Urban Green Spaces and Social Cohesion: Architectural Strategies for Enhancing Community Well-being

Urban Green Spaces and Social Cohesion:

Architectural Strategies for Enhancing

Community Well-being

Designing Research | 2024

Ruonan Liu a1731019

Xinran Guo a1876391

‘Design always presents itself as serving the human but its real ambition is to redesign the human. The history of design is therefore a history of evolving conceptions of the human. To talk about design is to talk about the state of our species.’

Are we Human?

Notes on an Archaeology of Design.

CONTENTS

Summary Introduction

Statement Overview

Context

Health Benefits

Social Interaction and Community Building

Environmental Benefits

Architectural Strategies and challenges

Conclusion

Bibliography List

Summary

This essay describes the critical need of urban green spaces for community health and social bonds. The topic is social, societal, responsible urban trend worldwide and focused on abstract themes such as parks as catalyst of a cityscape of physical and psychological health in the context of well being. Supported by examples from Australia, they explore how greening contributes both to mitigation of the urban heat island effect and to promotion of community engagement. It calls for green urban infrastructure to deliver healthy, resilient livable cities, where people can plan healthy lives in new ways.

Introduction

Design creates human beings; it is the foundation of social life. Nowadays, there is a global shift in focus towards responsibility for the development of urban green spaces and the improvement of services in all types of urban open spaces. As urban green spaces are one of the most important factors affecting the wellbeing and quality of life of residents.2

The article will explore how urban green spaces are designed to meet human needs, promote physical and mental health, and provide comfort and social interaction. The positive impact that green space environments can have is determined by testing vegetation indices and detecting the emotional and sensory state of the individuals taking the measurements. The study of compartments can help to provide design insights for architects when choosing urban plans, especially in terms of vegetation selection or greening types.

Many of the examples in this paper will focus on the case of Australia, where despite the global nature of

climate change, the ozone layer has been depleted by 5 to 9 per cent since the 1960s, which increases the risk to Australians of being overexposed to UV rays due to outdoor lifestyles.

Therefore the planning of urban green spaces as a way to reduce the heat island effect and create shade and increase relative humidity through evapotranspiration to avoid heat build up will be a necessary study with an emphasis on interdisciplinary design as described in the book, such as urban planning, landscape architecture and environmental sciences as well as the impacts of biodiversity.

Statement Overview

Beatriz Colomina and Mark Wigley in their book mentioned “Are We Human? Notes on an Archaeology of Design” and they explored the great influence of design on human life, highlighting that design has shaped human identity and their experience. The perspective they mentioned are highly relevant to the discussion of urban green spaces. The author argues that design is intrinsic to human evolution, transforming both our environment and human beings. The concept they argued concentrate on how designed urban green spaces can improve social connections and community well-being. The main idea of the book and this essay is to emphasis that design sustainable communities and inclusive communities. Urban planners and architects can create spaces that not only fulfill social requirements and ecological but also improve the quality of life in urban areas by studying and using design principles.

On their book, Colomina and Wigley believe that design

exists in our daily life as well as everywhere on the planet, it is like how urban green spaces are integral to urban ecosystems. García et al believed there are many benefits of green space, because of these spaces provide ecological benefits, protect biodiversity, and reduce climate change by reducing heat islands and carbon dioxide.3 Niemela and James stated that effective management and regular evaluation, for example, the design of Singapore's National Parks Board, lead to sustainability and make residents enjoy the green space.4

Figure 1: are we human

3. Angelica María Saeteros Hernández, Ángel Gillemes Peira, Giovanny Haro Sosa, Enrique Tapia Segarra, Jessica Robalino Vallejo, Diego Viteri Nuñez, Cristian García Pumagualle, 2024, Prioritizing Urban Green Space in Riobamba, Ecuador: A Study on Current Practices and Community Perspectives for Health Benefits (Ecuador).

4.M. Demuzere, K. Orru, O. Heidrich, E. Olazabal, D. Geneletti, H. Orru, A.G. Bhave, N. Mittal, E. Feliu, M. Faehnle, 2014, Mitigating and Adapting to Climate Change: Multi-functional and Multi-scale Assessment of Green Urban Infrastructure (Journal of Environmental Management), 107-115.

Health Benefits

There has been a large amount of research on the relationship between natural green space and human well-being. Being in, near, or able to see green space may contribute to the ability to build better mental health, help restore depleted cognitive abilities, enhance recovery from periods of psychosocial stress, and even increase optimism.5 Most of the extant research on responding to urban green space and human health basically uses about the same exposure values for a sample of studies, majority are referencing the percentage of green space, tree canopy, grassland, or low-lying vegetation measured within the distance buffer zone of the road network.

A study using experimental and longitudinal methods in Urban Green Space and Its Impact on Human Health published in Michelle et al. provides an interim examination of changes in health indicators and outcomes due to changes in green space exposure. 6 Using the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to represent the amount of green space within a residential area, and taking into account a variety of

variables and limitations, the study also took into account the participants' actual living area and physiological responses to exposure to green space, such as running on a tree-lined greenway and testing in an urban-industrial setting. Also assessed using the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), the emotional and sensory states of the participants before and after a 4-mile run on natural and artificial urban routes were significantly detected, with perceptions of improved greenery associated with a reduction in depressive symptoms in adults. Residents living near untreated control open spaces showed improved self-reported stress compared to those living near cleaned and greened open spaces.

Another significant effect of green spaces on mental health is that when cancer patients establish a deeper contact with nature, it helps to stimulate feelings of life and plant growth as well as therapies involving meditation may help with spiritual care that related aspects such as emotions.7 Despite the fact that cancer treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy,

with much higher cure, remission, and survival rates. However, psychological and spiritual approaches to treating cancer patients are not yet fully established and many cancer patients experience emotional, psychological and spiritual problems such as anxiety, depression and despair. Psychological care e.g. therapies that stimulate feelings of plant and animal life and growth and meditation demonstrated a significant increase in well-being during the experiment.

It is also worth noting that Australia has one of the highest rates of skin cancer in the world. Approximately 2 in 3 Australians will be diagnosed with some form of skin cancer before the age of 70. Non-melanoma skin cancer is the most common cancer in Australia. Higher levels of residential green space may be protective against NMSC in areas of low to moderate UV intensity.8 This has been a boom for tree planting activities in various communities in Australia.

From a health perspective, the composite measure of health is alway being uncertain because of the

limitations of assessing demographic background, family history, social background, reproductive factors, and educational attainment. However, what can be shown from the study is that urban green spaces have a beneficial effect on physical and mental health by reducing exposure to air pollutants, noise and excessive heat to a large extent, as well as providing psychological relaxation and stress relief. The above research will provide invaluable design insights for designers in their choice of urban planning whether it be street trees, private planting, parks, farmland and other small scale indicators or greening types.

Social Interaction and Community Building

Maes et al mentioned that urban green infrastructures are highly recognized to achieve Sustainable Development Goals and meeting the broader objectives Agenda in 2030.9 Mensah et al proposed similar idea and argued that the benefits of land covered by green plant, in other words, vegetated can help local residence enhanced physical and mental health, increased social cohesion, and improved happiness and satisfaction of life.10 On the other hand, Jennings and Bamkole has also found that green spaces have been found as a helpful way to relief mental health issues and help social interactions, highlighting that those urban landscapes play a pivotal role in society. 11

As discussed, urban green spaces play an important role in developing social interactions and strength community relationship. The ultimate goal of urban green spaces is designed to include diverse groups and help bring people together and therefore improve the overall quality of life in society. As the book mentioned above ask a question "Are We Human?", which shows that the magic of design in reshaping human experiences

the magic of design in reshaping human experiences and the structures in society.

Urban green spaces can also instil social vitality: as social hubs with high individual contact rates, they can play an important role in intergroup encounters, reinforcing communal bonds and promoting social cohesion.

Green spaces become sites for socialisation because they can support many types of social interaction, from spontaneous encounters to organised community activities, because they are settings where different demographic groups can come together, and because they provide places that are nongraded from the perspective of social class and identity. Key to developing such spaces is their design and accessibility.

These can include organised events, such as festivals, farmers’ markets and cultural festivals, that provide clear opportunities for socialising by providing communal meeting areas for individuals, structured ways for people to come together and share aspects of their lives, and

9.Mikaël J.A. Maes, Kate E. Jones, Mireille B. Toledano, Ben Milligan, 2019, Mapping Synergies and Trade-offs between

ample opportunities to develop meaningful connections. Additionally, these shared experiences reduce social and cultural boundaries, fostering feelings of belonging and cohesion between participants.

Similar patterns of empirical support have been identified for the role of ‘green spaces’ in fostering social interactions. Peters’s research indicates that frequent visitors to urban parks develop more social activity – and hence more sense of community. Peters et al found that, among Thieme Park regulars, there existed a high sense of belonging and community spirit, which they attributed to the frequent social interactions the park encouraged.The capacity of green spaces to help communities build cohesive relationships is demonstrated by numerous successful examples across the globe.

For instance, the Royal Botanic Gardens in Melbourne, Australia is a public space for locals and tourists alike, a site attracting all ages, young families with strollers and seniors. The park provides regular activities such as

guided tours and educational programmes designed for the whole family, as well as special events like outdoor cinema nights screening vintage films, seed exchange, botanical art workshops, painting classes and exhibitions. These activities bring the public regularly to the gardens, with people interacting within each other. It’s a hub of activity .12

Figure 2: the Royal Botanic Gardens in Melbourne, Australia, Lana, 2023

Social interactions are an important factor in management of these royal botanic gardens - and it still takes loads to operationally keeps the gardens successful. The reason of so many events and programmes held periodly year after year is not just for the visitants. The main aim of this is the gardens can create more and more opportunities for people get together to talk to each other, share what people doing, saying, feeling and thinking with each other. That means this place can become a kind of community center where kinds of people come to meet up.

Centennial Parklands in Sydney is another good example of a green space that can enhance community solidarity. Spread across 329 hectares of parkland encompassing three large urban parks – Centennial Park, Moore Park and Queens Park – it is a green oasis located within New South Wales’ most populous city.

Figure 3: Centennial Parklands in Sydney, Seafarrwide, 2015

At Centennial Parklands, free public events that draw a broad crowd – outdoor fitness classes, music festivals and cultural celebrations – further individual attachment, generating a sense of shared identity among eventgoers.13 The design of the parklands is geared toward sociability: through open vistas and scenic spots where users congregate, and where sociality and cheer can abound. Moreover, these connections can permeate beyond the parklands themselves, as Centennial Parklands are a focal point of community life in their local environs. Centennial Parklands are a source of pride and civic investment that the community has birthright, no doubt an important aspect to instill in one’s children.

The South Bank Parklands in Brisbane offers a model for how urban parks can help to build social harmony. Designed on the bank of the Brisbane River, the parkland has the ambience of an open natural space, combined with cultural and recreational facilities; for example, Streets Beach, a manmade beach which lies between hectic Brisbane and the South Bank Parklands, and the

Rainforest Walk, a tropical garden room, both invite people to relax and participate in unstructured social gatherings.

Various community events are held in South Bank Parklands, such as weekend markets, outdoor concerts and festivals that promote diversity throughout the year and provide structured interactions between the residents and visitors that foster relationships. 14 The inclusive design and diverse entertainment of South Bank Parklands enhance social interactions to form a living community.

Ultimately, we can conclude that these elements make urban green spaces places that engender sociality and effective communal interactions; they become environments that promote social cohesion and cultivate an improved quality to the urban experience. Accordingly, green spaces have the capacity to act as the focal point and social hub for neighborhood interaction, within settings that are inclusive of many diverse users. As cities evolve and grow and take on the inevitable

stresses and strains that go along with such trajectories, it is imperative that their urban green spaces are sustained and enhanced. Cities are only ever as sustainable, inclusive and vibrant as their green spaces.

Figure 4: South Bank Parklands in Brisbane, Kgbo,2018

Environmental Benefits

Figure 5: relationships between urban green spaces, air pollution, and residents' health

Urban ecosystems will greatly influence human wellbeing, and in addition to what has been mentioned previously, when used as a place of recreation, urban green spaces provide opportunities for humans to interact with nature and people, also helping to alleviate depression and improve the psychological well-being of individuals. When used as a place for socialising, they help to promote community cohesion and increase social interaction.

Climate change affects the health and quality of life of

urban populations. Urban green spaces support several important ecosystem services, including climate regulation. Urban vegetation mitigates high temperatures, thereby reducing heat stress for urban residents, creating a more comfortable and healthier living environment for residents.15

One of the causes of the urban heat island effect is the transformation of naturally permeable surfaces into impermeable surfaces Anthropogenic heat generated by transport, industrial and residential buildings, such as

heating in winter, air conditioning in summer, urban geometry (e.g., convection reduction), tailpipe emissions, and other factors contribute to the urban heat island effect, as well as to urban outdoor thermal discomfort causes.16 One of the urban design elements that can positively change the microclimate of a city is the urban green space, and Murtinová et al. show that the urban heat island effect exists even in mediumsized or small cities, the vegetation can avoids heat accumulation by creating shade and increasing relative humidity through evapotranspiration.17 Urban green infrastructure is defined as a network of multifunctional green spaces that can provide multiple environmental, social and economic benefits to urban areas.

A green roof is definitely one of the effective means of regulating ambient air temperature. It is aesthetically pleasing and also acts as a barrier to prevent excessive solar heat from penetrating and being absorbed by the substrate, which is then released, further exacerbating the urban heat island effect. A large proportion of

15. Veronika Murtinová, Igor Gallay, Branislav Olah, 2022, Mitigating

roofs in urban centres in most regions are suitable for retrofitting, with green roofs functioning as urban ecosystems with variable substrate depths, planting and drainage networks that work in concert to create alternative environments to traditional roof surfaces.18

Urban green roofs offer a unique opportunity to increase urban green space without losing valuable land space. Green roofs that are widely used today generally fall into two categories: intensive and extensive. Intensive green roofs are suitable for large-scale planting and have good load-bearing capacity, but require frequent maintenance compared to extensive green roofs.19 Due to the difference in construction and maintenance costs, extensive green roofs (grass and shrubs) are more common than intensive green roofs in urban spaces.

The study by Fleck et al. published in 2022 was conducted on two adjacent roofs atop constructed buildings in Barangaroo, Sydney, Australia. The two buildings were generally similar in function, materials, and age , with one equipped with a green roof, and the other without. The two buildings assessed were the Daramu House (green roof, constructed in 2019) and the International House (conventional roof, 2016).

18. Fleck, R., R. L. Gill, S. Saadeh, T. Pettit, E. Wooster, F. Torpy, and P. Irga, 2022, Urban Green Roofs to Manage Rooftop Microclimates: A Case Study from Sydney, Australia, (Building and Environment), 108673.

19. C.Y. Jim and S. W. Tsang, 2011, Biophysical Properties and Thermal Performance of

Figure 7: Daramu House green roof, top-down view

Figure 6: green roof by Meristem design, 2022

Figure 8: International House rooftop, south facing view

Thermal imaging cameras were used to capture and measure the surface temperature of the PV modules, the effect of panel azimuth and building location on the surface temperature, the thermal conductivity of the different Vegetation Layers and also the thermal resistance. As the longest running study of the thermal performance of green roofs in Australia to date has demonstrated that green roofs have a significant impact on the roof microclimate, with ambient shade temperatures up to 56 per cent lower than those of conventional roofs, while longer term longitudinal measurements have revealed that green roofs not only reduce building heat in the summer months, but also reduce the heat of the building envelope during the other colder seasons. This is a strong potential for energy savings in a future where Australia's climate seasons are dependent on cooling and heating.

Green roofs, an increasingly popular type of urban green space in cities around the world, have only recently been recognised by ecologists as contributing to urban wildlife. The size, height, and design of the roof (e.g.,

substrate, planting, irrigation, and maintenance) all influence the type and number of species found on green roofs.20 For highly mobile insect species such as bees and weevils, the number of green roofs in an area increases their connectivity as a habitat type. Although biodiversity is another field of study, architects must refer to some of these factors when designing green roofs; Christopher et al. also noted in their study whether roofs can ultimately improve the viability of populations for landscape connectivity, Designing to conserve biodiversity, how much urban green space is required? Similarly, in the context of a complete socio-ecological system perspective, it is important to consider both the ecological issues raised here and their significance for society.

The relationship between urban form and ecological processes is not straightforward, and in the face of expanding populations and utilisation rates, designers need to promote a wider discussion of the ecological value of urban green spaces and ecology as a whole, as well as providing more useful information and

suggestion for Urban planners, implementer and politicians.

Architectural Strategies and challenges

Geographical differences: the construction of green spaces in cities contains the constraints of many factors, covering a wider range of factors belonging together to the three main dimensions of green spaces (social, environmental and landscape). At the same time this may depend to a large extent on the nature of the urban green space (its size, the area of its location, the context within the urban fabric, history, etc.). It may also vary considerably from one country to another (historic parks in European cities or new facilities in industrial areas, etc.). The extent to which green spaces are integrated into the urban fabric is also a factor to be considered. For example, UGS can be more or less isolated from neighbouring roads, which are a source of air pollution and noise, and may be easily accessible (e.g. close to the city centre) or further away. All these contextual factors may influence the quantity of mediating factors in a green space.21

Vegetation Selection: There are also vegetation growth characteristics that designers need to consider as a key component, as in the case of Sydney's famous central park greenwall. plants were selected to suit the climate of the façade. This includes plants with smaller leaves that are more wind resistant. Plants with longer stems and larger flowers are not suitable for the proposed design. In the case of the green roof example we needed to choose vegetation with strong thermal resistance. To ensure that the One Central Park Vertical Garden could bring the vision to life, the selection and positioning of plants was crucial in the design. The designers travelled to the Blue Mountains, Royal National Park and Cradle Mountain in Tasmania for site visits to help select the right plants. Different zones of wind and sunlight were identified on the building façade to help position the plants. Information gathered from wind tunnel tests and thermal studies of the building also informed the selection of suitable plants.

Maintenance Issues: as the largest green wall in the southern hemisphere is definitely a result of pride, all plants are planted on public land and maintained by the Homeowners Association. A third party is responsible for maintenance with weekly visual inspections from the ground and monthly inspections via a swing table to check the health and moisture of the plants as well as pruning and replacing plants as required. Individual tenants do not have access to the flower beds and are not directly involved in maintaining the green wall for their own health and safety.

Chen et al. point out that many green space developments in China still face maintenance challenges,22 and that local governments may be more inclined to pursue short-term benefits and neglect urban green space protection in pursuit of regional economic development. Even if local governments have formulated environmental regulations, they may lack the necessary human, financial or technical support to implement them. Therefore, it is necessary to make more people aware of the importance of urban green space,

21. Marion Porcherie, Nyan Linn, Anne Roué Le Gall, Marie-Florence Thomas, Emmanuelle Faure, Stéphane Rican, Jean Simos, Nicola Cantoreggi, Zoé Vaillant, Linda Cambon, Jean-Philippe Regnaux, 2021, Relationship between Urban Green Spaces and Cancer: A Scoping Review, (International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health), 1751. 22. Chundi Chen, Weichu Deng, Maria Ignatieva, Linglan

raise public awareness of environmental protection, and create a social atmosphere for the protection of urban green space.

Broader evidence-based data to guide planning choices for urban green spaces through holistic considerations to fully utilise their ecosystem, human, social and economic functions. 23 Architects should develop, advise and advocate for the co-ordination of urban green space planning based on regional climatic conditions and vegetation characteristics.

23. Marion Porcherie, Nyan Linn, Anne Roué Le Gall, Marie-Florence Thomas, Emmanuelle Faure, Stéphane Rican, Jean Simos, Nicola Cantoreggi, Zoé Vaillant, Linda Cambon, Jean-Philippe Regnaux, 2021, Relationship between Urban Green Spaces and Cancer: A Scoping Review (International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health), 1751.

Figure 9: One Central Park (building surface)

Conclusion

As urbanisation continues to expand, understanding the links between urban green spaces and human health will remain an ongoing goal and research topic. The benefits of green spaces and their role in the social determinants of health are widely recognised, despite the great diversity of urban structures and cultural contexts across urbanising countries.

The themes explored by Beatriz Colomina and Mark Wigley in ‘Are We Human?’ The relationship between the themes explored in the book and the concept of urban greenspace is that the environment in which humans live is not just a backdrop for activity, but an integral part of our experience of life. Urban green spaces embody this relationship by demonstrating how well-designed environments can improve human health, promote social interaction and enhance a sense of community. By integrating green spaces into the urban environment, architects and urban planners address the holistic wellbeing of the individual, in line with the human-centred design emphasis in "Are we human?" .

In addition, the creation and maintenance of urban green spaces reflects a commitment to sustainable and resilient urban development. In the face of rising populations and dwindling ozone layers, green spaces can mitigate environmental problems such as air pollution and urban heat islands. Pocket parks, green roofs, and vegetation can act as natural buffers, improve air quality by filtering out pollutants, and reduce the urban heat island effect by providing shade and cooling the city through evapotranspiration. In addition to these environmental benefits, green spaces can significantly support urban biodiversity by providing habitat for a wide range of species, contributing to more balanced and resilient ecosystems in urban environments, which is consistent with the broader ecological considerations discussed in the book.

For Design, as cities continue to evolve, architects and designers must deepen their understanding of ecosystem services, public health and social equity. By ensuring that all community members; regardless of socio-economic status, age or ability have access

o green space, urban planners can promote social equity and inclusion. This approach fosters a sense of ownership and stewardship among residents and encourages community involvement and participation in the maintenance and improvement of these spaces.

In conclusion, the themes explored in ‘Are We Human?’ The themes explored provide a compelling framework for understanding the importance of urban green spaces. The book challenges us to recognise that environmental design has a profound impact on our physical, psychological and social well-being. By integrating green spaces into urban planning and design, architects and urban planners can create environments that promote health, foster social interaction, and enhance community resilience in the long-term. As urbanisation continues to accelerate, the integration of green spaces will remain a key strategy for achieving sustainable and liveable cities that support the overall well-being of their inhabitants.

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