October 2012
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Prepared for:
Prepared by:
RESILIENCE ASSESSMENT
State of Hawaii Dept of Land & Natural Resources DIvision of Forestry and Wildlife
for Master Plan
DOFAW Makiki Baseyard Done in conjunction with:
Helber Hastert & Fee Planners’ Makiki Baseyard Master Plan Report October 2012
2135 Makiki Heights Drive O’ahu, Hawaii TMK: 25019008:000
GUIDING PRINCIPLES
Resilience (noun): the ability of a system to absorb disturbance and still retain its basic function and structure. 1.
WHY PLAN FOR RESILIENCE? Hawai’i is currently the most energy insecure state in the nation, supplying more than 90 percent of its energy needs in the form of imported oil.1 Indeed, nearly everything in our lives revolves around a steady supply of fossil fuels. As unfettered consumption continues to deplete the world’s oil, coal, and natural gas reserves, global climate patterns are being altered at an alarming rate due to carbon dioxide emissions from these non-renewable energy sources. These climate shifts are causing severe droughts, hurricanes, and flood events to intensify and last much longer. Due to the fragility and remoteness of the Hawaiian archipelago, less energy-intensive, more human scale methods of living and working are becoming necessary. There is also a pressing need to redesign our buildings and landscapes to respond positively to these shocks. Government agencies such as DLNR’s Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW) can take a leadership role in demonstrating the different methods to increase resilience in Hawai’i.
PROJECT OVERVIEW
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GOALS Appropriate uses of water, energy, and biological resources are showcased Natural capital (habitat and genetic diversity) and social capital (cultural knowledge) of Makiki Valley is protected and enhanced Stormwater runoff from the Baseyard’s impervious surfaces is decreased by 95 percent Rainwater catchment supplies 95 percent of water needs for nursery, outplantings, and other non-potable uses Energy use is reduced by 50 percent through personal conservation, energy audits, and energy efficient technologies Alternative energy systems power 75 percent of Makiki Baseyard Habitat is selectively restored for native flora and fauna
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RESILIENCE: Capable of withstanding shocks from off the site (e.g, fires, floods, hurricanes, drought, power outages, etc.) INTEGRATION: The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. STEWARDSHIP: Ecological and cultural resources are enhanced and treasured by humans.
Ua Mau ke Ea o ka ‘Āina i ka Pono
Stewardship (noun): the responsible overseeing and protection of something worth caring for and preserving. (Webster)
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DOFAW Makiki Baseyard
Geographic Location The DLNR Division of Forestry and Wildlife’s Makiki Baseyard is located on the island of O’ahu, in the Makiki ahupua’a, midway through lush Makiki Valley. The site lies within the larger district, or moku, of Kona, now known as Honolulu. Makiki Valley’s extensive 14 mile network of hiking trails, combined with its close proximity to metropolitan Honolulu, make it a highly desirable recreational destination for residents and visitors seeking to reconnect with the natural world. Rainwater resources are plentiful in the Makiki Valley compared to other areas of Honolulu. Rapidly rising air from the Pacific Ocean forced up by the Ko’olau Mountain Range creates an extreme rainfall gradient in the Makiki ahupua’a. The Makiki Baseyard site receives more than 60 inches of rain every year, compared to a mere 20 annual inches of rain deposited on Waikiki, only 2.5 miles away.2
CONTEXT
Human Impacts
Reliance on Imported Goods
O'ahu's human population increased nearly nine percent between 2000 and 2010.3 This growth, coupled with more than a million visitors annually from outside the state, is putting excessive pressures on O'ahu's energy, water, and agricultural resources. There is a dire need to demonstrate stewardship of these natural resources. Given its prominent location within urban Honolulu, DLNR's Makiki Baseyard could serve as a prime example of how the daily operations of a state facility can have a positive impact on the surrounding environment by creating rather than consuming resources.
Twenty five hundred miles separates O’ahu from the nearest continent. Prior to western contact, the Hawai’ian Islands were almost totally self-sufficient for their material needs. Currently, 85 percent of all food and 90 percent of all power consumed on O’ahu is imported from outside the state.4 A major disturbance to global international commerce could jeopardize the quality of life enjoyed by people in Hawai’i.
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Truly Renewable Energy
What is Embodied Energy?
Choosing to Use Less Energy
Solar energy delivered to Earth from the Sun is the building block upon which all life depends. Plants-the principal systems for harvesting solar energy--have optimized this energy collection process over 3,800 million years of evolution. Any technological “improvement” by humans is highly improbable despite frequent claims to the contrary.5
In the remodeling and expansion of the Makiki Baseyard, priority should be given to those products that, from design, to material extraction, to manufacturing, to distribution, and, finally, to installation and use, require as little energy as possible. Locally sourced materials, such as wood harvested on-island or reclaimed materials from deconstructed buildings, have a much lower “energy memory”, or embodied energy, than comparable materials imported to the island from elsewhere.
“Negawatting” (also known as energy conservation) encourages individuals and organizations to make conscious choices to reduce their energy use.
While the design of high performance devices may have its place, energy efficiency efforts fail to address the growing demand for electricity by O’ahu’s burgeoning human population. In an era of declining oil, gas, and coal reserves, energy conservation clearly has an important role to play in all our lives.
wikimedia.org
Development of solar, wind, and biofuel technologies, while possibly appropriate on a small, site-specific scale, are not capable of sustaining high-energy industrial culture without being subsidized, to some degree, by fossil fuel inputs.6 As a case in point, photovoltaic panels currently require more energy to manufacture, ship, and install than they generate over their life span.7
Energy efficiency, by contrast, is a measure of the energetic performance of a technology. Energy efficient appliances can decrease energy loads by as much as twenty percent.8
Baseline Energy Audit
FIGURE 1: Different Forms of Embodied Energy zerowaste.sa.gov.au
Before any alternative power systems are installed, a comprehensive energy audit should be conducted of all new and existing buildings at the Makiki Baseyard. The information gleaned from this audit will allow DOFAW to properly size each alternative power system to meet the energy needs of the administration buildings as well as the baseyard.
FIGURE 2: Trajectory of Ecologically Responsible Behavior
ENERGY ABSTRACT
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Sunny Side Up The Makiki Baseyard receives an average of 6 hours of high quality solar radiation every day.9 Building roofs and covered parking areas could harvest an abundance of solar energy for use at the facility. However, the embodied energy costs associated with the manufacture, distribution, and installation of solar panels should be carefully considered before moving forward with any purchases.
If high efficiency solar photovoltaic (PV) panels were installed on all existing and proposed roof spaces, approximately 360,000 kilowatts of solar power could be generated at the Makiki Baseyard. SunPower, a US-based company, manufactures the world’s most efficient solar PV panel.10 Though fifteen percent more costly than other brands (e.g., Kyocera, 1-SolTech), the higher efficiency and longer useful life of SunPower panels may conceivably make up for this greater up-front cost. Solar roof shingles are not recommended for use at the Makiki Baseyard, due to low efficiency ratings and issues with long-term maintenance.
aadnc-aandc.gc.ca
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
FIGURE 3: Components of a Solar Photovoltaic System
A PV array should be sized to produce (on average) thirty percent more energy than the load requires. This compensates for battery losses and for less-than-average charging conditions.11 In addition to grid-tied solar PV systems, DOFAW should explore the possibility of a battery assisted solar PV array on buildings that would need to function independently in the event of a power outage. Excess power could be fed back into the energy grid. Batteries need to be assessed every 6 months for signs of corrosion, and to ensure that they contain an adequate amount of distilled water.
FIGURE 5: PV panels above parking stalls are an efficient use of space.
ALTERNATIVE POWER
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FIGURE 4: Solar Photovoltaic Analysis
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Microhydroelectric System
Alternative Transportation Options
Hydroelectric power installations in miniature, “microhydro” systems generally generate under 100 kilowatts of power -- enough to power a home or small business facility.12 The perennial flow of the Makiki Stream could lend itself to powering a microhydro system for the Baseyard. However, the sheer amount of energy used on a daily basis at the Baseyard may relegate this technology to demonstration purposes only. Another possibility would be to dedicate the power from this hydropower system to a small building on site.
DOFAW may want to consider collaborating with the Hawaii Nature Center and the Hālau Kū Māna Public Charter School to advocate for an additional bus stop along The Bus’ route #15, next to the Hawai’i Nature Center.
In order for wind to be a viable power source, a site needs to have dependable wind speeds of at least 12 miles per hour.13 Wind speeds near the Makiki site average less than 10 mph consistently.14 Thus, wind is not an appropriate power source for the Makiki Baseyard.
Biofuels Biologically based fuels are growing in popularity around the world as an alternative to fossil fuels such as oil and diesel. To lower the amount of embodied energy in the fuel, seek to purchase biofuel made from post-consumer vegetable oil sourced from restaurants in Honolulu. Biofuel produced from virgin plant products, such as palms, soybeans, and corn, often has a very high embodied energy content, and should thus be avoided.15 Algae-based biofuel is showing great promise, but is still under development.16
ALTERNATIVE POWER
A growing body of research is correlating quality daylighting in buildings to increased worker productivity. A 2003 study of office worker productivity conducted by the California Energy Commission found exposure to daylight was consistently linked with higher levels of concentration and better short-term memory.17 Cost effective, easy to install, and virtually maintenance free, solar tunnels can provide quality daylighting in otherwise dark locations. Clerestory windows—high, vertically placed panes of glass—offer another method for welcoming sunlight into the indoor environment.
gosolarusa.com
Wind Power System
Daylighting
FIGURE 6: Components of a Solar Hot Water System Solar Hot Water System
Electric Vehicle Charging Station All of the Baseyard’s vehicles are currently powered by either diesel or gasoline. It may be worthwhile for DOFAW to assess whether replacing certain fossil fuel-powered vehicles in the Baseyard fleet with electrically-charged vehicles would make good economic and environmental sense. Each charging station could potentially be powered by solar panels located on the charging station’s roof.
An under-utilized alternative energy system for heating water in Hawai’i, solar hot water panels (also known as solar thermal panels) are an excellent alternative power source for the Makiki Baseyard. Through the passive action of the sun, water is heated in evacuated tubes, then cycled into the building for use in showers or faucets. Solar thermal can provide high performance for up to three decades, sometimes considerably longer. The systems can pay for themselves, through savings in utility bills, in as little as two years.18 The only routine maintenance required is flushing the water heater once every 12 months. The solar hot water panels should be installed directly above the facilities they will be servicing. Two to four panels will likely be sufficient to meet the hot water needs of each bathroom and shower facility.
925 Bethel Street, Suite 100 Honolulu, HI 96813 www.rothecologicaldesign.com
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RAINWATER CATCHMENT ANALYSIS
The abundance of water falling from the sky in many places across the Aloha State makes rainwater catchment an obvious choice for any building seeking water selfreliance.
Structure Existing Main Building 2-story addition to Main Building General Storage existing Forestry building new Forestry building new Operations Center building new Wildlife building new Na Ala Hele building new Fuel Storage building subtotal all covered parking areas TOTAL
More than sixty inches of rain falls onto the Makiki Baseyard every year. This precious resource should be directed to the highest possible use.
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Lightweight, portable, and easy to clean, “poly” tanks are well suited to storing water from smaller catchment rooflines. Regrettably, the polyethylene plastic photodegrades when exposed to ultravioet light. However, the tank can be aesthetically hidden from the sun’s harmful rays behind a sandwiched layer of lava rocks sourced from the site and welded wire wrapped around the entire tank. Subterranean tanks are also growing in popularity. .
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clean coarse filter once per month
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clean inside of tank every three years
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check ferrocement tank for cracks after any earthquake event
Though roughly double the time and materials cost of a corrugated metal tank, ferrocement tanks set the benchmark in quality for all other types of large-scale water cisterns. The tanks can last indefinitely if the exterior is repatched with cement every 20 years.18 Ferrocement tanks can be built to virtually any size and shape, and use much less concrete than solid-pour concrete tanks. Due to their integral metal framing, ferrocement tanks hold up exceedingly well during earthquakes. If DOFAW’s budget permits, it is recommended that every rainwater cistern at the Makiki Baseyard be constructed out of ferrocement.
ADDITIONAL PARTS Gutter directs roof water into catchment system
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Concrete foundation stabilizes and secures tank
Coarse Leaf Filter with wire mesh cover keeps out animals & organic debris
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“First flush” pipe system redirects initial 50-100 gallons of contaminated water from rain event
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220 volt pump, with coarse filter, allows tank to be completely drained
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Pressure gauge and pressure tank pressurize water
Figure 7: Rainwater System Components Access Hatch for cleaning Sturdy Roof
Overflow Device keeps water level below top of tank
Inlet Pipe
Mesh covers for water tanks should be avoided entirely, as they have a relatively short lifespan, and, if not kept taut, can be a vector for water contamination. Solid covers are much more durable, and can also be angled to serve as an additional water catchment area.
RAINWATER TANKS
Ferrocement Tanks
Maintenance Tasks
Polyethylene Tanks
Tank covers
Square Gallons of Gallons of Footage of Harvestable Water Harvestable Roof per Average Month Water per Year 3327 16635 199620 2250 11250 135000 790 3950 47400 650 3250 39000 2500 12500 150000 1840 9200 110400 2250 11250 135000 1420 7100 85200 360 1800 21600 15387 76935 923220 4700 2937.5 35250 20087 79872.5 958470
Lava Rock + Mesh “Sandwich” protects poly tank from UV rays
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John Schinnerer
Every roof is a watershed.
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Slow It! Spread It! Sink It!
FIGURE 8: Permeable pavers are constructed of porous material, allowing surface runoff to SINK into the ground.
Water can be destroyer or creator, depending on how its energies are directed. In 2006, rain fell continuously from O’ahu’s skies for 40 days and nights. Workers at the Makiki Baseyard had to wade through knee deep water while performing their job functions.19 The Makiki Stream flooded its banks, pouring into the Hawai’i Nature Center building. 20 As storms in Hawai’i become more frequent and intense due to climate change, our landscapes need to be redesigned for resilience to these extreme weather events.
FIGURE 9: Taro Lo’i Terracing Makiki Valley was once extensively terraced with lo’i (taro paddies), the remnants of which can still be seen today.21 Throughout the world, terraces serve the vital ecological functions of SLOWING, SPREADING, and SINKING water into the landscape—purifying water by removing nutrients and sediment, rehydrating underground aquifers, and creating valuable habitat.
Bioswales and Rain Gardens A bioswale is a water harvesting ditch installed along a contour line.
FIGURE 10: Surface flow constructed wetlands are designed to catch and remove pollutants from storm runoff before infiltrating and recharging the water table. An elongated shape is preferable.
Mulch It! A two to three inch layer of mulch protects soil from direct rain impact and SLOWS runoff across barren soils.
Vegetate It! In addition to SLOWING water and sediment movement, plants stabilize slopes through their root systems, remove excess nutrients and other pollutants, and enhance soil infiltration.
FIGURE 11: Vegetated bioswales, known as rain gardens, capture and filter water running off of impermeable surfaces such as parking lots and sidewalks.
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
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RETHINKING “WASTE” In nature, waste does not exist. Every output is consumed as “food” by another member of the ecosystem. Modern society, by contrast, produces enormous amounts of material that is not cycled to the highest use possible. On an island as small and densely populated as O’ahu, it is of vital importance to transform all “waste” products into high value resources.
Feed the Soil! In the tropics and subtropics, organic matter is consumed very quickly by bacteria and other microorganisms. Lacking quality organic matter, ecosystem health soon degrades. Sadly, more than thirty percent of the material sent to O’ahu’s landfills is biodegradable.
The Green Machine
Composting Toilets As human populations in urban areas put pressures on centralized sewer systems, the importance of decentralized waste processing systems such as composting toilets are becoming increasingly relevant. An obvious choice as an outdoor latrine, composting toilets may also be appropriate for use inside main facilities. Often less odorous than conventional toilets, these living lavatories transform humanure into a rich, nutritionally balanced mulch.
WASTE = FOOD
The Green Machine is a tank-based wetland technology using the natural filtering abilities of a wetland ecology to purify wastewater. It currently treats approximately 1000 gpd of effluent from the Hawai’i Nature Center’s administration buildings. Because the Green Machine is aging, it may be more economical in the long run to devise a new constructed wetland wastewater system that is more passive by design, instead of renovating the Green Machine. This new natural systems technology could be sized to handle effluent from the new DOFAW Makiki Baseyard buildings and perhaps even include the treatment of wastewater from nearby Hālau Kū Māna Charter School or other buildings presently on septic systems. Roth Ecological Design Int LLC has the expertise to conduct a feasibility analysis and to provide design and construction documents for the creation of a new, state of the art natural systems technology to treat the DOFAW wastewater for onsite reuse..22
925 Bethel Street, Suite 100 Honolulu, HI 96813 www.rothecologicaldesign.com
As a government agency seeking to demonstrate ecologically sound management practices, DLNR DOFAW should make every effort to return as much of the following organic matter as possible to the site’s soils and plants: •
Food scraps
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Paper products
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Wood chips
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Tending the Wild In 1 31, an Austrian botanist visiting O’ahu was amazed at the genetic diversity of the native Hawai’ian plants he encountered in Makiki Valley.22 Sadly, the vast majority of these endemic and indigenous plants have been outcompeted by opportunistic species hailing from outside of Hawai’i. Efforts should be made by O AW to restore pockets of these native plants in and around the Baseyard. As these planted pockets mature, they can serve as propagation material for future outplanting and restoration work elsewhere in Makiki Valley, and at other NR properties throughout the state.
Ecological Regeneration Realistically, non-native plants in Hawai’i are here to stay. An adaptive management approach is necessary—one that keeps opportunistic plants in check, while also allowing Hawai’i’s native plants to thrive. Interestingly, many of these non-native plants are very useful as food, fiber, and medicine important components of resilience. The novel ecosystems created by these plant interactions requires new models of land stewardship, such as forest gardening. ‘Ulu
(upper canopy layer)
‘Ohia ‘ai
(mid canopy layer)
Noni
(mid canopy layer)
Mai’a
(low canopy layer)
‘Uala
(herbaceous
root layer)
Pia
(herbaceous layer)
(vining
Uhi
root layer)
‘Awa
(shrub layer)
FIGURE 11: In a well designed forest garden, maintenance efforts are minimized, yields are maximized, and outside sources of fertility are reduced due to thoughtful placement of plants.
REGENERATIVE LAND CARE
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A
Rainwater Cisterns (10,000 gallon capacity), constructed of ferrocement, store water from roofs for cleaning baseyard equipment, watering the nursery, and flushing toilets. Rainwater Cisterns (5,000 gallon capacity), constructed of ferrocement, store water from rooflines for non-potable uses.
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Permeable paving infiltrates stormwater into the ground, reducing surface runoff from roads.
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Rain gardens harvest water and treat pollutants shed off the pavement and parking stalls.
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Elongated detention ponds, placed on the contour, absorb and treat stormwater runoff.
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Composting toilet cycles nutrients deposited by inmate workers.
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On-contour swales harvest overflow from detention pond and infiltrate excess stormwater into ground, rehydrating the local aquifer.
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Riparian vegetation buffer, comprised of multifunctional plants, screens views from across Makiki Stream and filters excess stormwater.
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Terraced garden beds, constructed from lava rock sourced on-site, are home to a wide variety of multifunctional plants—some grown for habitat restoration, others heeled in for outplanting. Solar thermal panels heat water for use in shower, bathroom, and equipment facilities.
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Solar photovoltaic panels power DOFAW buildings and equipment, and offset carbon emissions from O’ahu’s conventional electric grid.
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A state of the art constructed wetland cycles nutrients deposited by visitors and workers at the Hawaii Nature Center, Hālau Kū Māna Charter School, and the DOFAW Makiki Baseyard.
INTEGRATED DESIGN
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CITATIONS 1. Hawaiian Electric Company. “Renewable Energy Basics.” http://www.heco.com/portal/ site/heco/menuitem.8e4610c1e23714340b4c0610c510b1ca/?vgnextoid=deeaf2b154da9010V gnVCM10000053011bacRCRD. Accessed on 17 Sept 2012.
13. American Wind Energy Association. “FAQ for Small Wind Systems.” < http://www.awea. org/learnabout/publications/upload/Small_Wind_FAQ_Factsheet.pdf>. Accessed on 8 Sept 2012.
2. Giambelluca TW, Chen Q, Frazier AG, Price JP, Chen Y-L, Chu P-S, Eischeid J., and Delparte, D. 2011. “The Rainfall Atlas of Hawai‘i.” <http://rainfall.geography.hawaii.edu>.
14. “Wind Data: Honolulu, Hawaii (airport).” <http://web.utk.edu/~archinfo/EcoDesign/ escurriculum/CLIMATEDATA/CITYDATA/Honolulu/honoluluWind.html>. Accessed on 9 Sept 2012.
3. US Census Bureau. “Honolulu County Quick Facts.” <http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/ states/15/15003.html> Accessed on 18 Sept 2012. 4. State of Hawaii, DBEDT, Research & Economic Analysis Division. “State of Hawaii Energy Data and Trends,” Page 1, March 2011. <http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/economic/data_reports/ reports-studies/energy-data-trend-2011.pdf>. Accessed on 15 Sept 2012. 5.
Holmgren, David. “Energy and Permaculture.” Permaculture Activist. Issue 31. May 1994.
6. Odum, Howard T. “Environment, Power and Society for the Twenty-First Century: The Hierarchy of Energy.” Columbia University Press (2007). 7. Trainer, Theodore. “Renewable Energy Cannot Sustain a Consumer Society.” Springer (2007). 8. US Environmental Protection Agency. “Save Energy at Home.” <http://www.energystar. gov/index.cfm?c=products.pr_save_energy_at_home>. Accessed on 4 Sept 2012. 9. State of Hawaii Department of Energy. “Oahu Solar Map.” <http://energy.hawaii.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2011/10/OahuSolarMap.pdf>. Accessed on 4 Sept 2012. 10. US SunPower Corporation. “SunPower E20 Data Sheet.” <http://www.evoenergy.co.uk/ wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Sunpower-E20-333W.pdf. Accessed on 8 Sept 2012. 11. Wholesale Solar. “Battery Maintenance.” <http://www.wholesalesolar.com/InformationSolarFolder/battery.maintenance.html>. Accessed ib 9 Sept 2012. 12. US Department of Energy. “Microhydropower Systems.” <http://energy.gov/energysaver/ articles/microhydropower-systems>. Accessed on 9 Sept 2012.
REFERENCES
925 Bethel Street, Suite 100 Honolulu, HI 96813 www.rothecologicaldesign.com
15. L.P. Ju, B. Chen. Embodied energy and emergy evaluation of a typical biodiesel production chain in China. Ecological Modelling, Volume 222, Issue 14, 24 July 2011, Pages 2385-2392. 16. Netlner, Brian. “Algae-Based Biodiesel.” <http://web.mit.edu/neltnerb/www/papers/ Algae%20Based%20Biodiesel.pdf>. Accessed on 11 Sept 2012. 17. California Energy Commission. “Windows and Offices: A Study of Office Worker Performance and the Indoor Environment.” <http://rcgb.rutgers.edu/uploaded_documents/A-9_ Windows_Offices_.pdf>. Accessed on 9 Sept 2012. 18. Trisha MacComber, CTAHR Rainwater Catchment Specialist (personal communication, 21 Sept 2012). 19. National Renewable Energy Lab. “Simple Payback for Solar Hot Water Systems.” <http:// www.nrel.gov/gis/images/femp/graphic_shwe3_pbnoincen.jpg>. Accessed on 9 Sept 2012. 20. Steve Seiler, Field Projects Specialist, DLNR Division of Forestry and Wildlife (personal communication, 19 Sept 2012) 21. Jennifer Peterson. Curriculum Specialist and Natural Historian, Hawai’i Nature Center (personal communication,17 Sept 2012). 22. Jennifer Peterson. Curriculum Specialist and Natural Historian, Hawai’i Nature Center (personal communication,17 Sept 2012). 23. Lauren C. Roth Venu. President, Roth Ecological Design Int. LLC (personal communication, 15 Sept 2012).
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