get stuck in a situation in which we could be erased from existence and are universe with it; the superstring theory says that there may be a wormhole in are universe in a shape of Calibi-Yau .

Calabi-Yau spaces are important in string theory, where one model posits the geometry of the universe to consist of a ten-dimensional space of the form M x V where M is a four dimensional manifold (space-time) and V is a six dimensional compact Calabi-Yau space.

As there could potentially be a “wormhole” this could then mean that we could use several ways to get there, such as: the ISS; so we could travel through space to reach it.

We could then use the resources on board to enable us to start new life in the different universes; if there is not already.

“

This would then enable us to then travel through time and space in to another dimension in which we then come into contact with another universe however the universe in which we might come into contact with, could be exactly like ours with our exact replica’s and could then lead into an alteration in the other universe which would then result in an alteration in the timeline.

BIOGRAPHY

The strings made of matter are complex objects which require a highly specific form of long-chain inter-atomic bonding (mostly carbon based). This would be difficult to implement even if the physics parameters of our universe were tweaked. This complex bonding gets even more complicated when you add in elasticity. In short, a real vibrating string could be the answer to our most complex physics laws and problems. These strings are pure mathematical abstractions.

Real vibrating string could be the answer to our most complex physics laws and problems. These strings are pure mathematical abstractions.

However, due to Quantum Entanglement, there could still be an interconnection between particles through different universes therefore we could still be able to communicate with living organisms from our own universe.

DANIEL FRYDAY, 14, St Mary’s Catholic School, UK

Daniel Fryday likes physics and maths in particular. In the future, he wants to become a stockbroker. Aside from school, Daniel is a guitarist who has been playing for five years. He’s also got a passion for sports and comedy.

[Image: madscience.in]

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