FEMINIST CITY by Zuzana Lisonova

Ďakujem.

**More than a body 6

CONTENTS 4 6 10 10-11

DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS KEY WORDS ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

13 14 14 15

1.1 CITY AND ITS GENDER (BACKGROUND) 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1.3 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1.4 RESEARCH METHODS AND METHODOLOGY

16-20 20-21 22

2.1 WOMEN NAVIGATING CITY IN THE PAST 2.2 WOMEN AND CITIES IN LITERATURE AND FILM 2.3 CONCLUSIONS

3.1 A WOMEN’S PLACE- AT HOME OR IN THE CITY? DIFFERENT WOMEN EXPERIENCE THE CITY DIFFERENTLY, IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEMS 3.2 FEMINIST CITY IS FOR WOMEN AND OTHER MYTHS 3.3 WHO PLANS THE CITY? 3.4 NAVIGATING THE CITY 3.5 CLAIMING PUBLIC SPACE 3.6 ON HOUSING, IN FEW WORDS 3.7 CONCLUSIONS

25-26 27-28 28-29 30 30-31 31

32 33 33 34 34

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 3

4.1 CITIES WITH A FEMALE FACE 4.2 STOCKHOLM 4.3 VIENNA 4.4 BARCELONA 4.5CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 4

36-38 39-41 42

5.1 FEMINIST UTOPIAS 5.2 FEMINIST CITY 5.3 CONCLUSION

44-45 46-47

6.1 SUMMARY, RESEARCH OBJECTIVES FINDINGS 6.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ANSWERED AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

50-51

LIST OF FIGURES

52-57

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CONCLUSION

KEY WORDS Cities, Urban planning, gender equality, feminism, Feminist city, imagining alternatives, Focus groups, equality, gender mainstreaming, gender neutral

ABSTRACT Women have a long history of being excluded from public spaces, streets- cities in general. Why?

Based on research and case studies a feminist city’s main concern is to accomplish values of a

Because cities were not built with women in mind in the first place. Whenever, she stepped out-

city that belongs to all and is designed by a mix of people. It puts safety as a priority, creates a

side of her home, which was a woman's place, she risked being mistaken for a so-called ‘public

variety of public spaces, good infrastructure which prioritises pedestrians, cyclists and public trans-

woman.’

port over cars. Furthermore, this city is accessible for people with handicaps or strollers, supports small and local businesses and provides with mixed-use areas to create better and more liveable

The Industrial Revolution was a starting point for a larger number of women to finally explore the

neighbourhoods. When we continue to imagine a gender-equal city, we think of one that encourag-

city from a street perspective and not only as a passive observer- from the window. Female eman-

es movement and creates a good density in the streets that become vibrant, public squares, good

cipation grew exponentially hand in hand with a growing number of women in the urban spaces.

quality streets that promote social integration and better quality of life.

Public spaces became more of a statement for women to show their presence but more importantly, manifesting their citizenship and rights. Feminist movements were pushing the boundaries

There are many positive examples of cities implementing gender-sensitive policymaking which

towards freedom and self-liberation. But rising social status mainly applied to white women com-

transformed the city spaces and helped not only targeted group. In fact, these sometimes even

ing from a better background, who had a higher position in society.

small interventions benefited a larger number of people than expected. Feminist, gender-equal, inclusive, non-sexist city- whatever you want to call it, is something that should be demanded not

Even nowadays, the political (but also actual) equality for all women and other disadvantaged

thought of as an added value to the cities. Undoubtedly, the change is not going to happen imme-

groups still feels far from being achieved. The presence of persisting inequality is evident, for

diately, and it is not even the aim of this dissertation. The objective is to raise awareness about

example, in our cities which were and are designed for men and by men. Women and other ex-

the topic as not many people outside of the field know the reason why they struggle when walking

cluded groups have to face too many obstacles when moving through the urban fabric. For them,

through the city space.

there is just no diversity, no space for individuality. Cities have become these humongous homogenous machines lacking the flexibility of spaces and complexity of neighbourhoods. As a result, they accelerate gender inequalities and many others. 10

CITY AND ITS GENDER Cities are supposed to be built for all of us. Men, women, children. However, cities are not built by all of us. Most cities are designed by men. Therefore, the experience of wandering through the city’s streets, parks, and spaces differ from male’s and female’s perspective. People of all genders, social groups, sexual orientations, colours, abilities and disabilities- a city must be able to satisfy the needs of all of us, not just a certain group of people.

Focusing mainly on women's perceptions of a city does not aim to depict women as victims or the only discriminated. Of course, it is not just women who are ignored when designing a city. Taking a feminist approach to designing a city, however, explores a way of transforming our cities in a way that no one is socially ostracized from public spaces or excluded from the opportunities provided by cities. A city of an equal use based on the diversity of gender, ethnic origin, age, physical needs, or occupation of the community. Is it possible to design for all or are we talking about a utopian dream that is far away from reality?

There are so many ways cities could work better. Not many, but a few cities have already adopted so-called ‘gender mainstreaming approach’ towards the city- these will be examined as case studies. But before looking at specific examples and conceptualising the ideal gender-neutral city, it is essential to look at who designs the city and to zoom into the past and analyse it, for example, investigating history, and understanding what role women had in the setting up of cities and how women occupied them, is crucial for understanding the problem in a broader context.

Fig. 01: The Prophecies of Jane Jacobs

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

METHODOLOGY

This dissertation examines the relationship between feminism and architecture - where these two

This dissertation’s aspiration is not to find an explicit manual for the future of our cities- feminist,

fields intersect- and how they influence one another.

equal, gender-sensitive cities. Rather than that, it aims to explore the history of the cities by taking

The overall approach is to initiate a conversation, identify the problem(s), gather information, ana-

consideration of women occupying them. The analysis of history played an important role in the

lyse the findings and draw conclusions - if possible, and to raise questions for further investigation

examination of the reasons why our cities represent only some of us, instead of all of us.

on a feminist city. The study aims to explore the key issues of the urban space that constrain some

Identifying the key issues our cities face and people struggle with leads the research to an explo-

of us more than the others.

ration of the possible outcomes when redesigning or reimagining a city.

Prior to drawing conclusions, it is essential to gain the knowledge through not only mapping, investigating, comparing, but sometimes- more importantly- by, asking adequate questions that will

The overarching method adopted for the research of the topic combines several methods, includ-

direct the study and presumably generate questions for further research.

ing a literature review of the history of females in cities, identifying problems and exploring the assessment of selected cities used as case studies, analysing utopian and dystopian feminist

RESEARCH QUESTIONS Based on the research that has been undertaken, the literature review has revealed gaps in research and myriad questions. Some of the answers could be found in the resource's texts, some could be assumed but others are complex and do not have the obvious answers. I have identified a few main ones, that will lead the investigation process of this dissertation. The fundamental questions are:

What is the major factor that has had affected the way females navigate the city today?

What are the biggest hurdles that restrict and have an effect on an equal experience of space?

How can a feminist approach towards architecture benefit not only women?

How did the feminist geographers, urbanists, architects approached the problematics of sexism in

projects and comparing them to those with more ‘down to earth’ approach. The widely conducted research aims to look into a spectrum of different, sometimes overlapping discourses over the history, across distinctive geographical locations, forms- literature, cinematography or architecture. The layering of diverse concepts helped to explore how complex and the topic is and how woven is the topic of architecture and feminism. Moreover, the method consists of framing discourse of what feminist architecture could be through a set of informed examples and explorations of relevant strategies. The found strategies will be summarized and specific concepts will be chosen. The method also contains mapping monumental spatial features and reflecting the project in the surrounding landscape.

At times the contexts collide but even more so undiscovered connections will appear. It is evident from the research that the reviewed representation styles have the ability to shape the way we perceive cities and raise the question of what the city's contemporary representation is. The methodology will be further explained and revisited upon in the upcoming chapters.

architecture?

Under which conditions can a feminist city become a reality so that everyone has the same opportunities?

CHAPTER 1 WOMEN NAVIGATING CITY IN THE PAST Historically, how did women navigate through the streets, settlements, or urban spaces? On investigation, it appears that gender divisions of space played a key role. There was ‘male space’ meaning men’s place is outside, in the fields or hunting. Correspondingly, female’s place or space was a house, to keep the fire. Later in history, women were not allowed to be a part of political life or to participate in local government. It is, however, important to point out, that there was a small number of women in the medieval and early modern times who were working on the construction sites, helping their husbands or fathers or widows forced to do a traditionally male’s jobs (van den Heuvel, 2018).

During the Industrial Revolution, it was extremely rare to see a woman of the upper class in the

Fig. 03: Elegant flâneuses on the streets of Paris

street. (Fig. 02) This territory was only dedicated to men and reputed ‘public women’.

This woman needs to be protected from all the crime out there. None of these women would want

Cities grew hand in hand with social classes and streets became full of people. The working class

to be mistaken for a ‘public woman’ - a prostitute. It should be highlighted, that the movement of

expanded enormously. The so-called bourgeoisie did not like this and claimed that streets are not

women was not only influenced by their social status, but by race as well (Kern,2020).

safe, but full of dangerous men. A street was an unsafe place for a ‘vulnerable and well-behaved’

The need to protect white women from Indigenous people from urban areas. The purity and safety

woman (meaning a white woman of high status).

of white women were in danger. Popular novels of the day depicted sensational stories of kidnap, torture, and rape. Alternatively, Indigenous women were depicted as primitive, and promiscuous (Kern, 2020). They were not accepted in society or welcomed in the city.

The breaking point for the history of women in the street was undoubtedly growing working class in the newly industrialised cities, which opened up more economic opportunities but more than that more freedom (Nicholas and Oxley, 1993). Industrialisation made women use to streets that have long been associated with “street walking”, in a sense that only members of the old professions stroll through the urban fabric. But again, this only brought a working woman to be seen and free to walk in the street. The bourgeoisie had been merely observing what was happening in the city streets. It was the production and an overall increase in accessibility of goods and a decrease in prices that made it possible for upper-class females to step out of their fenced-off castle-like houses. Shopping became the driving force for the emancipation of wealthy women. (Fig.03) Well, if not quite emancipation, then it was unquestionably a very first step towards it. Spending money on Fig. 02: Unwanted attention 16

clothes and jewellery was the reason why women were now allowed to venture into men’s ‘outside’ (Parkins, 2001).

For the first radical women's movements, the participation in the city’s life and visibility in the

Even although the women's empowerment movement of the 1960s and 1970s pointed out that

streets (Fig.04) became a strong instrument, which not only meant being physically present. As a

equality for females in legislation is by no means the same thing as female's equality in society,

matter of fact, when they were calling for a new place in society, they were bringing themselves

economy and politics, the fact remains that in the 21st century, full equality for women is still a long

into the political space, claiming their right for the city. For the suffragette movement and the sec-

way off (Feist and Sichtermann, n.d.). For example, despite the emancipation, women are still

ond wave of feminism, which took place in public spaces in order to avoid being pushed back into

more involved in households and family care activities across European countries (Fig. 05) while

domestic space, the beginning of the twentieth century was critical in an attempt to open up new

men's hours of paid employment are positively associated with the extent of household task seg-

possibilities. To be out in the city streets and occupy the ‘men’s space’ became the bold move

regation (Bianchi et al., 2000). As a result, women are continually leisure time deprived. It is re-

towards a self-liberation (Body and UAB, n.d.).

stricting their participation in the labour market. They have less time for hobbies or personal development (Charmes, 2019). This lack of time to participate fully has an impact on who plans the city

In the 1970s, Black and women of colour feminists were challenging the mainstream women’s

and who uses the city and public spaces.

movement to come to terms with the different forms of oppression faced by women outside the white, heterosexual middle class. Intersectionality embodied a profound shift in how feminism understood the relationships among various systems of privilege and oppression including sexism, racism, classism, homophobia, and ableism, which was lacking in a feminist manifesto of that time (URBACT, 2020).

The third wave of feminism, which still exists until today, pushes the boundaries and promotes a progressive and more inclusive approach toward feminism. The third generation of feminism has broadened the agendas to include non-white and transgender women, the abolition of stereotypes and the protection of sex workers, sexual and reproductive rights, higher levels and rates of education for women, legislation against sexual assault and domestic violence, etc. (Qrius, 2014).

Fig. 05: Participation time per day in unpaid work by gender from 2008-2015, Eurostat

Fig. 04: Deeds not Words 18

Global pandemics, such as that which we are facing today, has also highlighted some of the prob-

By generating representations in which new forms of cultures can be improvised, feminist cinema

lems that have been evident for a long time. Gender, racial, social and economic disparities gained

has suggested the development of a new social vision and has envisioned new subjectivities and

on the importance also thanks to the pandemic in a way that it exposes fault lines.

living spaces. The city triggered the utopian hopes of conquering a domain that was denied to the

For instance, women's unnecessary presence in the marketing of products could perhaps be,

suffragettes and female feminists at the time. (Fig. 06)The city became somewhere to investigate

alternatively, replaced by a better recognition of women working in society’s essential services, in

the public and private life of women through the video. Females standing behind the camera and

health and care sectors, supermarkets or educational settings. This puts women at greater risk of

taking the ownership of that space allowed to imagine a city space that pushes the limitations and

exposure at a larger extent than ever, not to mention that these jobs are the lowest-paid ones with

shares the ideas of gender-equal city with larger audience. In order to turn the city into a space

no flexible hours.

that is fair and free of misogyny, we must continue to feed our collective fantasies; we must rewrite

But cities have the power to contribute to a long-term change. Urban planning is a tool for achiev-

the city's uses from the viewpoint of the different political subjects that occupy it (Body and UAB,

ing a gender equality. There are all sorts of voices in the city, but some are welcomed to be heard

n.d.).

and some have been systematically silenced for too long. The change needs to happen…now.

Born in Flames (1984), by Lizzie Borden is a film that reflects on the city's experience of women and exposes the cracks that need to be patched. After a failed social democratic movement, set in the New York of the future, the film shows the range of women's voices and conflicting needs at the intersection with race, age, social status or gender identity. Since the revolt, the persistence

IN LITERATURE AND CINEMATOGRAPHY…

of injustice draws together the diverse classes of women to mobilise, weld and occupy the streets

Women and men have been living together in the cities for a long time. Looking into the literature,

to protect their jobs, fight against street violence. and join together in care-giving roles and build

if we want to know what it was like to wander through the city streets, there is just a long history of

a better mix of paying and domestic work. Despite their differences, they manage to cooperate

men writing about... men. But what if we want to know the experience of the city through female’s

and find ways how to achieve the emancipation (FILM: “BORN IN FLAMES,” RADICAL FEMINIST

lens? The few examples of prominent women that can be found have all been associated with

IDEAS, 1983).

words such as pioneering, progressive, innovative or ground-breaking (for that time) and many were criticised because they were challenging the popular beliefs of people.

Virginia Woolf in an essay called ‘Street Haunting’ wrote: Sailing out into a winter evening, surrounded by the “champagne brightness of the air and the sociability of the streets”, we leave the things that define us at home, and become “part of that vast republican army of anonymous tampers” (Woolf, 2005). Charles Dickens educates and entertains a reader with a woman characters that reflect the progressive thinking of its time. Characters such as Mrs Gamp and Jenny Wren represent the rise of female workers in Victorian England. They are single, autonomous, self-sufficient women, and their female independence is conditioned by entrepreneurship which is a male-dominated sphere of industry (McKenzie Stearns, 2012). 20

Fig. 06: a 'Fearless Girl' statue, New York City 21

CONCLUSIONS: This chapter gives a historical background to the women and the city. It explored what has been a long and exhausting process- the enormous amount of energy that has been needed for women to liberate the space: to take a bit of that ‘male’s space’. Problems which have existed in the past might seem distant and bygone times. And in fact, some of them are. Yet, females still need to be vigilant in public spaces. But cities should not be like that. Females should not struggle to develop a sense of belonging, space of comfort to the cities they are a part of.

**A woman in the city 22

CHAPTER 2

FEMINIST CITY IS FOR WOMEN AND OTHER MYTHS

A WOMEN’S PLACE- AT HOME OR IN THE CITY? DIFFERENT WOMEN EXPERIENCE THE CITY DIFFERENTLY , IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEMS Looking at today’s cities, one can almost assume that the attitude of society that women’s and mother’s place is in the home is still a relevant statement for today. (Fig. 07) The public sphere of the streets, office tower, restaurant or parks are not welcoming for women, parents with a stroller, people without homes, people with disability, people of colour, transgender people or LGBTQ people, who have to constantly face too much public attention, if not experiencing a direct attitude of not being wanted there. When pointing out ‘women’s problems’ in the city, we need to make clear that the issue is so much more than only about gender. When females ask for safety in parks, they ask not only for themselves, but also for safety for communities of colour and others. Demanding access for mothers with strollers means access for people with reduced mobility. Cities were originally planned with only a certain type of people in mind: white, cis, able-bodied man. Today’s cities do not reflect the diversity of people that occupy and live in nowadays cities. Everyone should have the same right, the opportunity to inhabit the city and experience the same level of comfort (Kern, 2020).

The feminist approach to cities is not only intended to address women's problems, but also to give the community back to the people, from an egalitarian viewpoint, taking into account gender issues, ethnic origin and age diversity, as well as the practical needs of the neighbourhood. It is a philosophy that feminism is inclusive and seeks equality. This statement is a proof: “Urban feminism is indeed taking women more into account since they have historically been excluded, but the policy is not aimed solely at women; rather, its objective is to place the everyday lives of people at the centre, with a clear gender perspective” (Journalist, n.d.). It is also essential to point out, that to design a feminist city does not mean to design a city perfectly tailored for a woman. Feminist city, however, thinks of variety, creates possibilities for not only women of all ethnicities, age groups, (dis)abilities, mothers, single mothers or singles and women coming from all language groups, classes and income groups. Believe it or not, feminism is a winwin situation for all. A feminist city is tied up with environmental issues as well, so-called ecofeminism. How? For example, women use public transport more often and in more complex ways than men and navigate through the city differently. Walkable neighbourhoods, “15 minutes cities” in which all your needs can be met within 15 minutes of your home on foot, by bike, or on public transport. This encourages people to walk and bicycle more. As a result, cities become more lively, more liveable, more attractive, safer, more sustainable and healthier. A barrier-free city would be not only a benefit to mothers pushing a pram but also for improved access of people with disabilities but also help people with suitcases and many more. Improved lighting and safer public spaces will not only help women to feel safer when walking alone but will reduce the criminality in general (Ciudades Sostenibles, 2019).

Fig. 07: Gender Equal Cities report 24

A well-known critic of planning, Jane Jacobs wrote about lively neighbourhoods, a 24/7 city and

WHO PLANS THE CITY?

an engaged community where people would feel comfortable and safe when using the streets and public spaces. She insisted on diversity and claimed that it is the uttermost element for the vitality and prosperity of a city. She believed that “the ballet of the good city never repeats itself from place to place, and in any one place it is always replete with new observations.” She criticised the modernist urban ideas such as Le Corbusier’s ‘Radiant City’ (Fig. 08) and stated that it is “the dishonest mask of pretended order, achieved by ignoring or suppressing the real order that is struggling to exist and to be served” (Jacobs 1961).

‘Cities have the capability of providing something for everybody, only because, and when, they are created by everybody’ (Hudson and Rönnblom, 2020).

The dominant decision-makers in urban planning are men. Only 19 per cent of practising urbanists and designers are women. While over half of the population is women. This means that men get to decide about things like the layout of the city, the school placement, housing area but also about snow policy removal, the public transport infrastructure or lighting in public spaces. Naturally, their design choices are influenced by their own experiences and through their lenses. If we like it or not, the city has a gender- male. (Fig. 09) This results in a city set up that facilitates stereotypes such as traditional gender roles while ignoring women’s needs. Women still experience the city through a set of obstacles–physical, social, economic, and symbolic- that shape their daily lives in ways that are deeply (although not only) gendered (Kern, 2020).

When talking about gender, it is worth remembering that it is a social and cultural construct that assigns roles, behaviours, characteristics and responsibilities to women, men and trans people. By integrating a gender lens into urban planning, it would allow multiple aspects of the daily life to be thought of to create communities and neighbourhoods that fulfil the needs of everyone. Without challenging the stereotypical assumptions linked to gender, ethnicity, as well as the labour division within the family, urban planning would stagnate or worse deteriorate (Moser and Levy, 1986).

Fig. 08: Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse (The Radiant City), 1924

There is a great variety of user groups occupying the city space. But there is definitely not enough diversity within the urban textures that would enable individuals to feel a part of a space or a community. Instead, in the urban environments we live in, we can often face problems in a space that limit us as individuals.

Fig. 09: Gender Inequality 26

Urban planning has not been inclusive, because it has ignored women’s day-to-day activities. The

The manner in which these transport infrastructures were built does not contribute towards fe-

ideas of ‘neutrality’ is based on the lives of their inhabitants and participatory design. It should be

male's equality, protection or free movement. Factors such as the design of parking areas and

diverse, not universal. The opposite of the built environment that we live in. The one that responds

their layouts, design of pedestrian paths and zones, transfers when changing multiple routes when

to the interests and needs of a ‘prominent’ part of the society, mostly ‘white male, middle-class,

using public transport or situations happening transferring in-between work and home again. Not

middle-aged, employed, and with full physical and mental capacities’ (Ortiz Escalante Gutiérrez

to mention, there have been many alarming reports of sexual assault reported either during or

Valdivia, 2015).

between commuting. The way neighbourhoods are laid out, the way commutes work, you have to make multiple stops in order to meet the needs of daily life. Time, money and opportunity cost.

The main interest of feminist architects is to eliminate gender inequality while maintaining the

Research has shown that women’s commutes are more time and cost-intensive, less save (Ha-

‘access to urban life’ for everyone- urban planning with a gender lens. Through designing inclusive

ley-Lock, Berman and Timberlake, 2013).

spaces, they focus on how built environments can embody the complexity of human cultures and adapt to them (Ortiz Escalante and Gutiérrez Valdivia, 2015). The feminist approach towards ar-

The lack of variety of activities and mixed uses in mono-functional environments can be related to

chitecture is however a term associated with negative meanings. The term ‘feminism’ still creates

city layouts that neglect pedestrians. These are places that have a scarcity of public transportation,

a stigma and people do not understand the term correctly. Forming a feminist city means to plan a

that result in preference to the use private cars, have poorly lit streets where barely anyone can be

more liveable city which benefits everyone. Removing the city’s barriers that women encounter on

seen walking at night and lack any direct links with other communities (Saeidi and Oktay, 2012).

the daily basis forms a medium for a more effective living and better quality of life for society. To

The meaning of the term 'neighbourhood' must be redefined; disconnected and single-use devel-

achieve the ‘fair’ city, it is essential to identify the problems, review literature in order to understand

opments that reflect poorly on urban sprawl, such as stand-alone residential buildings, suburban

the complexity of the issue and find suitable examples of cities applying gender-sensitive policy-

areas, office building complexes or shopping malls, cannot be referred to as a well-functioning

making steps towards equality.

neighbourhood (Farr, 2008). Lack of diversity can be found on different levels of a city- in the newly developed neighbourhoods, in the historic core, but also in the suburbs of the city. While cities offer easy accessibility to the grocery store, cafés and parks, good public transport to school and most of the day-to-day facilitates within walking distance.

NAVIGATING THE CITY According to the Working Day Mobility survey undertaken by the city council of Barcelona (Jour-

Compared to the suburbs, the urban density of a city offers a greater complexity of opportunities

nalist, n.d.) women pass through the city primarily for family reasons. The occupational reasons

for women. Even though cities have a lot of advantages relative to the suburbs, they are certainly

(15.6 %) took second place, while men’s primarily motive to move around is normally tied to job

not built with the aim of making women’s “double shifts” of paid and unpaid work

(19.4 percent). Women are making more stops along their journeys which they take more often

easier to manage.

and more locally than men. In comparison, women make greater use of public transit and walk more; males, on the other hand, prefer to drive and use cars more frequently: 32.3% of males, versus 25.4% of females choose private transport on daily basis. Based on obtained data, females are those who need to access the city, move in it freely and easily. They are the ones who move around it more often, sometimes pulling a shopping trolley or pushing a pram.

CLAIMING PUBLIC SPACE

Wekerle notes (Milroy, 1989), that in the 1970s and 1980s, before federal funding for subsidized

Lighting, vast open space, good visibility, accessibility, location, walkways, and vegetation density.

housing was scaled back in the first wave of neoliberalism, a variety of cooperative housing devel-

All of this has an impact on how, when and by whom a public space is used. The perception of in-

opments that focused on lower-income groups with specific needs—single mothers, older wom-

security is different for men and women, as women, depending on what time of day, may feel more

en, disabled women. These examples can remind us that there are already existing alternatives.

vulnerable to the possibility of sexual violence. (McDowell, 1983) Studies of non-verbal commu-

Some of the work of imagining the non-sexist city has already been done.

nication between sexes have shown that women use shrinking, timid, or closed body language when in public spaces (Gardner, 2019). Challenging assigned gender roles by claiming public

The recent expansion of alternative types of housing with shared spaces and facilities, called

space means redefining the fundamental meaning of 'a women in public space'.

co-housing, has been influenced by utopian visions which have been already proposing communal

Women's concerns of personal protection from male abuse may hold them back from walking

spaces many years ago. These visions of models of 'communitarian' settlements which imple-

confidently or actively through public space. New ways need to be introduced in order to achieve

mented cooperative housekeeping, shared kitchens and dining facilities, collective housing and

gender inclusion in public spaces. Dark, isolated, remote, unpopulated, or spots with obstructed

collaborative residential buildings, prove that 'double shifts' have been an issue for a long time

visibility, any types of barriers and fences create an environment that may create a sense of vul-

and that people realising them were called utopians. In their co-housing projects, they emphasise

nerability and women can feel more at risk which results in avoiding of these public realms (Low

living based on equality and neighbourly cooperation while presenting the patriarchal resistance.

and Smith, 2006).

Also, the relief women from housework burden and urge men to share more of the domestic tasks through this type of housing.

Engaging with public space can positively impact on social, mental and physical health. Public

Cohousing has recently gained popularity in Scandinavia. Among many positive changes, it has

spaces foster social connections and encourage physical activity and recreational pursuits and

contributed to a more equitable household division of labour.

play a significant role in community life and neighbourhood cohesiveness. Creating public spac-

Nonetheless, the demand for living in co-housing is still not big enough to influence the gender

es that women and girls will engage in and use means creating spaces that are attractive, active,

segregation of labour markets. However, the truth is that design decisions, such as the quality of

healthy, and inclusive, and where people can connect. In order to create public spaces that are

shared spaces, convenient access to common areas and outdoor connectivity, are critical for the

safe and inclusive for women, and used by all members of the community, local governments must

smooth running of any form of housing (Vestbro and Horelli, 2012).

consider the impact of gender in all of their planning (Creating Safe and Inclusive Public Spaces for Women 2 Women’s Health East, n.d.).

ON HOUSING, IN FEW WORDS The ‘non-sexist city’ also reflects on housing problems, recognizing that the home of the nuclear

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS:

family is an ineffective way of using labour- one that leaves women attached to their households.

The second chapter identifies the fundamental points that restrict some from giving the city back

Women the lack time or energy for pursuing their hobbies, careers, or social life. Feminist housing

to the people so that everyone uses it to its full potential. The identified key problems revealed

designs can be characterised by the common features of housing innovations that allow house-

how complex and multi-layered they are but also that they impact not only women. Females have

holds to share the work of cleaning, cooking and childcare. It is solved by facilities that are shared

been chosen as a targeted group, but the issues cities have, apply also for people without homes,

within the larger community or neighbourhood (Kern,2020).

people with disability, people of colour, transgender people or LGBTQ people.

CHAPTER 3

STOCKHOLM Despite initially strong discourse, Stockholm started introducing gender-sensitive snow removal. The paths most used by women – routes near nurseries, schools or grocery stores – were cleared

CITIES WITH A FEMALE FACE

earlier in the day. The effect of snow clearance priorities has not only been unfair, but there have

While there are no quick fixes to gender disparity, incremental and effective steps can be put into

also been negative implications for society as a whole. It is three times more likely to be injured

the practice to enhance representation, protection and access of everyone in cities and public

when walking along the slippery winter footpaths as while driving. Paradoxically, the cost of these

spaces. Improved street lighting, quotas for elected representatives and involvement of females

accidents significantly exceeds the cost of snow clearance. Reversing the order, the municipalities

in participatory mechanisms are all indicators of gender mainstreaming which is luckily gaining on

did not face any extra charges for cleaning walking walks, it decreased accidents and more people

popularity and recognition. It is an international phenomenon which involves thinking about how

were walking and biking (Streetsblog USA, 2018).

femininity and masculinity, patriarchal norms work and what impact it has on social system across all fields, industries, and levels of legislation and policymaking. It is a profound awareness of the gendered character of urban space and governance, within the idea of a fair-shared city.

Few cities engage in gender-neutral design and adapt strategies to foster inclusive cities (Fig. 10). These pioneering cities highlight how the creation of space for the variety of voices, desire, needs and capabilities of people is a necessary step towards the development of thriving urban spaces (Union, n.d.). It is important to realise that selected case studies do not embody ‘the feminist cities.’ Yet.

VIENNA After incorporating a gender lens into the urban design Vienna has become a safer and more convenient place for women. More than 60 new social housing projects have been designed particularly for women. Improved street lighting, safer and more accessible public spaces, streets with widened pavements have contributed towards more attractive neighbourhoods for not only females to live in. In one initiative, incorporating cycle paths, more paths and benches to urban parks for other activities than football contributed to more girls using the spaces. Parks that have been transformed to provide women and girls with improved lighting and entry, as well as more democratic seating structures to provide public space for numerous park users, including refugees, the elderly and the vulnerable people without homes. For pedestrians, who are more often women than men, more than a kilometre of curbless pavement has been widened to simplify use. This particularly helps those with strollers. Re-timing of street crossings enabled parents with prams, elderly and people with limited mobility to get around more easily. Twenty-six areas for new street lighting have been introduced and nine different sites have obtained extra seating. A successful social housing projects built by and for women has made a next step towards improved neighbourhoods and gender-inclusive cities (Apolitical, 2017).

Fig. 10: Gender Equal Cities report 32

BARCELONA Barcelona Council is taking a “feminization of politics,” approach, which basically means to incorporate a gender perspective into every area of politics and society. In other words, for all decisions regarding the city budget, urban planning and public services, implications for both women and men must be considered.

City’s most ambitious plan is to allow pedestrians to reclaim the city through “superblocks” or superilles. Each superblock consists of nine urban blocks. This way, most traffic is detached, and a superblock is highly pedestrianised. Busy and noisy junctions with large scale parking lots filled with cars are replaced with parks, public seating and play areas filled with people. Barcelona is also developing a design guideline to increase women perceived and actual safety of public spaces. It includes vegetation to be higher than one meter, trees are to be properly maintained, to avoid blocking lighting, bylaws to ensure that the entrances to new housing-related buildings are on street level and avoid creating hiding spaces, they would identify streets .Streets that had been named after members of the old totalitarian regime were recently replaced by names of prominent women leaders (streets.mn, 2020).

CONCLUSIONS: Examined case studies have shown that the enforcement of gender-sensitive rules into the legislation and government processes have a positive effect on people. It also unveiled that cities which implemented a gender mainstreaming rules did not only achieve positive socio-political change for all its citizens but also came across to be cost-effective for the municipalities.

CHAPTER 4 FEMINIST UTOPIAS ‘Cities are not simply material or lived spaces – they are also spaces of the imagination and spaces of representation’ (Bridge and Watson, 2000).

The architectural complex of walled enclaves where only women were allowed to reside is yet another example of utopian project, taken from actual history. These complexes were called the Medieval Beguinages (Fig. 11) and were located in the period 1200-1500 in present-day Belgium and the Netherlands. In a time when the old urban areas were unsafe places for women, Béguinages represented a safe place for women. During the night, when the gates were locked, no men were permitted to live there or visit. This allowed women to wander through the streets freely. The New

The feminists denounced both the physical division of household space and the economic segregation of the domestic economy from the political economy. Thus, the adherents of the movement quarrelled that the built environment should represent more democratic forms of production and

York Times likened beguines to the oldest ideals of solidarity, caring, smaller scale society. They formed a community that was multi-functional, had advanced public transport infrastructure and good street lighting (Woodward, 2008).

consumption (Vestbro and Horelli, 2012). They also proposed that the whole physical environment of urban space must be re-designed to embody equality for women, as opposed to those utopians who have largely built their worlds out of context and in isolation.

There is no single feminist version of utopia and feminist writing on cities. Instead, there is a wide spectrum of material including science fiction, history and political analysis. Many feminist cities might be described as science fiction, as they tended to be dystopic - standing for patriarchal destruction, whilst utopian ones were reserved for idyllic, rural settings. The city portrayed by Pamela Sargent in The Shore of Women (Sargent, 2014) is an environment conducive to the pursuit of a good life embodying feminist values.

A new world is formed by walled urban communities occupied exclusively by women while men are compelled to wander in the hinterland- outside the urban communities, just being called to the city for reproduction purposes. Females are in charge of all science and innovation, and have, for instance, built up a public transport infrastructure that ensures a prompt and secure transfer to any place they need to go in the city. The majority of the household chores is being done in communal housing. This enables women to save a great amount of time, decide what type of career they want to pursue without having to choose between family and career or being restricted by the city’s limitations towards them. The city becomes the tool to support women, their needs, dreams and capabilities. It is equipped with strong ethics, efficient care system, adapting to the needs of all

Fig. 11: Béguinage

occupants.

Some of the city utopians’ projects might look very different from present cities. Others with more

FEMINIST CITY

pragmatic approach and welcoming environment, encourage distinct needs of housing types that

There is no perfect solution or a specific manual for designing a feminist, equal, gender-neutral or

question the traditional model of the nuclear family; conflicting findings arose regarding to the city

non-sexist city. Cities have a long history of oppressing women. But cities are just a tool or a result

as an emotional space as they acquire the ability to elicit human emotions. They presented the

of decisions of certain people. Cities, thus, represent, only specific people and left others struggle.

principle of 'fair cities' in a utilitarian manner, advocating a participatory process, inclusive commu-

Designing a gender-neutral city requires a more unequivocal consideration of gender and dwell on

nity available to all people regardless of ethnicity, colour, sexuality, age by adapting a dialogical

asking questions about the wider consequences of urban planning. Taking these into the account

method. They coveted an alternative urban planning methods. The plans and policies being guid-

could result in a deeper comprehension of alternative perspectives and possibilities. Hence, there

ed by the private developers and tycoons, leaving citizens as passive observers of what happens

is a need for the political participation of all-so that gender-equal planning can challenge the pre-

with their cities and what impacts these changes have on them. The demand for more progressive

vailing order in society and contribute to better accessibility of our cities (Sandberg and Rönnblom,

urban planning that acknowledges the female’s presence, transforms their embodied experiences,

2016).

enable them to actively take part in making decisions and reshaping the city. On the other hand, we need to look at the future in ways that go ‘beyond the creation of beautifully conceived but ulti-

According to URBACT (Union, n.d.) which is a programme aiming to foster sustainable integrated

mately illusive Utopias (Masini, 2006).

urban development in cities across Europe, a gender-equal city should be intersectional- meaning it encapsulates various social identities, like race, gender, sexuality, and class and tackles dis-

Feminist utopians helped to stimulate alternative visions of the ideal future city for women. Wom-

crimination in all forms. The ‘Gender Equal City’ report (ec.europa.eu, n.d.) highlights the need to

en formed a focus group for challenging the city’s accepted norms of living and getting beyond its

implement gender mainstreaming-gender-sensitive policymaking which involves the integration of

boundaries. Feminist perspective in future studies offers a different perspective on the future city

gender into all levels of planning, designing, legislation processes and all levels of greater rele-

as it is usually reflecting patriarchal, heteronormative values which allowed only certain voices to

vance for society. It also suggests that the infrastructure and built environment should be accom-

be heard.

panied with information campaigns, education, training and programming of social and cultural

Utopian cities need to form a spectrum of different approaches, they need to create a space for

actions so that we can better understand how seemingly mundane activities and spaces support a

discussion, prompt women as much as men to re-imagine and challenge the established model

sense of belonging (Fig. 12).

of the cities that is set for centuries and does not seem to be progressing, leaving some groups and minorities struggle with the city which should do the opposite- encourage, support, empower. Questioning the urbanism through future city narratives, that criticize the ways of being in the city and break the city’s stiff structure, would be a powerful tool for and a first step towards the change. At first, it might strike a discussion, later on perhaps develop efforts to foster more inclusive, diverse and equal cities (Hudson and Rönnblom, 2020). These issues are complex and multi-layered, but planning must reform in order to create a prosperous and diverse society.

Fig. 12: Welcome to The Feminist City 38

A right to everyday life is built up from ordinary practices and experiences. An examination of

Everyone should have a right to change themselves by changing the city. A city in which women,

seemingly mundane practices poses challenges for planners. Places such as public squares, or

men, all sexual and gender minorities, people of all ages and abilities and disabilities are provided

other civic locations are usually associated with the right to the city. However, cities consist of so

with the same opportunities, can get around the city easily and safely, actively engage in the work-

many layers that are usually overlooked by planners. Pedestrian walkways and underpasses, pub-

force and civic life, lead good, sociable and productive lives. A city which enhances a full social

lic restrooms, and bus stops are often designed and thought about the last. Yet, these form the

and economic inclusion is a city that accelerates progress for everyone. Changing and improving

sites of everyday life, used by the people constantly and moving through them. When we think of

the city and lives of women and others benefits everyone. Improving safety, mobility, accessibility,

city spaces, we do not realise there is a greater range worthy of attention. Sometimes even seem-

public spaces, households, environment, infrastructure will naturally influence all the users (Fig.

ingly less important, smaller interventions can contribute towards the more liveable city (Beebee-

13). For example, in the early 1970s, a collective of mobility protesters started dismantling curbs

jaun, 2016).

and installing ramps on pavements in Berkeley, California, to advocate for improved access for wheelchair users. What was, however, not expected was that wheelchair users were not the only

A built environment should provide with equal opportunity to access the spaces (barrier-free ac-

beneficiaries when 'curb cuts' were installed. In fact, when people realised that these 'improved'

cess). Everyone should afford and be able to move around the cite freely, easily and safely- free

spots are easier to walk through, people with strollers, heavy shopping or suitcases started to

from any type of danger in public of private spaces. Cities need to encourage an active lifestyle

use the place more often as well. Likewise, a gender-inclusive city contributes towards a positive

that is free from health risks and promotes a sustainable way of living and reduces stress on our

change for everyone (Terraza, Horacio et al., 2020).

planet. The right to a decent standard of life and living should not depend on social identities, race, gender, sexuality, and a class of people (World Bank, n.d.).

The design of new building typologies or their transformation need to support the integration of women in institutional and public roles, design practices should be based on sharing, re-using, recycling, as well as economic and long-term solutions rather than inefficient, profitable ones. The housing design should enable to integrate racial, gender, age and income diversity, while allowing men and women to arrange work and domestic life among the household fairly and evenly. The domestic spaces ought to make it easier to integrate all members of the family in the tasks of nurturing and creating a positive experience of domestic life (NewCities, 2018).

Fig. 13: Visions for Urban Equity, Inclusivity and Opportunity

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS: To identify the key problems, analysis of case studies is only a first step. The next and more difficult one would be to re-imagine an equal city and bring it back to people (Fig. 14). Literature review revealed that there is a variety of approaches towards feminist cities ranging from utopian narratives which criticize and question urbanism. They challenge the set norms in cities and society by creating hyperbolic and extreme situations. Challenging the prevailing order in society might lead to the recognition of the problem by wider audiences. A discussion would build a solid foundation and a driving force of change that will further shape the urban planning. Because everyone, women, men, sexual and gender minorities of all ages and abilities and disabilities, should have the same right to the city, on the assumption that we want to have a prosperous and thriving society.

Fig. 14: What Would a Feminist City Look Like?

CONCLUSION

The important step is to identify and understand the problem first. Cities only reflect and are a result of our society. Hence, there is a need for more explicit consideration of gender into the planning and introducing a new perspective that will challenge us all.

Cities are populated by a variety of people who have miscellaneous needs but equal rights. Yet, some struggle when walking through the city streets and feel not wanted in the city spaces. The primary aim of the dissertation is to investigate the main factor affecting the gendered experience of the city. Why do those women and other groups still need to claim their space in the city? The history of a woman staying at home and keeping the fire, taking care of family and household while a man was hunting is not relevant anymore. For the first time, women appeared in the streets during the Industrial Revolution- when they became a part of the workforce. Suffragettes

There are plenty of resources dedicated to the topic. Different feminists' geographers, urban planners and architects approach their projects differently. Some of the projects are experimental, radical and utopian reacting against the limitations restricting women to reach their full potential, creating a space for women where they can live, work, enjoy life, feel safe and belong. For a feminist city, however, there is not a manual which one reads, follows and applies changes. No universal pattern could fit all as each city has a different history, context, occupants and needs.

and feminists then occupied the streets and demanded equal rights. Females have a long history of claiming their right to the city, yet they still need to encounter gendered spaces when moving through them.

This paper is not intended to be interpreted as a rigid guide, but instead, it should serve as a source of information for further investigation and research of the topic. Also, it hopes to encourage audiences to recognise the issues faced by women and other marginalised groups every day

Analysis of case studies and project revealed that they mostly point out similar problems from various views. They agree that despite the progress, women, people of colour, abilities and disabilities, gender and sexual minorities, immigrants as well as Indigenous communities are still being marginalised and excluded from decision making. Hence, cities become the major spheres of inequality and oppression that further shape how these groups experience public and private life

and to admit that problems exist in our cities, which have an impact on some people more than others. It is up to us, the individuals who form a society to be more proactive, seek the information, education, innovation and put pressure on not only policymakers, urbanists and architects, but practically everyone around us. The more people realise the problem exists, the greater the level of debate created and as a result, the more likely change will happen.

(LSE Review of Books, 2020). Urban planning needs to question the social norms, cultural stereotypes, practices and deeply rooted conventions of the city that work to isolate and exclude women and other disadvantaged groups in the city.

The examined literature review has shown that interventions such as wider pedestrian walkways and underpasses, more barrier-free and gender-free public toilets, breastfeeding-friendly places, facilities for baby changing, safer bus stops, more lighting, vast open parks, improved infrastructure, prioritising pedestrians over cars, more cycling routes, barrier-free accesses and buildings would benefit all citizens. Besides, mixed-use neighbourhoods, more benches, a variety of playgrounds, participatory design process, more accessible housing with communal spaces will encourage vivid neighbourhoods and create a sense of belonging. These are some of the examples that could get us closer to achieving a fairer city.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS ANSWERED AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH WHAT IS THE MAJOR FACTOR THAT HAS HAD AFFECTED THE WAY

HOW DID THE FEMINIST GEOGRAPHERS, URBANISTS, ARCHITECTS APPROACHED

HOW FEMALES NAVIGATE THE CITY TODAY?

THE PROBLEMATICS OF SEXISM IN ARCHITECTURE?

Space was historically divided into the ‘men’s outside’ and ‘women’s inside.’ This way, cities were

Differently. Some approach the topic through utopian criticism of confined cities, some urban plan-

planned for men and by men initially. Even after long, exhausting process of females conquering

ners implement gender mainstreaming into their policymaking processes. Others mobilized society

their space in the city and society, they still experience inequalities.

through activism, writing books and handbooks or through data collecting and researching. As an example, Jane Jacobs was a theorist writing about fair cities. Barcelona, Vienna or Stockholm

WHAT ARE THE BIGGEST HURDLES THAT RESTRICT AND HAVE AN EFFECT ON

introduced gender mainstreaming policymaking, URBACT published ‘Gender Equal City’ report,

AN EQUAL EXPERIENCE OF SPACE?

Pamela Sargent wrote a feminist utopia.

Wrongly planned layout of the cities, narrow pavements, weak pedestrian and public infrastructure, poor lighting, dangerous parks and public spaces, poor female engagement in the urban

UNDER WHICH CONDITIONS CAN A FEMINIST CITY BECOME A REALITY SO THAT EVERY-

planning, ‘double shifts', insufficient safety, poor accessibility to buildings and spaces, lack of civic

ONE HAS THE SAME OPPORTUNITIES?

amenities- barrier-free public toilets, street maintenance, single-use neighbourhoods, segregated

Unfortunately, based on research no specific answer has been found to this question. There are

households, etc.

some steps that all cities can do to make them more inclusive. No pattern, however, is universal and fits all as each city has different occupants, needs and context and history.

HOW CAN A FEMINIST APPROACH TOWARDS ARCHITECTURE BENEFIT NOT ONLY WOMEN? The gender-sensitive approach is proved to be inclusive and benefits all. Few examples, such as Stockholm’s snow-clearing policy has been introduced as a result of the city’s gender mainstreaming approach. Activists in California enhanced access to pavements for wheelchair users. Both examples came across as successful despite the initial hostility.

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 07: Kneeshaw, S. and Norman, J. (2019). Sustainable Development Goal. United Nations (2015). Available at: https://urbact.eu/sites/default/files/urbact-genderequalcities-edition-pag-

Fig. 01: COCHRAN, J. (2016). The Prophecies of Jane Jacobs. The Atlantic. Available at: https://

es-web.pdf [Accessed 1 Jan. 2021]

www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/11/the-prophecies-of-jane-jacobs/501104/ [Accessed 2 Jan. 2021].

Fig. 08: land8.com (2013). AD Classics: Ville Radieuse. Le Corbusier. Available at: https://www. archdaily.com/411878/ad-classics-ville-radieuse-le-corbusier?ad_medium=gallery [Accessed 1

Fig. 02: Orkin, R. (2016). Unwanted attention: American woman in Florence. Flâneuse: Women

Jan. 2021].

Walk the City in Paris, New York, Tokyo, Venice and London by Lauren Elkin. Available at: http:// psychogeographicreview.com/flaneuse-women-walk-the-city-in-paris-new-york-tokyo-venice-and-

Fig. 09: Baeriswyl, C. (2019). GENDER INEQUALITY. Illustrations for the magazine “Observer.”

london-by-lauren-elkin/ [Accessed 28 Dec. 2020].

Available at: https://www.christinabaeriswyl.ch/inequality [Accessed 30 Dec. 2020].

Fig. 03: Unknown. (2016). Elegant flâneuses on the streets of Paris. Flâneuse by Lauren Elkin

Fig. 10: URBACT ed., (2019). Gender Equal Cities report. Available at: https://urbact.eu/urbact-

review – wandering women. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/jul/25/flaneu-

brings-gender-equal-cities-eu [Accessed 1 Jan. 2021].

se-women-walk-city-paris-new-york-tokyo-venice-london-review-lauren-elkin [Accessed 28 Dec. 2020].

Fig. 11: unknown artist (1729). The church of the Beguines. Situation sketch of the Beguinage ca.1544. Available at: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Begijnhof_Chapel,_Amsterdam [Accessed 30

Fig. 04: Hatcher, B. (2019). Deeds Not Words. Available at: https://creativepool.com/beatrixhatch-

Dec. 2020].

er/projects/deeds-not-words [Accessed 30 Dec. 2020]. Fig. 12: Unknown (2018). CREATING A FEMINIST CITY: WE RISE BY LIFTING OTHERS. Poster Fig. 05: Eurostat ed., (2019). Participation time per day in unpaid work by gender. Available at:

for Un Habitat Student Competition 2016. Available at: https://www.liisbeth.com/creating-a-femi-

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=File:Participation_time_per_day_

nist-city-we-rise-by-lifting-others/ [Accessed 30 Dec. 2020].

in_unpaid_work_(main_activity),_by_gender,_(hh_mm;_2008_to_2015).png [Accessed 1 Jan. 2021].

Fig. 13: Posada, A. (2015). The Just City Essays. Visions for Urban Equity, Inclusivity and Opportunity. Available at: https://nextcity.org/features/view/just-city-essys-toni-griffin-theaster-gates-ange-

Fig. 06: Stapleton, S. (2017). Fearless Girl. When Women Walk the City. Available at: https://www.

la-glover-blackwell [Accessed 28 Dec. 2020].

bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-28/the-book-fl-neuse-defines-the-female-urban-wanderer [Accessed 28 Dec. 2020]. statue, New York City.

Fig. 14: Miotke, M. (2020). What Would a Feminist City Look Like? Illustration. Available at: https:// inthesetimes.com/article/feminist-city-leslie-kern-new-york-city-abolition-park [Accessed 30 Dec.

Fig. 07: Kneeshaw, S. and Norman, J. (2019). Sustainable Development Goal. United Nations

2020].

(2015). Available at: https://urbact.eu/sites/default/files/urbact-genderequalcities-edition-pages-web.pdf [Accessed 1 Jan. 2021]

** Collages/Illustrations on pages 1,2,3,6,23,48,58 produced by me

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