The New ARCH Vol4 No2 (2017) by S.ARCH

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture

The New ARCH Peer-reviewed open-access E-journal

ISSN 2198-7688

Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017) August 2017 www.The-New-ARCH.net

Editor-in-Chief Arch. Marina Stosic, GERMANY E: Editor@The-New-ARCH.net

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Cover Illustration Venice – Lorenzo Quinn “SUPPORT”; Copyright: RENECON International

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

ISSN 2198-7688

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A WORD FROM THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF A month ago, sometime between July 10th and July 12th a giant iceberg – one of the largest ever recorded – of about 6,000 km2, twice the size of Luxembourg, more than four times the size of London, about the size of the U.S. state of Delaware, ten times the size of Manhattan Island or more than seven New York Cities, almost half the size of Jamaica has split off from the Larsen C ice shelf on the Antarctic peninsula. Although scientists are not sure if any relation to human-induced climate change exist, the loss of such massive peace will leave whole Larsen C ice shelf vulnerable to future collapse, which could raise global sea levels by 10 cm. Three weeks after this event, on June 1st the U.S. president announced that the U.S. is withdrawing from the 2015 Paris climate agreement, signed by almost 190 countries. Both events attracted worldwide attention, but unfortunately for a short time and without any particular steps.

Founding Editor & Editor–In–Chief Architect Marina Stosic

This has motivated myself to summarise a part of research I am doing since mid of 2016 and write the first part of my thoughts on “Architecture Facing Sea Level Rise” entitled “Is the Human Footprint on Our Plant Accelerating Out of Control”, which may be found in Editorial of this Issue. Aside from this, we initiated also the S.ARCH Architecture Competitions FACING SEA LEVEL RISE, pursuing solutions to deal with the threats from the ongoing global sea level changes, which is the new pillar of the S.ARCH conferences and will be introduced already on the next S.ARCH-2018 conference to be organised 22-24 May 2018 in Venice, Italy. Last but not least, we presented a short overview of the last S.ARCH-2017 conference in Hong Kong and put together seven interesting articles. So, take a time to flip the Journal and have a nice, healthy and enjoyable summer.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A Word from the Editor–in–Chief

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

ISSN 2198-7688

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EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief Arch. Marina Stosic, GERMANY E: Editor@The-New-ARCH.net

Editorial Board Arch. Prof. Dietmar Eberle – Baumschlager Eberle, AUSTRIA; ETH Zurich, SWITZERLAND Arch. Prof. Kengo Kuma – University of Tokyo, JAPAN; Kengo Kuma &Associates JAPAN, FRANCE Arch. Rafael de La-Hoz – Rafael de La-Hoz Arquitectos, SPAIN Arch. Philippe Rahm – Philippe Rahm architects, FRANCE / Visiting Prof. at Harvard University, Cambridge, USA Arch. Luca Francesco Nicoletti – ZAHA HADID Architects, London, UNITED KINGDOM Arch. Jose Luis Vallejo – Ecosistema urbano, SPAIN Arch. Associate Prof. PhD. Veronika Kotradyova – Faculty of Architecture, STU Bratislava, SLOVAKIA Arch. Bostjan Vuga – Sadar+Vuga, SLOVENIA Arch. Prof. Nevnihal Erdogan – Dean of the Faculty of Architecture and Design, Kocaeli University, TURKEY Arch. Associate Prof. Tarek Abdelsalam – University of Modern Sciences & Arts (MSA), Cairo, EGYPT Arch. Ass. Prof. Zsuzsanna Fulop – Faculty of Architecture, Budapest University of Technology & Economics, HUNGARY Arch. M.Sci. Valerija Abramović – Faculty of Architecture, Czech Technical University, Prague, CZECH REPUBLIC Arch. Dr. Hassan Estaji – Hakim Sabzevari University, IRAN, University of Applied Arts Vienna, AUSTRIA Arch. Dr. Paola Leardini – University of Auckland, NEW ZEALAND Arch. Associate Prof. Wah Sang Wong – University of Hong Kong, CHINA

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Editorial Board

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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Marina Stosic Architecture Facing Sea Level Rise Part 1: Is the Human Footprint on Our Planet Accelerating Out of Control

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The 4th International ARCHITECTURE Conference with AWARDs – S.ARCH, 7-9 June 2017, HONG KONG

Bronne C. Dytoc Activating Graphics and Collaboration in Architectural Structures Education

Ruveyda Komurlu, David Arditi The Role of General Conditions relative to Claims and Disputes in Building Construction Contracts

Hassan Estaji A Review of Flexibility and Adaptability in Housing Design

Lingyi Qiu, Xuemei Zhu Impacts of Housing and Community Environments on Children’s Independent Mobility: A Systematic Literature Review

Hernan Casakin The Use of Metaphors as Design Communication Tools in an Architectural Team

Arta Jakupi, Berat Istogu Modular Architecture as a Synergy of Chaos and Order – Case Study Prishtina

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About the Journal

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Instructions for Authors

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Authors‘ Papers

Ferdinand Oswald Hong Kong Residential Buildings with Reduction of the Utilisation of Air Conditioning

The Journal

Editorial

CONTENT

S.ARCH-2018 International Conference with AWARDs

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

ISSN 2198-7688

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

ISSN 2198-7688

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

ISSN 2198-7688

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

ISSN 2198-7688

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ARCHITECTURE FACING SEA LEVEL RISE Part 1:

IS THE HUMAN FOOTPRINT ON OUR PLANET ACCELERATING OUT OF CONTROL? Marina Stosic is a German architect dealing with sustainable architecture and built environment, focusing her interest on climate change influences on the built infrastructure of coastal areas. Marina is the founder and since 5 years is chairing the international architecture conference S.ARCH. Furthermore she is member of the international jury of the annual architecture AWARDs. Recently, she also initiated a series of the international Architecture Competitions “Facing Sea Level Rise”. Marina is the Editor-in-Chief and contributor of the International Journal of Contemporary Architecture. In 2017 she initiated the foundation of the international association pursuing architectural and engineering solutions to cope with the threats of global warming and their consequences. Marina is giving worldwide invited lectures dealing with theme of the sea level rise and architecture of the affected shore areas.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Marina Stosic: “Architecture Facing Sea Level Rise – Part 1: Is the Human Footprint on the Planet Accelerating Out of Control?”

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

ISSN 2198-7688

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Credits: NASA

Figure 1. Historical Development of Carbon Dioxide Level

Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Figure 2. Global average carbon dioxide concentrations on June 1-15, 2015 (NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 measures carbon dioxide from the top of Earth's atmosphere to its surface)

Credits: NASA

Figure 3. Warming up development corresponding to human CO2 emissions

Since the first agriculture humans (10,000–8,000 BC), the humankind environmental impact started to increase proportional to the population rise. End of the 18th century the Industrial Revolution boosted worldwide the hunger for energy thus exponentially

increasing environmental impact of the humans (Figures 1–3). And, despite gradually increased hunger for energy, currently more than 17% of the global population lack access to electricity and more than 36% rely on traditional use of biomass for cooking.

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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It took the humans species 300,000 years to reach the 1st billion, 130 years to add the 2nd, 30 years to add the 3rd, 15 years to add the 4th, 12 years to add the 5th and the 6th billion (Figure 4), but only few centuries for devastating effects of overpopulation. We are exploiting the planet so to run out of resources and currently need about 1.7 Earths to meet our demands, which have already exceeded what the planet can replenish. Because of steadily increasing the human footprint (a measure of how much we are using the Earth’s natural resources) on the planet, Earth Overshoot Day 2017 happened already on August 2nd, which means that beginning of August we started to use an unsustainable amount of the Earth's resources. Earth Overshoot Day 2017 came far earlier than it did a decade before when we used just 1.44 of the Earth's bio-capacity (ability of the planet to produce natural resources, provide land for humans to build on, and absorb waste such as carbon emissions), which is double that was used in sustainable 1963. If we continue to progressively exploit our plant we might need 2 Earths to survive by 2030 or even 3 by 2050. Present environmental damage on some places worldwide already show the harsh realities of the ecological and social tragedies that Earth is suffering from overdevelopment and overshoot.

Current warming the north pole for about 6 °C and melting Greenland, Arctic (Figure 5) and Antarctica, glacier thaws (Figure 6), numerous smog alarms in big cities, draughts (Figure 7), landslides, tripling desert area in last 30 years, increased number of tornados and hurricanes around the globe, as well as amplifying equatorial ocean stream and major slowing (or even shutdown) of the global ocean thermohaline conveyor belt (Figure 9) could be with unpredictable and abrupt (probably irreversible and apocalyptic) consequences. Besides these present and obvious effects of the human environmental impact, not to forget are secondary effects of the global warming. We are entering humans driven “the sixth great extinction” (which one of the victim speices is certainly the ice bear – Figure 8) of animal species at unprecedented speed, that some debate to be a very serious biodiversity crisis – anyway, the loss of species we are experiencing today is estimated by experts to be between 1,000 and 10,000 times higher than the natural extinction rate. One of the scariest could be the melting induced release of longdormant ancient bacteria and viruses we have never met before, trapped in ice and frozen permafrost for thousands or even million of years (Figure 10 and 11) and waking up now as climate warms and potentially opening Pandora's box of diseases.

Credits: Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevölkerung (DSW); Source UN, World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision

Figure 4. Global population development (Imagine that world population was 5 million 10,000 B.C. and 250 million 1 A.D.)

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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Source: http://de.123rf.com; Copyright: Natalia Bratslavsky

Figure 5. Glacier falling down in the ocean of Alaska due to the global warming

Source: http://de.123rf.com; Copyright: nitsuki

Figure 7. Loss of water due to global warming

Source: climate365.tumbir.com; go.nasa.gov/climate365

Figure 6. Muir glacier, Alaska: August 13th, 1941 and August 31st, 2004

Source: http://de.123rf.com; Copyright: Vladimir Seliverstov

Figure 8. One of the victim species of the 6th great extinction

Credits: NASA

Figure 9. Global Ocean Thermohaline Conveyor Belt (Significant slowing of global water current and hence vanishing of Golf Stream will drastically change climate in Europe and Nord America)

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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Credits: NASA

Figure 10. GRACE (Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment) observations of Greenland and Antarctic ice mass changes

Source: Dr. Alex Gardner, NASA – von Karman Lecture Series, February 2017

Figure 11. Comparison of Gigaton of water with Manhattan in New York (Imagine 5626 Gigatons melted ice on Greenland and Antarctic in 14 years – from May 2002 until August 2016 – Figure 10)

It seems that the human impact is accelerating out of control resulting also in excessive carbon emissions and corresponding global warming up. Despite to numerous worldwide protocols and agreements the CO2 emissions are still not on track for a 2 °C scenario. Global CO2 concentration of 405.6 ppm measured in March 2017, average temperature anomaly of 0.99 °C in 2016 and sea level rise of 88.2 mm measured in January 2017 causes for concern (Figure 12). If such trends in carbon concentrations in atmosphere and global temperature

rise continue to develop, by the end of the 21st century much of Africa, South America and India will endure average daily maximum temperatures of more than 45°C (Figure 13). Consequently, the developing of sea level rise is triggered by three primary facts caused by ongoing global climate change: (i) Thermal expansion of oceans, (ii) Melting of glaciers and polar ice caps, and (iii) Ice loss from Greenland and Antarctica (Figure 10 and 11).

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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The influence of glaciers’ thawing on the seal level rise was neglected for a long time, due the fact that glaciers have only 1% of the total ice contained in Greenland and Antarctic. However, glaciers are mostly located on areas, which are already warmer, so that their thawing are influenced by smaller temperature rise. Recent estimations are that glaciers’ thawing influences 1/3 of the sea level rise and thermal expansion of oceans additional 1/3, whilst thawing of Greenland and Antarctic makes the last 1/3. Current carbon emissions development tends to cause possible 4 °C of global warming although the international target is still 2 °C. (Here it must be noted that with average global temperature rise of 0.99 °C we are already on the half way to the international target). Both points to very different future sea levels. By the global temperature rise of 2 °C the sea level rise is projected to be 4.7 m, and by temperature rise of 4 °C the sea level rise is expected to be 8.9 m, or even more. Some comparisons of city area with current coast and with 3.048 m of sea level rise (what could be expected for some global warming between 1.2 °C and 1.6 °C) are illustrated for London, New York and Tokyo on Figure 14.

Source: climate.nasa.gov

Figure 12. Does these measurements look like cause for concern?

Recent investigations show that the global warming develops much faster than it was previously anticipated, so that the global temperature rise could reach some value between 2 °C and 4.9 °C by the end of the 21st century. The newest research across Greenland (having temperature and melting records in last few years)

Source: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3125113/; Copyright: NASA’s Earth Exchange

Figure 13. A map released by NASA shows large areas in July 2100 will exceed 45°C ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Marina Stosic: “Architecture Facing Sea Level Rise – Part 1: Is the Human Footprint on the Planet Accelerating Out of Control?”

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

ISSN 2198-7688

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discovered that stripes of dark, fast-melting ice is the result of warmer weather causing algae to appear on the ice sheet’s surface. The algae creates huge, colourful fields (known as “watermelon snow”) and with longer melting season they have more time to bloom and darken the ice sheet (Figure 15). Unlike white ice (reflecting up to 90% of solar radiation), the ice sheet covered by dark algae absorbs much more the sun’s heat (reflecting only up to 35% of solar radiation), thus additionally accelerating the melting process of Greenland ice, which would raise sea level by 6 to 7 metres if all melted (Figure 10 and 11). Such projected sea levels may take different times to develop, depending on the carbon choices the world makes today. But to note is the fact that the CO2 concentration, temperature and sea level continue to rise long after emissions are reduced. For instance, global temperature stabilisation needs few centuries and the sea level rise due to thermal expansion needs centuries to millennia and due to ice melting several millennia (Figure 16). These stabilisation times explain why the half of the temperature anomaly is not causing yet proportional sea level rise. Each person requires energy, space and resources to live and survive, and during the century and a half since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, human population and its growth became the number one threat to the world’s environment. With the population of 7.52 billion by the end of July 2017 and the global population growth rate of about 90 million a year the environmental impact is not expected to decrease. Additionally, in the last 116 years (from 1900 to 2016) average human lifespan has been

Source: Climate Central; http://sealevel.climatecentral.org/

Figure 14a. London: Current coast (top) and 3.05 m sea level rise (bottom)

Source: Climate Central; http://sealevel.climatecentral.org/

Figure 14b. New York: Current coast (top) and 3.05 m sea level rise (bottom)

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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increased by about 40 years (from 31 to 71). Therefore, more than 9 billion people could live on the planet by 2050 — and we have responsibility today for their future. The fact that 54% of the world’s population was living in urban areas in 2014 with increasing tendency to reach 66% by 2050, makes the projected environmental impact even worse. One of the most important effect of the human environmental impact is undoubtedly the sea level rise with a current rate of more than 3 millimetres a year. Even a small increase could have devastating effects on the population living in the low– elevation coastal zone where hundreds of millions of people live. According to some sources, about 50–60% of the world's population lives within 100 km of the sea. Census figures from 224 Source: Climate Central; http://sealevel.climatecentral.org/ countries in 2007 showed that Figure 14c. Tokyo: Current coast (top) and 3.05 m sea level rise (bottom) low-elevation areas are home to 634 million people. Roughly, 10% of population in the world lives in the low-elevation coastal zone. And, about more than On the social aspect, the constant threat of sea level rise 20% of the global population live in the “near coastal hazards to hundreds of millions of people living in zone” (within 200 km of the sea). coastal communities, increasing serious consequences for human health and life quality, with coastal In addition, most of the world’s megacities like Tokyo– populations at risk for more frequent flood and dearth Yokohama with 37.8 million, Jakarta with 30.5 million, of water preceding final flooding. With sea level Manila with 24.1 million and Seoul with 23.5 million continuing to rise and without proper solutions, the inhabitants are located in the coastal zone. About twocoastal population will be forced to move to another thirds of the world’s megacities are located in the area, with the corresponding demographic and coastal zone.

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Watermelon_snow_streaks_3.jpg; Copyright: Will Beback

Figure 15. “Watermelon snow” streaks

Figure 16. CO2 concentration, temperature and sea level continue to rise long after carbon emissions are reduced

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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Source: http://de.123rf.com; Copyright: Antonio Gravante

Figure 17. Flooded Piazza San Marco in Venice

economic problems. Aside from the corresponding loss of the land and values of private and state properties and loss of the built infrastructure existing on flooded areas, problems arise also in finding new and appropriate land for agriculture, urban and landscape planning, as well as building the new infrastructure, for so called “climate refugees”. Besides this, there are cities and sites worldwide, which are historical and cultural heritage having additional values for the whole civilisation, which loss would be irreplaceable (like Venice – Figure 17). Not to forget is providing financial budgets, which could be significant. As reported by Nicola Davison in Financial Times of March 4th, 2016, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) estimates that 35tn US$ worth of property in some of the world’s largest coastal cities will be at risk of flooding already by 2070. But long before then, insurance companies will stop selling policies and banks will stop writing hypothecations for seafront homes. However, before these will happen there are already existing initiatives, plans and projects to face the threats from the ongoing global rise of the sea level.

Even if we would completely stop carbon emissions worldwide NOW (which is impossible), the global temperature and the sea level will continue to rise as the consequence of already discharged CO2 in the atmosphere In pursuing solutions to deal with these threats and their consequences architects and engineers may significantly contribute through: (i) Adapting existing infrastructure – in order to prevent leaving those areas; and (ii) Considering these threats already during designing of new buildings and neighbourhoods. Some projects already run around the world, where states and communities are developing different solutions for the upcoming flooding, which will occur more often in the next decades during the sea level rise. Unfortunately, less developed countries will be more threaten since they have not enough economic power to cope with the problems and to implement possible solutions.

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

ISSN 2198-7688

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When we consider rising of the oceans level we usually first think of the Netherlands, where more than 50% of its area is under the current sea level. In order to protect the land, a system of dikes has been used for centuries and has always been further developed. Good economic conditions of the country make solutions against the rising water more doable. Another European example is the concept of the HafenCity project in Hamburg, Germany, where the whole harbour area will be raised up to 9 metres above the current sea level. The city of Jakarta, Indonesia, which parts are now sinking 25 cm a year, which is much more than Venice dropping only 2 mm per year, faces very serious problems concerning the future change of the sea level. The city is planning a huge barrier, 40 km long and 25 m high with attached artificial islands and luxury water world city. Due to huge experience on this matter, some Dutch companies are involved in the planning of the water wall. However, many scientists in Indonesia are very sceptic if this luxury project will really save this metropolis from the climate change consequences. The Maldives are also preparing for the upcoming changes, since the current estimations predict that they will sink in 50 years (Figure 19). Besides building the

dykes and looking for new concepts like artificial floating structures, the government started a fund, which will serve to buy a piece of land from some other country and migrate there. The “African Cities Project” founded by architect Kunlé Adeyemi is pursuing solutions on the affected coastal areas of Africa. Paradox is that the African countries has negligible contributed to the carbon emissions, but will face much of its consequences. After the hurricane Sandy, Obama’s government initiated a task force, which lunched a 60 million US$ competition for developing a breakwater of Staten Island. The awarded studio Scape Landscape Architects has planned a 3 km long “living” breakwater, which should be completed in 2019 and is adaptable in height. This is certainly not a final solution for the New York City, but it is a beginning. There are also some researches, done on different universities worldwide, investigating the possibility of re-designing the sea shore, like a research on “Adapting the Edge of the San Francisco Bay for Sea Level Rise” by Kristina Hill, Associate Professor of Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning at the University of California, Berkeley.

Illustration: Michael Korol; Source: HafenCity Hamburg GmbH

Figure 18. HafenCity project in Hamburg ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Marina Stosic: “Architecture Facing Sea Level Rise – Part 1: Is the Human Footprint on the Planet Accelerating Out of Control?”

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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Source: http://de.123rf.com; Copyright: photographyttl

Figure 19. The city of Male, The Maldives

Photocredits: Architect Koen Olthuis – Waterstudio.NL

Figure 20. Floating houses in Amsterdam ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Marina Stosic: “Architecture Facing Sea Level Rise – Part 1: Is the Human Footprint on the Planet Accelerating Out of Control?”

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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The Harvard Graduate School of Design and the City of Miami Beach are doing a complex study considering sea level rise impacts on economy, ecology, infrastructure and identity of Miami Beach in relation to its metropolitan and regional contexts. In terms of designing new communities or single buildings in affected areas, there are many proposals of

floating houses (buildings on water) – a future concept well implemented by architect Koen Olthuis and the Waterstudio.NL (Figure 20). Different professions are included in ongoing initiatives and projects, but architects as well as naval and civil engineers have to be on the front line bringing new and fresh ideas. Architect Marina Stosic

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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THE 4TH INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE CONFERENCE WITH AWARDS – S.ARCH,

7-9 JUNE 2017, HONG KONG In continuation of a successful series of International Architecture Conferences with AWARDs – S.ARCH (Sustainable ARCHitecture) held for the first time in 2014, Get It Published jointly with RENECON International, both from Germany, organised on 7-9 June 2017 the 4th conference in Hong Kong. The S.ARCH is an international annual platform where practitioners, researchers and industry leaders meet and exchange knowledge, insights and experiences on crossdisciplinary field of architecture and built environment. The S.ARCH AWARD is awarding the best Completed Project and the best Conceptual Design.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ The 4th International Architecture Conference with AWARDs – S.ARCH, 7-9 June 2017, Hong Kong

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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In line with a four–year history of an established positive practice, as well as this time, two selected distinguished lecturers – Alex Parker from Atkins and Nick Cordingley from 10DESIGN, both from Hong Kong – were invited to give speeches providing insights related to sustainable big projects in Asia. The organizers of the S.ARCH–2017 facilitated sharing contributions of more than 80 authors of 73 papers and posters from all around the World and active involvement of registered participants. Thus, the S.ARCH–2017 statistics described in numbers is as follows: • 2 Keynote Speakers • 6 Sessions with • 61 Contributed Works • 3 Sessions with • 19 Short-listed Projects • More than 130 participants, and • 1 Conference Excursion Received Registrations from 46 countries around the World prove the Internationality of the S.ARCH Conferences!

On the evening of June 8th, the S.ARCH announced the Winners for the 2017 AWARDs. The trophies for the COMPLETED PROJECT AWARD went to: • SMALL PROJECT: Project Dinosaur egg geological museum in Qinglong Mountain, China; Architects: 122 Studio Green Arch. Research Center, Wuhan, China And Project: GrOwING GREEN, USA; Architects: Prof. Timothy Gray and Architecture Students, Ball State University, Muncie, USA; • RESIDENTIAL BUILDING: House B, Croatia; Architects: SODAarchitekti, Zagreb, Croatia; • EXPERIMENTAL PROJECT: Inverted House in Hokkaido, Japan; Architects: The Oslo School of Architecture, Norway; Kengo Kuma & Associates, Tokyo, Japan; ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ The 4th International Architecture Conference with AWARDs – S.ARCH, 7-9 June 2017, Hong Kong

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• COMMERCIAL BUILDING: Puma Energy El Salvador Headquarters, El Salvador; Architects: Ruiz Parado-Nebreda, Mardid, Spain; • OFFICE BUILDING: National University of Singapore - New Administration Block, Singapore; Architects 61, Singapore; • BEST COMPLETED PROJECT 2017: Community of Municipalities' offices in Les Herbiers, France; Architects: ATELIER DU PONT, Paris, France;

The Winners of the BEST CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AWARDs are:

Best Completed Project 2017

• SMALL DESIGN: Home Made, Austria; Architects: Caramel architekten, Vienna, Austria • COMMERCIAL / PUBLIC DESIGN: Cancer Center, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Architects: Cannon Design, Saint Louis, USA • RESIDENTIAL DESIGN: Green miles of Nashtarood, Iran; Architects: Logical Process in Architectural Design, Isfahan, Iran • BEST CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 2017: Misi-Ziibi Living Delta, USA; Architects: H3 Studio, Saint Louis, USA

Best Conceptual Design 2017

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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Authors’ Papers

Ferdinand Oswald

Hong Kong Residential Buildings with Reduction of the Utilisation of Air Conditioning 15

Bronne C. Dytoc

Activating Graphics and Collaboration in Architectural Structures Education 27

Ruveyda Komurlu, David Arditi

The Role of General Conditions relative to Claims and Disputes in Building Construction Contracts 37

Hassan Estaji

A Review of Flexibility and Adaptability in Housing Design 50

Lingyi Qiu, Xuemei Zhu

Impacts of Housing and Community Environments on Children’s Independent Mobility: A Systematic Literature Review 62

Hernan Casakin

The Use of Metaphors as Design Communication Tools in an Architectural Team 71

Arta Jakupi, Berat Istogu

Modular Architecture as a Synergy of Chaos and Order – Case Study Prishtina

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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DOI: 10.14621/tna.20170201

Hong Kong Residential Buildings with Reduction of the Utilisation of Air Conditioning Ferdinand Oswald Institute of Architecture Technology, Graz University of Technology Rechbauerstr. 12/I, 8010 Graz, Austria; ferdinand.oswald@tugraz.at

Abstract

1. Introduction

Over recent decades, residents of large tropical and subtropical cities living in modern buildings have been making increasing use of split-air conditioning systems. The utilisation and power consumption of these systems in humid and hot subtropical regions is colossal, the latter being a major disadvantage of air conditioners. It is assumed that air conditioning in the seven-million metropolis Hong Kong alone requires additional energy amounting to 6.8 GWh per year (Figure 1). The problem definition outlined above raises a number of questions that will be clarified in the course of this paper. The main question in this paper is concerned with the possibility of employing architectural means to provide sufficient comfort in HK without having to use air conditioners. How can architects promote the potential of technologies and traditional concepts, or even initiate them? Hong Kong Housing Authority Residential Building will show up answers to these questions.

The South Eastern Chinese coastal region with its 150 million inhabitants requires an energy quantity of 145 GWh per year to cool their apartments with air conditioners [1]. At the same time, these split-system air conditioners continue to heat up the urban environment with their warm exhaust air, discharging 40% of required cooling energy in the form of heat into the ambient air, thus also exacerbating negative effects of the urban heat island. According to statistical calculations, the worldwide urban population will almost double by 2050, increasing from 3.5 billion to 6.3 billion [2]. Subsequently, energy required for cooling will almost double by 2050 as well [3]. Given that the urban population cannot do without air conditioning, this forecasted growth is bound to pose a huge challenge to energy production and the carbon footprint. For future conurbations in sub-tropical regions, therefore, it will be of crucial importance to seek specific solutions for problems such as overburdened energy grids and local climate change. Reducing the use of split-system air conditioners is an urgent issue. It seems possible to increase comfort and reduce mechanical ventilation at the same time with the help of specifically natural ventilation systems for residential housing in tropical regions. Results from specific research projects [4] and scientific measurement furthermore produced evidence that specific natural cross ventilation can optimize human behaviour for periods of up to 85 % of the year (e.g. Hong Kong) [5] (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Residential Building with split air-conditioners, HKHA © Ferdinand Oswald

Keywords:

Article history:

Reducing air conditioning; Hong Kong residential buildings; Urban heat island effect; Natural ventilation; Buildingground floor- and façade-structures Received: 06 July 2017 Revised: Accepted: 25 July 2017

1.1. Ngau Tau Kok Estate, Hong Kong Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate is one of Hong Kong Housing Authority’s few estate projects that was tailored to the specific location, and this Site Specific Project was to enable enhanced natural ventilation as compared to HKHA’s other high-rise estate projects. This paper investigates the extent to which Upper Ngau Tau Kok

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ F. Oswald: “Hong Kong Residential Buildings with Reduction of the Utilisation of Air Conditioning”, pp. 1–14

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Figure 2. Weather Tool 2001, © Autodesk, Inc. 2010; Weather data Download, U.S. Department of Energy, report on the data (STAT) and ASHRAE Design Conditions Design Day Data file (DDY), © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013

Figure 3. Birds eye view of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate (Photo: Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2013)

Estate’s position in the urban context, its building typology and façade apertures influence natural ventilation of habitable space, and will look into possibilities of using thermal mass and assess the effects of solar irradiation as well (Figure 3).

2. Project description Planned by Hong Kong Housing Authority as a novel residential high-rise typology at the turn of the

Figure 4. Central access corridor of a MARK V residential high-rise, Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate (Photo: Hong Kong Housing Authority, 1998)

millennium, Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate complex was fully completed in 2009 in place of MARK V typology buildings that HKHA had developed in the 1960s. In 1989, HKHA had already begun to redevelop the area, demolishing the old high-rises and gradually replacing them with new ones. In 2009, finally, five of the old residential blocks had been replaced by six new ones consisting of 780 dwelling units. The new Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate offered 4,584 new flats in all.

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Since this new estate is higher than the old one, it not only offers more habitable space within the same area, but higher air speeds around the upper storeys of the now higher buildings allow for more effective natural ventilation. Moreover, the new Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate has a larger range of dwelling typologies, with six different one to two room dwelling types in the residential blocks. One major difference to the previous housing typologies is that natural lighting and ventilation have been improved in the circulation areas and access corridors, which are arranged centrally between the dwellings in the respective wings. The photo shows a corridor in HKHA’s former MARK V residential block without any natural lighting and ventilation (Figure 4).

2.1. Climate Hong Kong is situated at a latitude of 22.3°, just below the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°). The city receives regular sunshine from the north throughout the year with southern insolation varying strongly from season to season. In winter, there is more direct southern insolation than in summer. This is explained in more detail in the chapter “Reduction of solar heat gain”. Annual solar altitude and path in Hong Kong are as shown in the stereographic illustrations. In Hong Kong, winters are mild with minimum temperatures dropping to 6.4°C and summers are hot with maximum temperatures climbing to 34.2°C. As explained in the previous chapter, Hong Kong’s climate is comparable to that of Guangzhou’s, since these cities are not far apart. The principal difference between both cities is that Hong Kong is located on the coast and Guangzhou lies further inland. Summer winds arrive mainly from the east, blowing from the sea over the mountain – at speeds of between 15 and 25 km/h. Hence, due to the flat sea, Hong Kong has more lively winds than Guangzhou (Figure 5).

2.2. Location Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate is located in Hong Kong’s Kwun Tong district in the urban area of Kowloon. With a population of 55,000/km², Kwun Tong is the most densely populated of Hong Kong’s eighteen urban districts. Kwun Tong is separated from the centre of Kowloon by a bay, where the old airport Kai Tak was once situated. Ever since the new airport was built outside Chek Lap Kok in 1998, HKHA has been revitalising the artificially filled Kai Tak peninsula as a housing development area. In Kwun Tong, Ngau Tau Kok is situated on a slope facing the bay. In the past, before the reclamation of land, the coastline was shaped like the horn of an ox – which is the literal translation of the

Figure 5. Floorplan of residential unit no. 3202, Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate with wind study located in Hong Kong; solar altitude and path as a stereographical representation including orientation and representation of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate; maximum and minimum annual temperature, annual temperature difference, annual maximum and minimum relative humidity, wind rose with wind direction, force and frequency for Hong Kong. © Ferdinand Oswald, data reworked using ECOTECT/Weather Manager, climate and weather data courtesy of US Department of Energy, 2013

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Figure 6. Site plan, Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate, Hong Kong with living unit no. 3202 (red dot), © CADbasis-data from Hong Kong Housing Authority, reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2013

Figure 7. Wind analysis showing main wind from the east in summer in Upper Ngau Tau Kok: old MARK V building (left) and new Site Specific Project (right), © Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2009; reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2014

Figure 8. Wind analysis showing main wind from the east in summer (left), from southwest in summer (centre) and from north in winter (right), Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate; wind analysis © Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2009; reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2014 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ F. Oswald: “Hong Kong Residential Buildings with Reduction of the Utilisation of Air Conditioning”, pp. 1–14

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Cantonese name Ngau Tau Kok. With a population of over 210,000, Ngau Tau Kok is one of the most densely populated quarters in the Kwun Tong district.

3. Natural ventilation 3.1. Positioning in the urban context Upper Ngau Tau Kok’s position in the urban fabric is based firstly on the shape of the site; secondly, on the buildings’ orientation to the sea and configuration parallel to the mountain; and thirdly, on the wind’s main direction for optimisation of natural ventilation (Figure 6). 1. Due to the misshapen and irregular building site, the buildings were not able to be configured orthogonally, but were arranged slightly skewed toward each other instead. Both snake-shaped building arrangements are differently orientated, with the third residential tower twisted out of the building line. 2. Due to topographical circumstances, i.e. the length of the slope, the buildings are in a parallel position to the contour lines of the hill. This is advantageous for most of the dwellings facing the west, as they now have an open view to the sea and lagoon containing the Kai Tak peninsula. 3. In a wind analysis by Hong Kong Housing Authority, the old (left) and new (right) buildings of Upper Ngau Tau Kok are visible. This scenario shows the main wind coming from the east in summer as well as the wind corridor running from north to east between both snake-shaped high-rise complexes each consisting of three residential towers. This enables the main wind stream to pass freely through the building configuration. Both illustrations show how the buildings’ urban configuration optimises the wind flow. By contrast, the old MARK V buildings stood at right angles to the main wind stream so that not all parts of the buildings were naturally ventilated in an optimum way (Figure 7). Hence, both structures are arranged with respect to prevailing easterly winds, forming a central corridor through which the wind flows, thus ventilating the free space on ground level and the other buildings very well. HKHA’s wind analysis continues with a detailed representation of natural cross ventilation of the buildings during prevailing easterly winds. In summer, the second most frequent wind comes from the southwest, with the ventilation principle working well from an almost opposite direction, too, as shown in a further wind graph compiled by HKHA.

In winter, average temperatures reach approximately 15°C. These low temperatures mean that no natural ventilation for cooling is necessary. On the contrary, residents close their windows in order to retain indoor warmth and to prevent it from being carried away. Winter winds usually arrive from the north (see third illustration). The buildings now stand tangentially to the direction of the wind so that it flows parallel to the building complex, thus reducing the force of cross ventilation within the complex. Their configuration is thus tailored to the requirements of all seasonal wind and weather conditions (Figure 8).

3.2. Building structure The typology of the five identical high-rise blocks was specifically developed for Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Five of the six residential towers have an identical design in order to keep costs low by cutting planning expenditure and using prefabricated building elements. Only the sixth tower differs from the others in shape. As regards its ideal position on the site, the building wings are placed slightly askew so that they do not stand fully in an orthogonal grid. All individual towers feature symmetrically mirrored and reproduced L-shaped wings in the centre, thus forming an S-shaped complex: each residential block therefore consists of two identical Lshaped wings. Each building wing houses an access and circulation area with three elevators and an emergency stairwell. In the centre of both wings – i.e. on the axis of reflection, there is a third stairwell. Each storey contains 20 dwelling units. Building heights of the six blocks range between 35 and 40 floors. The building in the focus of this study is block no. 4 with 40 floors. The ground floor, which is called first floor in Hong Kong, contains semipublic access areas. Therefore, this building has a total of 39 habitable floors with 780 dwellings that are all accessible via a central corridor (Figure 9).

3.3. Façade Typical for HKHA’s residential high-rise typologies are the recesses in the façade that act as vertical ventilation shafts to air the bathrooms and, partly, also the kitchens. One special feature of Upper Ngau Tau Kok’s typology is that these recesses are continued right through to the corridors (access areas). In both central wing areas, this characteristic recess cuts through the entire depth of the floor plan, making Upper Ngau Tau Kok estate so unique. Based on computer-assisted wind simulation, HKHA investigated the functionality of natural cross ventilation by ascertaining wind speeds around the building when corridors were open or closed. Both simulations show

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Figure 9. Floor plan, residential block no. 4 of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate showing dwelling unit no. 3202 (in red) with axis of reflection, wind speed measuring points, wind direction, negative and positive pressure (+ or -) during 24 hour period on 24 and 25 August 2013 made by Ferdinand Oswald, © CAD basis data courtesy of Hong Kong Housing Authority, reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2013

Figure 10. Wind simulation: open corridors (left) and closed corridors (right) with main wind from the east in summer, Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate, © wind simulation: Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2009, reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2013 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ F. Oswald: “Hong Kong Residential Buildings with Reduction of the Utilisation of Air Conditioning”, pp. 1–14

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areas in various shades of blue to grey representing low to high wind speeds respectively. Dark blue areas in the wind simulation figure on the right indicate lower wind speeds, while in the simulation figure on the left, light blue to light grey areas signify higher wind speeds. A closer look at the figures reveals that airflow is intensive through both open sides of the corridors (Figure 10). In residential block no. 4, the Sheung Wing House, wind intensity was recorded as wind speed on the 32nd storey at 17 different façade openings as well as on the 41st storey, the roof storey, in hourly intervals in the course of a 24-hour period. The floor plan shows the measuring points, outward and inward wind flow as well as positive and negative pressure conditions (+ or -) during the period of measurement on 24th and 25th August 2013. At the time of measurement, prevailing winds blew solely from the east (see arrow “wind direction”). Interestingly, wind flow into the building on the western façade occurred from the opposite direction to oncoming winds from the east. A closer look at dwelling unit no. 2 (marked red in the floor plan), which is situated on the western side of the building, reveals that the wind flows into the openings from the opposite direction to the oncoming wind. This is caused by differences in air pressure, a fact that becomes evident when looking at the bigger picture – in this floor plan, positive pressure is represented by (+) and negative pressure by (-). Depending on the wind’s direction, this very high building creates various zones of pressure. As a rule, high pressure builds up on the windward side, and low pressure forms on the leeward side. However, on the western façade of the building under investigation, things were quite different. Although this façade is on the leeward side of the building, a zone of positive pressure builds up, forcing the air stream into the units. This has do to with the unit being a corner flat where the two outward sides of the building meet, thus promoting the formation of strong eddies. In this process, air is pressed around the edge of the building, which creates positive pressure. In addition, upward and downward air currents evolve, for instance, from air heating up and rising. Such factors can also lead to changing air pressure conditions at the façade of the building. During wind speed test measurements at the openings of the façade, peak wind speeds of up to 3.1 m/s were recorded, while outdoor air speeds reached 1.7 m/s. To avoid interference caused by built structures, the outdoor air speed (measuring point 1^) was recorded in the free space between both building complexes on the ground floor. A wind speed of 1.7 m/s corresponds to wind force 2; wind speed of 3.1 m/s corresponds to wind force 3. But lower wind speeds, too, (0.8 m/s) would suffice to create sufficient wind flow for a comfortable indoor environment.

Wind speeds of between 1.5 and 2.2 m/s were recorded chiefly at the corridor openings (measuring points 7^ and 11^). Situated in the central area of the building structure, these openings are therefore very effective in providing natural cross ventilation. Notably, during the period of measurement, there was an interval of almost complete calm between 5 pm and 1 am with wind speeds of merely 0.0 to 0.5 m/s at many measuring points. High humidity (90%) and temperatures (29.2°C) can cause discomfort if there is no wind at all.

3.4. Floor plans HKHA allowed us to test unit no. 3202 for a few days. Designated as number 02 on the 32nd floor, this tiny unit of the Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate with a net dwelling area of 18.27m² is described as a “small flat” designed for one resident. It consists of one central room with an entrance door, and a kitchenette, both with windows facing west. There is a tiny bathroom containing a shower in the space between the kitchenette and a vertical ventilation shaft. A small vent in the bathroom’s eastward wall connects to this ventilation shaft, which faces south, as the floor plan of unit no. 3202 shows. (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Floor plan, unit no. 3202 in Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate, Hong Kong, China, showing cross ventilation and thermal mass during the day and at night, with measuring points of air and surface temperature measurements and wind speed measurements made by Ferdinand Oswald, CAD basis data © Hong Kong Housing Authority, reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2013

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These openings on both sides of the corridors not only promote cross ventilation at this particular point, but also produce a substantial wind stream throughout the entire building, which supports the cross ventilation of all dwelling units. At the same time, low pressure from the corridor virtually draws the air out of the flats. In that way, the units are cross-ventilated via the corridor. Residents of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate are very happy with the possibility of cross-ventilating their flats via the corridor, and do so by opening their entrance doors. Here, peak air speeds of up to 2.6 m/s were recorded at measuring points 14^ and 15^. At the entrance door of the test unit no. 3202 (4^), high air speeds of up to 2.9 m/s were measured. All three measurements were carried out at a similar time of the day while outdoor air speeds only reached 1.5 m/s (measuring point 1^). To sum up: cross ventilation via unit entrances was found to be very effective, building up higher air speeds than outdoors. Cross ventilation works so well in this corridor via its relatively distant openings, because air pressure on the façade forces the air through these small openings. Air speeds are higher at the unit entrances than at the windows in the façade. At both window apertures of the main room and kitchenette facing the west, air speeds only reached a maximum of 2.4 m/s. This is because the total cross-section area of both openings is larger than that of the entrance door, and the same amount of air entering the flat through these larger façade openings has to exit the flat through the smaller entrance door. Air pressure is therefore equal at this point and airflow picks up speed when it passes through the smaller opening. Furthermore, there is additional airflow from the bathroom window. This air current flows from the vertical ventilation shaft in the southeast into the bathroom window in the east, passing through the bathroom into the living room, where it exits the flat through the entrance door together with the main air stream. Both bathroom openings can be seen in the photo (Figure 12a) showing the vertical ventilation shafts.

3.5. Openings Window openings The window frames and openers are made of aluminium. This material is ideal in Hong Kong’s humid climate, as it is highly resistant to rust and corrosion. The photo shows (Figure 12b) façade openings of the units with differently glazed elements. In the centre of the largest opening, two large elements are openable to the outside. Above them, there are two smaller openers in the upper part of the window and below them, two fixed glazings in the parapet area. To the upper right of the large openings, there is an additional opening required for mounting and inspection work of the split-system air

Figure 12a. Vertical ventilation shaft with bathroom openings and exterior pipe system for water supply and removal at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate (Photo © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013)

Figure 12b. Window in the living room of unit 3202 at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate (Photo © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013.

conditioning unit. If an air conditioning device were to block this opening, it would allow less air and light into the flat. All of these windows, except for the ones in the parapet area, are openable and equipped with a fastening mechanism that locks the openers in the desired position (Figure 13). In that way, residents are able to operate their windows to suit their own needs according to weather conditions such as wind force, air temperatures and humidity. Once the window is locked into position, it remains in that position even when winds are strong. Figure 14 shows unit 02’s different windows (to the outside left), which are very well suited to this location and excellently operable as regards natural ventilation and controllability of airflow.

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Figure 15. Air pressure level at an overhanging wall element at the centre of a wall opening, floor plan view (© Ferdinand Oswald, 2014)

Instead of being hinged on the outer window frame, the window openers are connected to a point about 10 cm further inwards. Subsequently, when the window is open, there is a gap between the frame and the opener. Residents use this gap to clean the outer panes without having to lean out of the window. Thus, this convenient window construction also prevents falls. Figure 13. Detail of the window in the living room of unit 3202 at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate (Photo © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013)

Since this type of window is not hinged on the outer frame, it is divided into several smaller openings. Apart from cross ventilation, this sequence of openings could also be used for unidirectional ventilation. Low pressure forms on the leeward side of overhanging vertical window openings or elements, causing air to flow out in the wind shadow (negative pressure) of such an opening. This principle is shown schematically in the graphic (Figure 15). Whether or not unidirectional ventilation attenuates the effect of cross ventilation remains to be investigated. Parapet height is 1.10 m according to Hong Kong Building Regulations. However, windows are equipped with an additional safety guard to prevent smaller children from reaching said barrier with the help of a chair, table or similar object. That is why the safety guard is designed to cover the whole length of the window. Door openings

Fig. 14. Façade view with units no. 02 in each floor, Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate (Photo © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013)

Effective cross ventilation occurs via the entrance doors of the flats. This, in turn, leads to problems concerning privacy or intrusion when the door is open. However, an excellent solution to this problem has been found. Each entrance has two doors: an ordinary wind-proof, opaque wooden door leaf that is closed when leaving the flat; the second door is a wooden lattice sliding door that can be slid shut. This door lets air into the room while keeping intruders out. It only allows people to peer through the wooden latticework from the outside. Some residents block out unwanted views by attaching a curtain to the door that does not hamper the effectivity of cross ventilation (Figure 16).

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4. Thermal mass In order to ascertain whether exposed thermal mass is utilisable for cooling during the hottest season in Hong Kong, a test series in the residential high-rise complex Upper Ngau Tau Kok was carried out. For this purpose, the bathroom of unit no. 3202 seemed most suitable, since that room is located at the outer edge of the building where the wall faces south, thus providing hypothetically ideal conditions for cooling with thermal mass. Surface temperatures of this southern façade were measured to test and monitor effects of thermal mass as a possible cooling agent. During the measurement period for thermal mass evaluation, the bathroom door and window element remained open towards the vertical ventilation shaft to allow cooler night air to carry away the stored heat from the exterior wall (Figure 17). Indoor and surface temperatures of the bathroom wall recorded in the chart “Surface temperatures south façade – bathroom inside” [6] yielded the following results: daytime temperatures inside the bathroom were lower than the temperatures outside. Cool night air stored in the outer wall was passed on to the inside with a time lag. The reason for this is that the massive wall facing south only receives a low level of direct solar incidence in summer – a fact that has already been elucidated in this chapter in the chart showing direct solar incidence in Hong Kong. Another reason why the thicker loadbearing exterior wall is suitable for cooling is that its thickness is ideal for temperature transfer: a 30 cm thick wall effects a phase shift of approx. 24 hours. Hence, the temperature curves of outdoor temperatures and surface temperatures of the interior wall run conversely and time-lagged. The indoor temperature of the bathroom benefit from this process: temperature peaks are buffered thus providing a comfortable temperature that lies somewhere between both extremes. Characteristics of this temperature curve are clearly shown in the chart (Figure 18).

5. Psychrometric chart 5.1. Solar heat gains in winter

Figure 16. (top) Closed sliding entrance door viewed from the access corridor at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. (bottom) Open entrance door and sliding door of unit no. 3202 viewed from inside the flat at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate (Photos © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013)

The area of passive solar heat gains is marked in red to the left of the comfort zone. Here, it is again shown separately outside the chart, together with the comfort zone. Measurements obtained at Upper Ngau Tau Kok housing estate were taken in the summer only, thus no winter data is available. However, the simulation in the psychrometric chart suggests that solar heat gains could also be utilised at this location in winter. A certain number of points (days) during the colder months

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Figure 17. Comparison of different roof superstructures and temperatures inside during the day and night, chart simulation program PasCal (v.1.0), source: C. Tantasavasdi, T. Chenvidyakarn, M. Pichaisak, Integrative Passive Design for Climate Change: A New Approach for Tropical House Design in the 21st Century; Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand; Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge, UK, published in BUILT, 1 (1), 2011, p. 14

Figure 18. Surface temperatures of southern façade inside and air temperatures outside and inside the bathroom of unit no. 3202 of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate, Hong Kong, China, measured from 24 August 2013, 4 p.m., to 25 August, 7 p.m.; 1: temperature outside; 3: air temperature bathroom interior, 7’: façade surface temperature inside, © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ F. Oswald: “Hong Kong Residential Buildings with Reduction of the Utilisation of Air Conditioning”, pp. 1–14

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plotted in the area of passive solar heat gains proves that. In particular, heat gains could be utilised in the west, east and south. However, it needs to be noted that this would not save any energy, since residential housing in Hong Kong is not equipped with appliances for indoor room heating. Having said that, it could nevertheless contribute to enhancing indoor comfort in the colder season.

5.2. Thermal mass According to the simulation programme in the psychrometric chart, both heating and cooling by means of thermal mass seem possible in Hong Kong. The effectiveness of cooling with thermal mass during the hot season is shown by the number of days within the blue line’s left hand area. This simulation suggests that thermal mass could be utilised for cooling for a substantial period of time, as confirmed by measurement results obtained in summer at Upper Ngau Tau Kok. Opposingly, the dark red area indicates that there is no possibility of using exposed mass and night-purge ventilation for enhancing comfort because no points (days) are plotted in that area for Hong Kong. This does not correspond to the results obtained on the spot. As explained in detail earlier, night-purge ventilation further optimizes the principle of thermal mass combined with additional night-purge ventilation in the way that the massive wall dissipates stored daytime heat that is then carried away by night ventilation. This is probably not expressed in the chart because day and night temperature differences obtained from official weather data are too small, and therefore night temperatures are not low enough to remove the heat from the thermal mass. According to Hong Kong meteorological office, the highest temperature on the day of measurement (24th August) was 31.1°C and the lowest was 27.3°C. That is a day/night difference of only 3.8°C. In the same measurement period, however, a maximum temperature of 30.8°C and a minimum temperature of 26.2°C was recorded at the spot, i.e. a greater day/night temperature difference of 4.3°C. At any rate, this difference would be large enough to cool indoor temperatures down to 27°C.

5.3. Natural ventilation According to the simulation, natural ventilation is the most effective method of improving comfort levels in Hong Kong, as shown by the number of days (points) plotted within the pink-framed area representing natural ventilation. This area lies above and to the right of the comfort zone. In mid-summer, this cooling

technique could improve comfort on almost all days. Measurements taken at Upper Ngau Tau Kok housing estate in August, i.e. the hottest season, suggest that this cooling technique would work very effectively.

5.4. Evaporative cooling No measures relating to evaporative cooling were found at Hong Kong’s Upper Ngau Tau Kok. According to the psychrometric chart, there is no possibility whatsoever to enhance comfort by means of evaporative cooling in Hong Kong, as clearly shown by the two areas of direct (purple) and indirect (turquoise) evaporative cooling, situated in the simulation beneath, to the right and particularly above the comfort zone. Evaporative cooling does not work in Hong Kong because humidity is high during most of the year and saturated air cannot absorb any further moisture (Figure 19).

6. Potential for improvement / Conclusion Measurements taken at the location show that natural ventilation works well at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Electrical power required for air conditioning systems could therefore be saved. Nevertheless, there is room for improvement at Hong Kong Housing Authority’s Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Structure of façade This typology has potential for cooling with thermal mass, provided day/night temperature differences are large enough and a reduction of solar heat gains in massive façade elements is given. Danger of overheating façades from the north is relatively small, and it is therefore not necessary to shade façade areas. Low solar intensity is shown in the above figure representing direct solar incidence from the north in blue. The southern side of the façade is destined for the use of thermal mass, as direct solar radiation is weaker in summer and stronger in the cooler winter months (see above chart showing direct solar radiation from the south in green). Here, external factors of solar irradiation could be utilised ideally for enhancing indoor comfort: in the hot summer months, massive façade elements do not heat up as much due to weaker direct insolation, enabling the wall to store night cool that can be passed on to cool the interior space behind. Measurements to ascertain the effectivity of thermal mass + night purge cooling in Ngau Kau Kok were carried out in the hottest month of the year, in August, results of which are shown in the charts mentioned before. In the cooler winter months, the interior could benefit from the solar heat gains stored in the façade wall. Although in HKHA’s housing estates no energy is spent

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Figure 19. Psychrometric chart showing the comfort zone and passive cooling and heating technique of Hong Kong, as well as the area of passive solar heating (above left), area of thermal mass effects (above centre), area of exposed mass and night-purge ventilation (above right), area of natural ventilation (below left), area of direct evaporative cooling (below centre) and area of indirect evaporative cooling (below left). © Ferdinand Oswald, Weather Tool 2013, © Autodesk, Inc. 2010 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ F. Oswald: “Hong Kong Residential Buildings with Reduction of the Utilisation of Air Conditioning”, pp. 1–14

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on heating appliances, indoor comfort could still be improved by utilising solar heat gains.

façade systems due to the threat of high wind speeds and hurricanes.

Problematic in this respect is the direct and continual intensive insolation from east and west throughout the year, and western and eastern facades of Ngau Tau Kok as well as many other residential buildings in Hong Kong are in dire need of improvement. Direct insolation from east and west is coloured orange in the above chart. These particular facades should not be shaded in the cooler winter months to enable them to absorb the heat, while, on the other hand, requiring protection from solar overheating in the hot summer months. Hence, a smart façade system is needed that would respond to various different seasonal requirements, for instance, a flexible protective system that would automatically open or close depending on solar intensity.

Natural cross ventilation works well at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Considering the Site Specific Project Upper Ngau Tau Kok presented here, it is evident that the integration of an architectural concept for a construction method specifically suited to this location is urgently necessary. Meanwhile, HKHA have realised how important and effective natural ventilation is for residential housing and are now integrating natural cross ventilation in their new projects. The closed sliding gateset with timber entrance door open can work for a better thermal comfort of the habitants in a very good effectiveness if the corridor outside is not a fire protected one and in the same time keep the intimacy (privacy)+safety for them. However, the question as to which strategies HKHA could employ to modify their existing residential high-rises still needs to be answered. [7].

The University of Cambridge’s study “Comparison of different roof superstructures” [6] presented above could be applied in cases where solar heat gain reduction is desirable, e.g. for vertical façade areas. Superstructures that included an air space for rear ventilation behind the lightweight shading element performed much better than the other solutions in reducing solar heat gains. However, such superstructures or curtain façade systems need to be secured safely and are therefore quite elaborate and costly. Standards relating to façade elements and their ability to withstand forces such as wind pressure and suction are much higher in Hong Kong than in Europe, which is not surprising, since higher wind speeds and resulting hurricanes are a matter of course in Hong Kong. Naturally, costs will increase for appropriate façade systems such as for an ornamental Agrafe profile. Openings Façade openings require protection against solar heat gains because there is no massive wall that could buffer heat transmission. Residents can operate sunshading mechanisms on the inside of the windows on an individual basis. However, interior shading is not as effective as exterior shading, since absorption of insolation takes place in the interior, thus also releasing heat inside the room. An investigation into the “effectivity of various solar protection systems” was presented in the chapter “Solar heat gains”, discussing different shading options for window openings. However, whether or not a certain system is realised will depend on the cost. HKHA’s building projects do not include expenditure for high-quality shading systems, but if they did, they would certainly be required to comply with the same safety standards as for curtain

References [1] Siwei Lang: “Progress in energy-efficiency standards for residential buildings in China”, in: Energy and Buildings 36/12 (2004), pp. 1191–1196. [2] Population development in cities 2050. Source: McKinsey 2013. [3] Office of Dissemination, China Statistics Press, National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Yearbook 2011, Beijing 2012, pp. 93. [4]

Wang L.: „ Applying Natural Ventilation for Thermal Comfort in Residential Buildings in Singapore “, in: Architecture Science Review Volume 50.3 (2007), pp. 224-233.

[5] Weather Tool 2001, © Autodesk, Inc. 2010; Weather data Download, U.S. Department of Energy, report on the data (STAT) and ASHRAE Design Conditions Design Day Data file (DDY). [6] C. Tantasavasdi, T. Chenvidyakarn, M. Pichaisak, Integrative Passive Design for Climate Change: A New Approach for Tropical House Design in the 21st Century; Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand; Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge, UK, published in BUILT, 1 (1), 2011, p. 14. [7] Parts of the text above is published at: Oswald, F., Reduce A/C - Reducing the utilisation of air conditioning in high-rise buildings in subtropical and tropical climate regions, 2015, Graz, Austria.

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DOI: 10.14621/tna.20170202

Activating Graphics and Collaboration in Architectural Structures Education Bronne C. Dytoc Kennesaw State University 1100 S. Marietta Parkway, Marietta, Georgia 30060, USA; bdytoc@kennesaw.edu

Abstract

1. A disconnect between teaching & learning

This paper discusses the design of an instructional model for foundational structures in an undergraduate architecture program. This particular approach to structures pedagogy integrates precise graphics and collaborative strategies to address learning issues that architecture students regularly struggle with. Furthermore, this design model continues to be developed with the goals of improving student performance, motivation, and engagement, taking into consideration the stepped, guided sequence in the new learning of complex tasks. In terms of learning the basic structures content, students apply scaled graphics skills to represent the forces. These precise graphics, in the form of multi-force loops, are vital in constructing accurate mathematical proofs that reinforce the concepts and computations of equilibrium. Mastery of the force loop and its equations moves the learning of structures into the analysis of trusses, including the use of the color-coded Maxwell’s diagram. In terms of conducting instruction, active and collaborative learning methods address the issues of content disengagement and ineffective unilateral communication linked with traditional lecture-drill class formats. The use of teams repositions learning authority with students by increasing crosstalk, thus, also encouraging effort and responsibility. The final project, a design and analysis task, applies the skills and knowledge in the creation of a structural design proposal. Most importantly, it serves as an explicit learning bridge between learning the structures content and its application as a project. This final project (a spanning structure, for example) is then collaboratively designed, analysed, and produced by student groups, and finally presented for exhibit. The graphic skills and active-collaboration methods are instrumental in the pedagogy of the foundational structures, while the final-project contributes to motivating and engaging student learning towards a deeper appreciation for form and forces. Pedagogically, student responses to informal surveys point to a better learning experience and improved attitudes towards bridging knowledge between structures and the design studio.

The author, like many architects, has experienced the recognizable struggles in the series of classes called structures. In collegial conversations with colleagues, as well as students, the topic of structures conjures up unpleasant feelings, and even bad memories. The negative emotional effects of these courses on architecture students are notable and notably common. In seeking a logical answer to “why”, the invariable and recurring factor in these conversations is the structures professor and his manner of instruction; rather, it is the observable disconnect between the teacher and his learners.

Keywords:

Structures pedagogy; Graphics; Collaborative learning, Instructional design

Article history:

Received: 25 April 2017 Revised: 14 July 2017 Accepted: 25 July 2017

Architecture students, in the author’s observation as a professor of architecture, are predominantly visual learners [1]. Evidence of their higher visual capacity as a preference of multiple intelligence modes [2] comes in the form of sketches, studies, detailed drawings and models. The architectural student would generate both text and sketches as their “notes”; it is common for sketches to have equal or higher footing over text as the preferred mode for note-taking; to chat with almost any student in architecture is to essentially assure that drawing will be part of the conversation. As with many other schools of architecture, Kennesaw State University’s design studio acts as the major spine of its undergraduate architecture program. The design studio, taken every semester, serves as the learning environment where design knowledge and skills are learned and applied to several projects of growing complexity. Ideas are proposed and tested through cycles of review and reflection. Design projects which seem simple or clear are, in fact, ill-defined exercises which do not come with only one solution. Much time and effort is invested into the developing a design idea into its final form as a thoughtful and responsive project. As a venue where one learns by doing, trying, and failing, and trying again, the design studio is a platform that practices constructivist learning [3], [4]. Consequently,

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ B. C. Dytoc: “Activating Graphics and Collaboration in Architectural Structures Education”, pp. 15–26

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students create their design proposals as they construct their identities as designers. Despite its demanding and exacting nature, it becomes clear why the design studio as a learning culture holds students’ hearts captive. Compare to this, the conventionally taught physics or math based class cannot hope to compete in terms of appeal nor relevance. Common to many architecture programs are several core threads, including a course series in structures. The first course introduces architecture students to the fundamental topics of forces, equilibrium, stress, and the analysis of simply supported structures. The structures class has, for most part, been delivered with traditional prescriptive lectures, computational exercises, and tests; and, with little deviation, the instructor for the structures series has mostly been an engineer, not an architect. Following the Vitruvian triad, architectural projects are consistently designed with consideration for its use and its users (utilitas), its aesthetic and expressive qualities of form (venustas), its strength and stability of structure (firmitas). Yet, though students do not hesitate to acknowledge the significance of structures in their design education, they show disconnection with the structures class, or more specifically, its conventional lecture format. The author’s observations (as a member of KSU’s Department of Architecture faculty) reveal patterns of mediocre performance, poor motivation, and weak engagement. Pondering on the possible factors for the learning disconnect, the author also notes that struggling students often have feelings of powerlessness. This feeling of non-empowerment may be linked to the typical approaches to instruction where well-defined problems and exercises seldom allow variety in its solutions. And, despite having taken the prerequisite courses, many students in this first structures class display a degree of unpreparedness in basic numerical literacy, often struggling with the mathematical logic to generate the algebraic calculations. This relative level of poor prior math learning sets up a difficult learning experience; conventional instruction mainly focuses on the learning of technical procedures, while the drills and exercises are presented and executed as isolated, manageable fragments, lacking contextual associations to design issues. All in all, the structures class does not present itself “architecturally” due to 1) the unvarying nature of math analysis, 2) the relatively poor math preparedness of the student, 3) the typically one-sided communication mode in a lecture class, and 4) the lack of relevant links connecting structural topics to pragmatic and expressive issues in architecture. Factors such as these may contribute to disenchantment with learning, resulting in poor confidence and low satisfaction in the motivation to learn [5]. As a teacher who values both architectural

design and structural thinking, one must ask: “What instructional alternatives can be explored and employed to address the learning disconnect?”

2. Towards designing better structures instruction Becoming a more effective educator means repositioning oneself from the role of mere deliverer of content to the initiator of curiosity, an active guide to desired knowledge and desiring knowledge, and a colleague in the quest for lifelong learning. To this end, the author has been continuously (re)designing a model of instruction for the particular teaching and learning of structures in an architecture program. Taken into consideration are the issues of graphics in content presentation, active collaboration for learner engagement, hands-on training for novice-learners, and finally, learning motivation.

2.1. Graphics – Improving Content Presentation and Participation Mathematics instruction often faces issues of low appeal and poor engagement; in response, concerned educators have regularly contributed to improving on established practices. To start with, consider the emergence of alternate teaching approaches based on multiple intelligence theory [6]. Using well-designed visuals with narrative delivery responds to cognitive load issues, enhancing engagement and learning, particularly for visual learners [7]. Additionally, current practices support the use of graphics and multimedia in the instruction of scientific concepts [8]. In fact, the right kind of graphics delivered well with instruction is more effective than instruction without them [9]. Building on these ideas of using graphics for more effective pedagogy, the author proposes that the active, skillful, and precise drawing of graphics can expand the students’ “knowing” of how structures behave, and thus, give clarity to the writing out of the algebraic equations from the drawing outputs themselves. Graphics, being an operational “dialect” of architecture students, may very well provide the cognitive linkages for the learning disconnects; simultaneously, the drawings and diagrams may do their part in transforming the engineering class into a more architectural course.

2.2. Active collaboration – Engaging the learner It was mentioned earlier that a level of math unpreparedness has been observed in a fair amount of students. With weak rooting and poor practice of the

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logical ability for math, they often will feel rushed, anxious, and isolated as they do their exercises, thus often resorting to memorization of steps at the expense of comprehending the reasoning behind calculations. The lack of confidence in this critical phase of learning can only contribute to the habitually timid levels of communication in class. Integrating graphics in structures pedagogy is one aspect to address in redesigning instruction for this specific content. The knowledge and skills of this first course, while basic, are not simple. The comprehension and mastery of this content are better achieved with stepped guidance and frequent feedback, also known as scaffolded instruction of complex learning tasks [10]. For scaffolding to be effective, active and bilateral communication must come into play. The teacherdominant lecture setting must reform into an atmosphere of productive rapport characteristic of a coach and his team. Learning is an outcome of communication, after all, and learning structures can be recognized as having a social aspect, not only a mathematically cognitive one. And yet, for students that carry with them years of questionable math preparation, being more communicatively active may be challenging. Hence, the organization of peers into collaborative teams may encourage better communication. Setting up such a socially supportive class setting can encourage active collaborative learning [11], [12]. With the formation of teams two things are set into place. First, the group entity mediates communication between the individual student and the instructor; second, the team serves as a “secure” venue where crosstalk amongst peers is approved and practiced (thereby also encouraging direct talk with the instructor). Productive discussions and arguments redefine the student’s role from a passive listener to an active participant, fostering a clearer and deeper

construction of their own knowledge [13], [14]. For timid students, this can spell a large difference in their learning experience. Building on the collaborative team setup as a deliberate instructional strategy, the use of rolling whiteboards lets individual teams define their own work-zones and board-spaces (see Figure 1), further promoting the “learning by doing” or “learning by experience” modes of active learning [15]. In fact, interactive engagement has resulted in very significant learning gains in physics classes [16], [17]; and structures classes are essentially statics and mechanics courses rooted in physics. With the Zone of Proximal Development [18], students in a team form a close group of colleagues where ideas regarding topics are gathered by the team and filtered through discussion, tests, and proofs, effectively enforcing knowledge construction through a level of trusted peer-reviewed instruction. Teams are monitored, guided, and given feedback by the instructor-coach, rather than commanded by the traditional expert-authority figure.

2.3. Hands-on – Manual training for novice the learner The basic structures content must be learned well by the students, just as they should appreciate their own effort and experience in mastering these topics. Towards these ends, “learning by doing” takes on the intentional tack of using manual, hands-on training, thus increasing the degree of brain operations while minimizing the use of digital devices. The novice learners in this first structures class know enough to process computations, given clearly defined equations. However, as mentioned earlier, the cognitive skill of translating structural concepts logically into corresponding math expressions is weak. Without this

Figure 1. Active Collaboration by student teams. Groups construct knowledge via peer talk and argumentation in their own “group-zone” and “board-space” ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ B. C. Dytoc: “Activating Graphics and Collaboration in Architectural Structures Education”, pp. 15–26

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important ability, student efforts often distort into an odd combination of formulae memorization and calculator dependency. Developing comprehension involves applying given information to be properly processed in the precise generation of required results. In simpler terms, if mathematical reasoning is constructed solidly, a student can then rely on this logical skill to know what will happen; this “knowing” is then supported and articulated by computations to know how much it will happen. It is the author’s position that constructing this analytical ability cannot be done well at novice level when cognitive interruptions arise due to the regular dependence on digital devices. This position pertain particularly to the actual tasks of learning through exercises, and generating the notes from them. Of note is literature that discusses how the manual mode of learning to write aids in the construction of linkages between different parts of the brain [19]. Additionally, weaker student performance correlated to notes done digitally, whereas higher performance, signifying better content mastery, correlated with the manual construction of notes [20]. While these studies’ findings lend support to employing manual learning modes in the instruction of introductory structures, the author recognizes the very motions of producing skillful and accurate drawings as literal manifestations of “learning by doing”, also known as embodied learning through actual motions, best exemplified in sports and dance [21]. Promoting awareness of arm motions and positions in drawing can directly connect to established numerical sign conventions ( &  as positive,  &  as negative). Such associations can help build knowledge better, as the paper hopes to show.

2.4. Encouraging the motivation to learn Often, when courses are perceived as difficult and students are struggling with the learning, students can raise questions such as “Why do I need to learn this?”, or “What’s in it for me?” Despite acknowledging the significance of structures to architecture, the student may still harbor non-positive attitudes towards the course. Low motivation should be recognized and addressed. Without this drive to learn, the student who has already accumulated negative attitudes towards mediocre, test-based math education may have yet another poor class experience, further enforcing the idea that math will always be difficult. To address motivation is to address these questions above (this issue shall be discussed again, in a later section). The ARCS (Appeal, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) model for learning motivation [5] becomes quite valuable in the structures course’s instructional design. In terms of appeal, structures can draw more

attraction when its topics are presented visually, linking its content to the generation and support of architectural forms. Appeal can also be instructionally promoted by presenting and demonstrating the course’s learning goals as both understandable, as well as achievable; topics are advanced as learning journeys with stepped goals and outputs, preparing their skills for an end objective of designing and analysing a structural proposal on campus. For architecture people, seeing is believing. Beyond the direct pragmatic benefit to sizing shapes, relevance can also be increased with thoughtful and deep discussion of structures in relation to larger issues in architecture and design. Such discussions involve shifting the student’s perspective across scales of different contexts [22], framing the knowledge against larger issues of architecture, and giving more meaning to the instructional framework [23]. Furthermore, associations developed from these multiple perspectives help to establish better retention and recall of the knowledge in long-term and working memory [24]. Finally, constructing the skills and knowledge through scaffolded instruction with instructor and peer feedback serve to build confidence, as well as the satisfaction of applying the knowledge masterfully in a real-world-ish final project. These different strategies all contribute to increase student motivation and learning engagement.

2.5. The active collaboration model for structures The traditional model of instruction, the lecture-drill format, highlights the instructor as the sole expertauthority figure, delivering content many individual students. Communication is largely dominated by the teacher and discussions focus mainly on numerical computations and its steps, with little time for contextual discussions that link the topics to architectural design issues. Students listen passively and do individual work assignments as needed (Figure 2a). Enthusiasm development in the learner is, expectedly, elusive. In contrast, active collaboration highlights student learning. Communication is more dynamic, and occurs on different levels; there is more talk activity exchanging between peers, teams, and the instructor. Additionally, precise graphics skills that illustrate the logical workings of the topic also generate straightforward cues in the setup of corresponding calculations. In the collaborative model, time is made for novice-level errors in the first phases of group scholarship; the instructor gives a high level of guidance and feedback as a coach, making sure to avoid taking over their learning process. Instructor

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Figure 2a. The traditional lecture-drill model of instruction in structures courses.

Figure 2b. The active-collaboration model of scaffolded instruction for structures

Figure 3. These sketches show the three distinct attribute of force: magnitude (left), orientation (middle), and line of action (right)

support is gradually lessened as groups become more adept at the drawing and computational procedures, shifting the learning to focus on accuracy and workcraft. In proper time, graded exercises are given, discussions are completed, and a new topic is segued in (Figure 2b).

be more open to these very skills of precise drawing (active & embodied learning), thus building stronger cognitive abilities in mastering and applying the consequently generated mathematical computations.

3. Drawing well to learn well

The students in the structures class are mostly sophomore students. At this stage, they will have practiced scaled and precise drawing in studio. Structures graphics begin by visually depicting force vectors with length (scaled magnitude), angular orientation (direction), and points or lines of action (see Figure 3). These drawing skills then establish fundamental ties to numerical orientation: forces are

The following section shall discuss the integrated use of graphics into the teaching and learning of forces, equilibrium, force loops, and ultimately, truss analysis. As mentioned above, architecture students are more visually stimulated; demonstrating concepts with credible graphics (seeing is believing) allows mindsets to

3.1. Drawing forces and loops

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positive ( & ) or negative ( & ), as are their components. In addition to this initial association, these very same attributes of forces will, truss analysis, take on a further role of designating forces as compressive or tensile. The first usual obstacle is one of trust. Prompting their mind-space into “math mode” for the structures class, students initially are skeptical that precise drawing ability can play a key role in constructing their math comprehension. Early resistance to this learning concept happens often, yet practicing this technique through the force addition exercises establishes proofs of consistency, and with them, enough credibility as a reliable learning strategy. The transformation occurs when students shift their approach from solving first and drawing poorly, drawing precisely and “reading” the graphics into equational form (see Figure 4). As graphic skills sharpen in these exercises into the topic of equilibrium of forces, two useful themes become observable : first, a set of concurrent forces can be drawn as a continuous one-way chain that begins from a defined reference point; secondly, with equilibrium defined as a total sum of zero, this multi-force system will translate as a force loop with the equilibrants returning “home” to the same reference point, making for a very clear and confirmative visual that strengthens the concept of equilibrium = net zero (see examples in Figure 5). In terms of constructing knowledge, accurate drawings serve as a learning engine that produces clearer comprehension of the math work. The process, like the understanding, becomes the learning focus; the numerical computations and its final answers become logical consequences. Becoming aware of this, students gradually build confidence and steadily dismantle

anxiety. This “investment” in learning to draw forces and force loops accurately prepares students for the beneficial learning returns that will be much appreciated in the next topic of analysing and trusses.

3.2. Understanding trusses Once the skill of drawing force loops is developed and mastered, the knowledge is applied as the effective learning tool for the topic of trusses, or more specifically, the analysis of forces within truss members. Prior to this internal investigation, reactions are determined, balancing all the loads and achieving external equilibrium. Only then can the analysis work commence. The conventional approach taught in the traditional structures class and texts is known as the method of joints. Architecture students struggle when applying this computation-dominant process, mainly due to the method’s disconnection from useful graphic cues, as well as the cognitive overload of generating X-Y force equations while keeping track of force orientations which translate to operational signs in math. Add to this the related aspect of compression or tension in forces, and it is not difficult to understand the learning struggles of the architecture student. Because this conventional method is essentially detached from graphic cues and associations, calculation errors that occur with one joint will embed itself in the analysis of succeeding joints. The mistakes in the math work are discreet and not easy for the student to detect. As force amounts are found in an initial truss joint and then used in the next joint to be analysed, the orientation of the force is often simply carried over; and this is where the subtle mistake is rooted.

Figure 4. Force addition exercises. Initial resistance (left) often show calculations first (often with mistakes) and a sketchy drawing afterwards. In contrast, drawing the forces precisely first (right) leads to a more accurate visual reading of forces and their components in the eventual computations ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ B. C. Dytoc: “Activating Graphics and Collaboration in Architectural Structures Education”, pp. 15–26

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Figure 5. Force addition exercises showing how precise drawings can pave the way for direct enumeration and computation of force components accurately, closing the force loop into perfect net zero equilibrium. For visual learners, the use of colours also helps to organize the process, force by force

Figure 6. As displayed in a sample student work above, the method of joints analysis for trusses relies heavily on computations and its math signs to execute its task, largely independent of graphic cues. It can be difficult for the architecture student to simultaneously work equations, keep track of their signs, and monitor their compressive or tensile nature, from one joint to the next

To have a truss bar force be a positive upward value tracking away from a lower joint would colour it as tensile. If this bar force is still positive at its other end, the upward aspect would remain, making it compress into the upper joint; this is contradictory. The correct step would be to reflect a reversal of direction at this other end; a tensile force that pulls at one joint end must also pull at its other joint end. Plus and minus signs alone are not always sufficient to keep the student mindful (see Figure 6). Aside from the possibility of errors that carry over into succeeding joints, there is also the matter of writing out so much equation work. For an engineering-based course, this makes for an ironically inefficient learning experience.

Thus, with a lack of graphic signals to help the analysis work, errors are bound to happen, and are bound to accumulate. Graphic clues that can help in minimizing mistakes would include force vectors drawn to scale and angle, arrowheads and their reversals to mirror force orientations at truss bar ends, and colour codes to signify the compressive or tensile nature of each truss bar force. Guidelines to follow in operationalizing the graphic cues systematically mean time and effort for students to learn, practice, and comprehend these drawing actions. However, this effort in learning the graphic techniques is an investment, and its returns come in the form of lesser errors in analysis, more clarity in the overall

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process, and higher self-confidence in knowledge and skills learned. The Maxwell diagram is very much built on the graphical logic of equilibrium manifested in the equilibrium force loop (figure 7). Internal bar forces are accurately determined through precisely scaled and oriented drawing. Applying a clockwise practice in reading joints defines bar forces to be compressive or tensile. All these promote better learning for architecture students (see Figure 8 vs. Figure 6). Contrary to the notion that these graphic procedures provide an escape from thinking mathematically, the Maxwell diagram does not dumb down the math discipline. Indeed, drawing an equilibrium force loop for each joint effectively breaks the complex truss down into a sequence of manageable force-addition exercises, with each joint becoming simpler to execute and compute with the visual cues offered by this indispensable technique of representing overall balance in a force loop. Employing the Maxwell diagram to construct math comprehension in architecture students more clearly and efficiently, exercise variations help to inform the students of relationships between truss designs and internal forces (Figure 9). These visually related diagrams of forms and forces allow for instructive

discussions on optimizing overall shapes, internal layouts, and even expressive potential. As with most things that are learned well, there are no short cuts to mastery. The deliberate use of graphic instructional strategies discussed here require commitment and craft from the instructor and the teams of architecture students. With deeper comprehension of the content and mastery of the skills, these visual learners experience increased confidence and satisfaction through work done competently; learning motivation is also better sustained.

4. Contextual case studies to solidify relevance Recall “Why am I learning this?”, and “How is this architectural?” as the questions that linger in students’ minds. The need to link structures course content to the larger learning goals of architecture students is an issue of relevance that affects motivation and deserves proper engagement. Learning activities that address this need are able to establish visual and cognitive linkages between their exercises and recognized works of architecture. This is a key task that improves mindful learning through shifts of perspectives and context [22].

Figure 7. The Maxwell diagram method in eight panels, applied to a truss with symmetric form, loads, and reactions. With every succeeding joint, force loops layer onto each other and generate the Maxwell diagram. At midspan, the force loops are mirrored and color-coded to distinguish compressive (blue) and tensile (red) forces ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ B. C. Dytoc: “Activating Graphics and Collaboration in Architectural Structures Education”, pp. 15–26

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Figure 8. The same truss in Figure 6, analysed using the Maxwell diagram method. The truss form is on the left, and the force diagram is on the right. Generated one joint at a time, the corresponding force loops layer onto each other precisely through specific points. A clockwise reading procedure determines whether bars have compressive or tensile forces

Figure 9. Sample student works of truss analysis using the Maxwell diagram method. In practicing this technique with its standards of precision and scale, the resulting clarity of the outputs strengthens the learning as well as the craft of the works

Similar to the task of gathering precedents in their design studio, case studies of built projects serve to provide inspiration and proofs, in support of a student’s developing knowledge about architecture. Unlike design studio, however, case studies in this course are read and analysed to understand how their assembly of elements perform as a structure (Figure 10).

By calling on student teams to comparatively analyze and critique selected built projects, the learners construct cognitive associations between their exercises and the case studies’ structural forms and behaviors. By visually recognizing patterns of load transfer and assembly, the architecture learners are able to grasp more clearly how particular projects physically support themselves and how such structural choices also express form and detail.

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Figure 10. Student analysis of selected noteworthy case study projects. The constructed assembly is investigated and elements are coded to identify their structural roles, establishing linkages between structural form, behaviour, and expression

5. Closing the gap – Applying the skills into design The coinciding pedagogical strategies discussed so far continue in their development to improve learning performance, engagement, and motivation. The sequencing of the precise drawing exercises and case study analyses, in an active learning environment, ultimately lands at the final task : designing a structural solution to a loosely defined problem, often a spanning requirement (a bus stop, a parking shed module, a pedestrian bridge, a covered atrium, e.g.). This final task

of knowledge transfer also quietly simulates an authentic environment foreseen in their future: collaborating skills and expertise to develop feasible design proposals. This definitive allows the group to harness their analytical skills and knowledge as a primary activity in the informed service of a secondary goal of design creativity. Taking cues from the case study investigations and the scaffolded team learning of their complex-task exercises, the architecture students now are able to better understand how relationships between forces, stresses, and performance, can optimize form and

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Figure 11. A sample of a final design project. The bridge design employs a slender shaped prismatic truss below the deck with a prominent tension line, partly inspired by the Waterloo International Terminal by Grimshaw. Analyses graphics are shown at bottom left, each

realize expressive aesthetic potential. As a first objective, design proposals by the student teams must have structural clarity; loads are transmitted cleanly and the structure is graphically analysed. As outputs of this final task, their design must be built in model form and documented from pedestrian points of view, capturing the experientially valid qualities of their design proposals.

6. Observations and reflections

peers. The class atmosphere was notably more energetic and positive; and the presence of rapport between students and instructor indicated a stronger level of motivation for the learning. Exercises also exhibited better math understanding while drawing discipline elevated the craft in their works. The students expressed more satisfaction, despite investing more effort. Performance on major tests also showed a noticeable improvement on performance speed and a fair improvement on performance grades, perhaps significant.

The author, in continuously developing the design of this instructional model for foundational structures, reflects on his teaching and learning goals, as well as his observations of student engagement. The integration of precise graphic methods in the pedagogy did not detract from the expected computation work; in fact, it can be argued that this teaching and learning strategy resulted in imparting more information than the traditional lecture-computation class. This main strategy was thoughtfully incorporated into the teaching as an active response to the recurring pattern of learning gaps experienced with the conventional teaching structure, as well as the weaker levels of motivation to engage the content.

Informal student opinions in surveys agreed that graphic methods improved clarity of the content and comprehension of the math. Their remarks also reflected that interaction with peers through more inclass work made for enhanced learning and higher motivation. Additionally, they also felt that the redesigned approach to learning contributed to a learning experience that was more creative, interesting, and, architectural. The author is reminded that such observations of improved activity result from the learner-cantered practices. It is possible that some specific practices in this class may offer similar results when adapted thoughtfully to similar courses. Subsequent research may verify the merits of these instructional strategies, particularly with visual learners.

Much credit must also go to the activated atmosphere of the collaborative learning environment. The intentional approach of team structures and team dynamics allowed the author to observe improved attitudes and active communication amongst teams and

References [1] Mostafa, M. and Mostafa, H., How Do Architects Think? Learning Styles and Architectural Education,

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Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research, (2010), 4(2/3), pp. 310-317. [2] Gardner, H., Multiple intelligences : the theory in practice, Basic Books, New York, NY, USA, 1993. [3] Kurt, S., An analytic study on the traditional studio environments and the use of the constructivist studio in the architectural design education, Procedia - Social And Behavioral Sciences, (2009), 1, pp. 401-408, doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.072. [4] Tangney, S., Student-centred learning: a humanist perspective, Teaching In Higher Education, (2014), 19(3), pp. 266-275, doi:10.1080/13562517.2013.860099 [5] Keller, J. M., & Deimann, M., Motivation, volition, and performance, in Trends and issues in instructional design and technology, 3rd ed. (Reiser, R. A., and Dempsey, J. V., editors), 2012, pp. 84-95, Pearson, Boston, MA, USA. [6] Savitz, F., Brown-Savitz, A., & Savitz, R., Getting to the Core of It: Innovative Teaching Approaches to Mathematics and Science Prerequisities for Buisiness Majors, Review of Business Research, (2012), 12(1), pp. 154-159. [7] Strauss, J. F., Corrigan, H., and Hofacker, C., Optimizing Student Learning: Examining the Use of Presentation Slides, Marketing Education Review, (2011), 21(2), pp. 151-162, doi:10.2753/MER1052-8008210205 [8] Lin, L., & Atkinson, R. K., Using animations and visual cueing to support learning of scientific concepts and processes. Computers & Education, (2011), 56, pp. 650-658. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.10.007. [9] Diezmann, C., Lowrie, T., Sugars, L., & Logan, T., Students' Sensemaking with Graphic, Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, (2009), 14(1), pp. 16-20. [10] Merriënboer, J., Kirschner, P., and Kester, L., Taking the Load off a Learner’s Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning, Educational Psychologist, (2003), 38(1), pp. 5-13. [11] Nicol, D. and Boyle, J., Peer Instruction versus Class-wide Discussion in Large Classes: A Comparison of Two Interaction Methods in the Wired Classroom, Studies in Higher Education, (2003), 28(4), 457-473. doi:10.1080/0307507032000122297. [12] Slavin, R. E., Educational Psychology : theory and practice / Robert E. Slavin, Pearson, Boston, USA, 2014.

[13] Budesheim, T. L., & Lundquist, A. R., Consider the opposite: Opening minds through in-class debates on course-related controversies, Teaching of Psychology, (2000), 26, pp. 106-120. [14] Vo, H. X., & Morris, R. L., Debate as a tool in teaching economics: Rationale, technique, and some evidence, Journal of Education for Business, (2006), 8, pp. 315-320. [15] Bonwell, C. C., Eison, J. A., Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom, 1991 ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, (1991). [16] Hake, R. R., Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: a six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal Of Physics, (1998), 1, pp. 64-74. [17] Hoellwarth, C., & Moelter, M. J., The implications of a robust curriculum in introductory mechanics, American Journal Of Physics, (2011), 79(5), pp. 540-545. [18] Vygotsky, L. S., & Kozulin, A., The Dynamics of the Schoolchild's Mental Development in Relation to Teaching and Learning, Journal of Cognitive Education & Psychology, (2011), 10(2), pp. 198211. doi:10.1891/19458959.10.2.198. [19] James, K. and Engelhardt, L., The Effects of Handwriting Experience on Functional Brain Development in Pre-literate Children, Trends in Neuroscience and Education, (2011), 1(1), pp. 3242. doi:10.1016/j.tine.2012.08.001. [20] Mueller, P., and Oppenheimer, D., The Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand over Laptop Note Taking, Psychological Science, (2014), 25(6), pp. 1159-1168. doi:10.1177/0956797614524581. [21] Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L., Learning in Adulthood : a comprehensive guide, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, USA, 2007. [22] Black, G., & Duff, S., A Model for Teaching Structures: Finite Element Analysis in Architectural Education, Journal of Architectural Education, (1994), 48(1), pp. 38-55. [23] Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E., Why Minimal Guidance during Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching, Educational Psychologist, (2006), 41(2), pp. 75-86. [24] Dirksen, J., Design for How People Learn, New Riders, Berkeley, CA, USA, 2012.

International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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DOI: 10.14621/tna.20170203

The Role of General Conditions relative to Claims and Disputes in Building Construction Contracts Ruveyda Komurlu*,1, David Arditi2 1)

Faculty of Architecture and Design, Kocaeli University 41300 Kocaeli, Turkey; ruveydakomurlu@gmail.com, rkomurlu@iit.edu 2)

Illinois Institute of Technology, Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering 3201 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60616, USA, arditi@iit.edu

Abstract

1. Introduction

Claims are often caused by changes in owner requirements, extra work, delays/acceleration, differing site conditions, and contract ambiguity. Some claims sometimes escalate into legal disputes because the negotiation process between the owner and the contractor fails to produce mutually agreeable solutions. The mostly used dispute resolution methods include mediation and arbitration in private projects; and recourse to Boards of Contract Appeals in public projects. In addition, parties can always litigate the case in a court of law. “General Conditions” is a contract document that regulates the administrative functions in the construction contract. The management of change orders, claims, and disputes is generally discussed in this document. Not only does the “General Conditions” specify the processes of change order and claims management, but it also clearly states the method of dispute resolution in case claims cannot be settled amicably. “A201-2007 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction” was issued by the American Institute of Architects to regulate the relations between the owner, the architect, the general contractor, and subcontractors. This document has gained wide acceptance in the building construction industry, and is used in most building construction projects in the U.S. The “General Conditions for Construction” was issued by the Turkish Ministry of Environment and Urbanization for the management of public projects. The government is the most important investor of building construction projects in Turkey and expects this document to be used in all construction projects, including privately funded projects. This study aims to investigate the role of “General Conditions” relative to claims and disputes in building construction contracts by comparing the contents of “A201-2007 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction” in the U.S. and the “General Conditions for Construction” in Turkey relative to managing claims and disputes.

The Project Management Institute (PMI) [1] defines a project as a temporary endeavor performed to achieve a unique product. Detailing the concept, PMI sets a project on three constraints namely scope, budget and time. Quality, in addition to these, is a goal to be pursued through the whole project. These constraints are interrelated, which means altering one, results in changes to at least one other. Starting with the investment decision, and ending with the delivery of the constructed facility, building construction projects are performed on a piece of land, exhibit high complexity, take a relatively long time, require considerable funding, and involve numerous parties [2]. The contracting process is managed by a set of documents (Table 1) [3]. The expectations of the owner, the procedures to be followed, and the properties of the project are described via these documents. The relationship between the most important parties, i.e., the owner, the architect, and the contractor is regulated by contract documents. As seen in Table 1, these documents primarily consist of the drawings, the general conditions, the technical specifications, and contract document forms [4]. Among these, the general conditions regulate the roles, responsibilities and liabilities of the parties throughout the construction process. Thus, the “general conditions” is a very important part of the contract documents [2, 5] as it regulates all administrative procedures to be implemented throughout the project, including payment and scheduling routines, the issuing of change orders, the handling of claims, and the resolution of conflicts and disputes between the parties, among others [2].

Keywords:

Article history:

Building construction; Contracts; Change orders; Claims and disputes; Disputes resolution; General conditions; AIA A201-2007; Turkish general conditions for construction Received: 16 July 2017 Revised: 24 July 2017 Accepted: 28 July 2017

The standardization of the general conditions has numerous advantages, including saving preparation time, avoiding omissions, eliminating controversial language, avoiding misinterpretation among parties, achieving consistency in courts of law by building familiarity through general and frequent use, and

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ R. Komurlu, D. Arditi: “The Role of General Conditions relative to Claims and Disputes in Building Construction Contracts”, pp. 27–36

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Table 1: Construction Documents [3]

avoiding misunderstandings as these documents have an adequate level of detail [4]. There are a number of standard general conditions developed in the U.S., the most commonly used of which are those issued by the American Institute of Architects (AIA), the U.S. government (Federal Acquisition Regulation), and the Engineers’ Joint Contract Documents Committee (EJCDC) composed of the American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), the Associated General Contractors of America (AGC), the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), and the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) [2]. Similar to the rest of the world, the traditional designbid-build delivery system, where the architect manages the construction as the owner’s agent, is the most widely preferred delivery method in the U.S. [6]. Thus, the American Institute of Architects has a strong influence on the building construction industry. The American Institute of Architects (AIA) was established in 1857 with the intent of introducing licensing conditions/procedures and standardizing the contract documents. The first documents introduced by the AIA identified the roles and responsibilities of the architect. Currently, there are more than 100 forms and documents published by the AIA which cover all stages of design and construction [7]. A201 – 2007 General

Conditions of the Contract for Construction is the latest version of the general conditions published by the AIA, the first version of which was published in 1911 as part of their A-Series family of documents [8]. This document is the most commonly used general conditions for building construction in the U.S. [7]. The Government in Turkey is one of the most important investors in building construction projects, providing 42.33 percent of the total construction investments in Turkey [9]. It thus has a strong influence on the building construction industry. The Public Procurement Authority of the Ministry of Finance regulates public projects from bidding to delivery, by means of standard contract documents. The General Conditions for Construction [10] published by the Public Procurement Authority is the most commonly used general conditions in Turkey, since it is mandatory in public projects. Because of this common use, the courts of law in Turkey use this document to evaluate conflicts.

2. Changes, claims and disputes Building construction projects are relatively large and complex. Because of the complexity and the relatively large size of building construction projects, construction

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contracts are detailed and complicated. The complexity of the text in the typical contract may cause confusion and lead to disagreements [11]. In order to avoid misinterpretation, the contract documents should state realistic completion dates [12], detailed and constructible drawings and technical specifications, clearly defined quality requirements, and clear cost assignments. Unfortunately however, the majority of the building construction projects are executed through contracts that are not easy to comprehend [11]. Changes in the work cause variations in project activities, increase costs, and disrupt the work schedule [13]. Since drawings and specifications are rarely complete at the time the contract is signed, changes are inevitable in most cases. In addition to other factors, the success of a project heavily depends on the ability to manage changes [14]. Change orders are documents issued by the owner that regulate the performance of additional work not included in the main contract. Once the change order is issued, the change becomes an intrinsic part of the contract [15, 16]. Change orders are among the main reasons for loss of efficiency and cost increase in building construction projects [17]. Although the effects of change orders depend on the type of contract (lump sum, unit price, or cost plus contracts), if the activities on the critical path are affected, the change causes an extension of the total duration of the project [18]. As seen in Figure 1, change orders cause increased direct costs such as costs incurred in purchasing materials, hiring labor, and owning/renting equipment, as well as increased indirect costs such as overhead expenses and profit [19]. Various methods exist for distributing overhead expenses and profit to different line items. However, the assignment of overhead expenses to change orders constitutes one of the main causes of disputes between owners and contractors. Given the consequential damages caused by change orders,

recovery of related costs is the main issue in disputes that involve change orders [20]. The main reasons why change orders are issued include design errors, unforeseen site conditions, and weather conditions. However, the type and size of the project, the contract amount and duration, and the level of competition in the bidding process are additional important factors [15]. Factors like the owner’s changing needs, the design’s incompatibility with local ordinances, rules and regulations may also cause change orders [18]. In general, contract documents are inadequate in identifying the additional costs that can be incurred in change orders. The disagreements that originate from change orders mostly involve related costs and generally lead to claims [21]. The contract administration process starts with the signing of the contract and lasts until the completion of the project. This process focuses on the contract terms and project conditions. It should be noted however that the enforcement of the contract conditions often lacks rigor. Successful completion of the project is the main goal of the contract. The potential contract administration problems require evaluation of six risks, namely (1) proposal risks, (2) surety and liability risks, (3) schedule risk, (4) contractual risk, (5) performance risk, and (6) price risk [22]. Proposal risks include the definition and clarity of the scope of the project, whereas surety and liability risks cover the financial and legal issues. Schedule risks are related to timely delivery, and contractual risk consists of change orders, dispute resolution, and contract termination. Performance risk relates to the conditions at handing over the constructed facility, and finally, price risk involves the timeliness of payments. In order to mitigate contractual risks, the contract should specify the entity that has the authority to make changes, how these changes will be performed, and how disputes will be resolved in case an agreement cannot be reached.

Figure 1. Change order costs [19] ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ R. Komurlu, D. Arditi: “The Role of General Conditions relative to Claims and Disputes in Building Construction Contracts”, pp. 27–36

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Figure 2. Cause and effect relationship of disputes [11]

Figure 3. The dispute pyramid [26]

Figure 4. Model of the relationship among distribution of control, concern for fairness and potential for dispute [30] ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ R. Komurlu, D. Arditi: “The Role of General Conditions relative to Claims and Disputes in Building Construction Contracts”, pp. 27–36

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Molenaar et al. [23, 24] state that the owner’s management capability, the contractor’s management capability, and project complexity are the three major factors that cause a dispute. Goyal [25], on the other hand, lists the causes of disputes as (1) changed conditions from those stated in the contract documents, (2) additional work, and (3) errors and omissions. According to Sarat [26, 27], a dispute occurs when a damage takes place, a claim is filed to cover the damage, and the claim is resisted by the other party. Claims are grouped by Love et al. (2011) [24] and Zaneldin (2006) [28] into six types, listed from highest frequency to the lowest, namely (1) changes claims, (2) extra work claims, (3) delay claims, (4) differing site conditions claims, (5) acceleration claims, and (6) contract ambiguity claims [24, 28]. The causes of disputes may be categorized as follows:

evaluated and resolved methodically by instituting acceptable content assessment mechanisms. Fairness is defined as the relationship between the input and the outcome. Finally, with the use of an independent claims certifier who performs process and content control, the resolution process could be finalized rapidly and efficiently.

• Since projects take a relatively long time to complete, the drawings and specifications are often revised because of changes in the owner’s needs and requirements.

Since claims and disputes introduce additional costs and delays in the delivery of the project, avoidance and resolution methods have received increasing interest in the building construction industry [31]. Generally, there are three methods that can be used in private contracts to resolve disputes, namely (1) mediation, (2) arbitration, and (3) litigation [26, 27, 28]. Negotiation between owner and contractor occurs prior to these, and a considerable number of conflicts are resolved by negotiation because the parties negotiating the issue (i.e., contractor and owner representatives) are professionals who handle the issue at hand within legal and ethical boundaries, in a timely manner, and with minimum expense. According to Kennedy et al. (1997) [32], 93% of the disputes are resolved by negotiation. However, the party with the weaker position may be dissatisfied with the result. Mediation requires assignment of independent construction professionals as mediators to review the case, identify the causes of the dispute, and try to resolve the dispute in minimal time. The decision of mediators is not final, nor binding. Arbitration, on the other hand, requires the intervention of arbitrators certified by professional agencies or organizations. Arbitrators conduct an investigation by means of hearings, and make decisions that are final and binding. Considering that the construction process is complex, includes interrelated tasks, and takes a relatively long time to complete, arbitration takes more time than mediation, and costs more. Litigation is the final stage of dispute resolution, and is used if the other methods do not provide a resolution.

• Some architects, who prepare the drawings and specifications, do not have adequate know-how about installation details for a successful performance on the job site. • Constructability issues are generally not detected and solved at the early stages of the design. • Construction documents that regulate the performance of the contractor on site are faulty or do not have the adequate level of detail. Changes in the scope, inadequacy of drawings and technical specifications, constructability problems, and the owner’s on-site regulations generally require extra work. Delays caused by factors other than the contractor’s fault require acceleration of work. Contractors submit change orders for both extra work and acceleration of work. Claims arise when there are disagreements between the owner and the contractor about the need for a change order, and/or the cost of the change [29]. In addition, the effects of disputes may cause new disputes (Figure 2). Sarat [26, 27] lists a series of processes to be followed once a dispute arises (Figure 3). These processes start with direct negotiations and may progress to arbitration and litigation. According to Aibinu’s model for handling claims [30], it is possible to reduce the occurrence of disputes in construction projects by distributing control over the decision-making process (Figure 4). Claims should be evaluated and resolved in a timely manner by setting up mutually agreeable processes, clearly described in contract documents. In addition, claims should be

Considering the fact that the contract involves offer and acceptance, the parties agree on contract conditions. However, the parties have different points of view and different goals. Thus, claims in general are neither totally right, nor wrong. They cannot be totally accepted, and cannot be totally rejected neither. They need thorough investigation performed with regard to the special conditions in the building construction industry [11].

Parties to a public contract are not allowed to resolve their disputes by arbitration or mediation. If a party to a dispute in a public contract is not satisfied with the outcome of negotiations, this party can submit the case to a Board of Contract Appeals, an entity created by the government. If the party is still not satisfied by the decision of the judges on the Board of Contract Appeals, then the party can litigate in a court of law.

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In courts of law, judges review the claims and responses, evaluate evidence, and resolve the dispute according to the information presented to the court. Judges know the law well and are unbiased and objective. The court system is organized such that decisions can be appealed at a higher court. Litigation takes a long time and is quite expensive.

3. Claims and disputes in “A201 – 2007 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction” and “The General Conditions for Constructions” AIA's A201 - 2007 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction addresses dispute-related issues in one article, namely Article 15 - CLAIMS AND DISPUTES (Table 2). The first section of this article defines claims, states the notification requirements of claims, and specifies that the contractor should not stop working in case of a claim. The requirements for a claim for additional cost, additional time and consequential damages are listed in this section. The second section assigns the architect as the initial decision maker. The initial decision is made after negotiations between owner and contractor. Dispute resolution methods are used if negotiations fail. Review, evaluation, consultation and investigation principles are specified in this section. According to this section, the architect may reach an initial decision that is acceptable to both parties. If the contractor is not satisfied with the decision, the contractor may file for mediation. The third section focuses on mediation. The mediation process is administered in accordance with the American Arbitration Association’s Construction Industry Mediation Procedures. The distribution of costs and location of the mediation process are defined. The fourth and final section of A201 – 2007 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction states that the contract may specify arbitration as the dispute resolution method. Arbitration is administered in accordance with the American Arbitration Association’s Construction Industry Arbitration Rules. It is stated that agreeing on arbitration, both parties accept that the decision is final and is enforceable by courts of law. The Turkish Public Procurement Authority’s General Conditions for Construction states that the owner awards time and cost for variations in the work caused by the owner or external factors. Force majeure, differing site conditions, and external factors are subject to negotiation between the owner and the contractor. However, the procedure for negotiation is not described at all, and the owner’s decision is final. The document clearly addresses disputes only in Clause 51 – Resolving Disputes of Article 10 – Contractual Relationships (Table 2). According to this clause, if the contractor is not satisfied with the owner’s final decision, the contractor can litigate at a court of law.

This study investigated the differences between the most commonly used “general conditions” documents in the U.S. and in Turkey (i.e., A201 - 2007 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction in the U.S., and the General Conditions for Construction in Turkey). A comparative study (Table 2) indicates that both documents deal with disputes related to issues such as delays, time extensions, and change orders, but that the American document appears to be more detailed than the Turkish document [33].

4. Conclusion Building construction projects are complex, take a relatively long period of time to complete, and require a considerable budget. Because of these reasons, changes occur in the owner’s needs; constructability issues arise as a result of the designer’s lack of construction site practice; and change orders become inevitable when construction codes are modified, and unforeseen site conditions are encountered. Some of the resulting change orders cannot be implemented with the full approval of both parties because of unpredictable indirect costs and other reasons, and end up in disputes. The most effective method for resolving disputes, is probably to avoid changes during construction. Contractors also report that in addition to design changes, implementing the project in an unrealistic period of time with limited site investigation and design review, and inadequate definition of the project scope are the other main reasons for claims and disputes [34]. These factors indicate that owners have an important role preparing the contract documents in order to avoid claims and disputes. A201 – 2007 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction that is widely used in the U.S. describes a multi-stage dispute resolution procedure in projects funded by private owners. The first stage is negotiation, with the requirement of timely notice of a claim, and continuation of work. The architect functions as the initial decision maker. Keeping good progress records throughout construction helps the owner keep track of the conditions and problems, and evaluate the case properly [34]. Unless the dispute is resolved, or parties are satisfied with the decision, parties may submit the dispute to mediation. Another alternative is to submit the dispute to arbitration. Mediators and arbitrators are professionals trained by the American Arbitration Association. Parties can always litigate. Given that the majority of disputes originate from similar causes, information depositories of accumulated knowledge and experience about past cases may help prevent disputes, as well as resolve disputes in a significantly shorter period of time [35]. In projects owned by public organizations, fair, experienced, and

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Table 2: Clauses about disputes and resolutions in A201-2007 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction in the U.S. and General Conditions for Construction in Turkey [33]

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professionally competent judges employed by Boards of Contract Appeals rely heavily on such legal precedents to resolve disputes. The decisions of these Boards are generally well accepted by all parties to a dispute. Any public entity in Turkey that procures construction services should refer to the General Conditions for Construction issued by the Public Procurement Authority. Thus, it is the most commonly used general condition in Turkey, not only in publicly projects, but also in projects owned by private entities. Actually, because of the regulatory influence of public agencies, the General Conditions for Construction is also preferred by the private sector [6, 36]. Claims are caused by changes and affect the cost and profitability of the project on the contractor's side, and the total budget on the owner's side. For a claim to be evaluated properly, the contractor needs to submit the claim with the supporting evidence of time and cost effects on the project. The owner, on the other hand, is required to undertake a detailed, transparent, objective, and fair evaluation process for the satisfaction of the contractor [34]. An effective and efficient claims management process aims to achieve a satisfactory negotiation with the contractor. Negotiation is the most important method for resolving disputes because it helps avoid litigation and the use of alternate dispute resolution methods. Negotiation is less costly, less timeconsuming, and more convenient and more private than mediation, arbitration, and litigation. However, “disagreement arising during negotiation”, “unsatisfactory evidence to convince other parties”, and “poor negotiation skills” are the main barriers to sustain a settlement through negotiation [34]. AIA A201-2007 places special emphasis on claims and disputes in the U.S. The General Conditions for Construction, on the other hand, is a document prepared by a government agency in Turkey, and thus largely protects the benefits of public owners. There is limited information about claims in this document, which states that in case of a dispute, the owner's decision is final. This method of dispute resolution is similar to the method that used to be common practice in most public work projects in the U.S. long ago. This practice has long been discontinued in the U.S. because it created a perception of unfairness and lack of objectivity, promoted an unfavorable bidding climate with fewer bidders and higher bids, and attracted hostility from courts. Any dispute in Turkey where the owner’s decision is not acceptable to the contractor is directed to a court of law, whereas contractors in the U.S. have access to Boards of Contract Appeals in public projects and to mediation and/or arbitration in private projects before they are directed to courts of law. Both AIA A201-2007 and the General Conditions for Construction have been developed decades ago and are

being widely used in the respective countries. The development of these documents throughout the years was based on local conditions. Both documents are periodically modified to reflect the changing needs, approaches and methods in the construction industry. In the meantime, the construction industry in the U.S. experimented with alternate dispute resolution methods. In addition to mediation and arbitration, Dispute Review Boards were used in risky megaprojects such as major tunnels or rapid transportation systems. Innovative methods of dispute resolution that are fair, inexpensive, and practical could add a great deal to dispute resolution in Turkey. Turkish construction firms are familiar with the General Conditions for Construction since they commonly perform in the domestic market, but they also compete in international markets such as Russia, Middle Eastern countries, Europe and the U.S. [37, 6]. There are a total of 40 Turkish contractors in the ENR Top 250 International Contractors list [38]. Thus, Turkish construction companies should have a good understanding of the General Conditions used in other countries and international markets, to be competitive and profitable.

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[10] MEU (2014). General Conditions for Construction, Ministry of Environment and Urbanization of Turkey, Retrieved from https://www.csb.gov.tr/db/bayburt/webmenu/w ebmenu4604.pdf, in March, 2017. [11] Iyer, K.C., Cihaphalkar, N.B., Joshi, G.A. (2007). Understanding time delay disputes in construction contracts, International Journal of Project Management, 26 (2008) 174-184. doi: 10.1016/j.ijproman.2007.05.002 [12] Yates, J. K., Epstein, A. (2006). Avoiding and Minimizing Construction Delay Claim Disputes in Relational Contracting, Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, ASCE, 132 (2) 168-179, doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)10523928(2006)132:2(168) [13] Komurlu, R., Arditi, D. (2016). Change Management in Construction Contracts: A Comparison between Turkey and the U.S., Proc., 4th Project and Construction Management Congress, Birgonul, T., Arslan, G., Kivrak, S., Budayan, C., Arslan, V., (Eds.), ISBN: 978-605-66332-5-6, November 03-05, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, 557-563. [14] Molly, K. K. (2007). Six Steps for Successful Change Order Management, Journal of Cost Engineering, Vol. 49, No. 4, 12-19. [15] Anastasopoulos, P. C., Labi, S., Bhargava, A., Bordat, C., Mannering, F. L. (2010). “Frequency of Change Orders in Highway Construction Using Alternate Count-Data Modeling Methods”, ASCE Journal of Constr. Eng. & Mng., Vol. 136, No. 8, 886893. [16] Taylor, T. R. B., Uddin, M., Goodrum, P. M., McCoy, A., Shan, Y. (2012). Change Orders and Lessons Learned: Knowledge from Statistical Analyses of

Engineering Change Orders on Kentucky Highway Projects, ASCE Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 138, No. 12, 1360-1369. [17] Riley, D. R., Diller, B. E., Kerr, D. (2005). Effects of Delivery Systems on Change Order Size and Frequency in Mechanical Construction, ASCE Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 131, No. 9, 953-962. [18] Gunhan, S., Arditi, D., Doyle, J. (2007). Avoiding Change Orders in Public School Construction, ASCE Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, Vol. 133, No. 1, 67-73. [19] Syal, M., Bora, M. (2016). Change Order Clauses in Standard Contract Documents, ASCE Practice Periodical on Str. Design and Constr., Vol. 21, No. 2, 04015021-1-6. [20] Goldsmith, P. (2016). The True Costs of Change Orders, Electrical Construction & Maintenance Magazine, April, http://ecmweb.com/contractor/true-costschange-orders. [21] Kettlewell, F. (2003). Proactive Change Order Management, AACE International Transactions, CDR. 16.1-5. [22] Davidson, B., Wright, E. (2004). Contract Administration (CA), Washington, DC, National Institute of Government Purchasing. [23] Molenaar, K., Washington, S., Diekmann, J. (2000). Structural equation model of construction contract dispute potential, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, 126(4), 268277. [24] Love, P. E. D., Davis, P. R., Cheung, S. O., Irani, Z. (2011). Casual Discovery and Inference of Project Disputes, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 58(3), 400-411. [25] Goyal, B. B. (1996). Construction Claims and Disputes: Causes and Cost/Time Overruns, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 120 (4) 197. [26] Sarat, A. (1984). The litigation explosion, access to justice, and court reform: examining the critical assumptions, Rutgers Law Review 37, 319-336. [27] Tazelaar, F., Snijders, C. (2010). Dispute resolution and litigation in the construction industry. Evidence on conflicts and conflict resolution in the Netherlands and Germany, Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, 16, 221-229, doi: 10.1016/j.pursup.2010.08.003 [28] Zaneldin, E. K. (2006). Construction claims in United Arab Emirates: Types, causes, and

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[29] Wallwork, J. W. (2003). Communicating the Dispute, AACE International Transactions, CDR.20.

Problems in Malaysia, 2nd Global Conference on Business Economics, Management and Tourism, 30-31 October 2014, Prague, Czech Republic, Procedia Economics and Finance 23 (2015) 63-70 doi: 10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00327-5

[30] Aibinu, A. A. (2005). The relationship between distribution of control, fairness and potential for dispute in the claims handling process, Journal of Construction Management and Economics, 24, 4554, doi: 10.1080/14697010500226954

[35] Ilter, D., Dikbas, A. (2009). A review of the artificial intelligence applications in construction dispute resolution, CIBW78, Managing IT in Construction 26th International Conference Proceedings, ISBN 975-561-275q-0, 41- 50, Istanbul.

[31] Ilter, D. A. (2011). A System of Systems (SoS) Approach to Dispute Management Systems, Proceedings of the CIB W78-W102: International Conference, Sophia Antipolis, France.

[36] Komurlu, R., Arditi, D. (2016), A Comparative Analysis of Time Aspect of AIA A201-2007 and Turkish General Conditions for Construction, Proceedings of 12th International Congress on Advances in Civil Engineering ACE2016, Bogazici University, Istanbul.

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[32] Kennedy, P., Morrison, A., Milne, D.O. (1997). Resolution of disputes arising from set-off clauses between main contractors and subcontractors, Construction Management and Economics, (1997) 15, 527-537. [33] Komurlu, R., Arditi, D. (2017). Resolving and Preventing Claims and Disputes in Building Construction Contracts: A Comparative Analysis of General Conditions in The U.S. and Turkey, International Architecture S.ARCH Conference with Awards, 07-09 June, Hong Kong. [34] Bakhary, N.A., Adnan, H., Ibrahim, A. (2015). A Study of Construction Claim Management

[37] Ugur, L. O., Cantitative Comparison of Responsibilities’ and Risks’ Distribution Between Turkish General Conditions of Construction and FIDIC Red Book General Conditions, e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, 1A0069, 5(2), 104120, 2010. [38] ENR, Engineering News Record (2017). The 2016 Top 250 International Contractors, Retrieved from http://www.enr.com/toplists/2016-Top-250International-Contractors1 Accessed in July, 2017.

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DOI: 10.14621/tna.20170204

A Review of Flexibility and Adaptability in Housing Design Hassan Estaji University of Applied Arts Vienna, Austria Hakim Sabzevari University, Iran; estaji@hsu.ac.ir

Abstract

1. Introduction

A house is not a solid building; it is a system of activity. Any changes in the house users, their needs and the physical and cultural environment require a flexible system to adapt itself according to the changes. In general, flexibility is ability and potential of a building to change, adapt and reorganize itself in response to the changes. This paper presents a comprehensive review of all significant research about flexibility and adaptability in architecture with particular focus on housing design. A summary of different definitions from different points of view is given. A matrix compares these definitions from social, economical and environmental aspects. In the analysis part, strengths, weaknesses and limitations of each study are compared with other researches.

House as a place for living from birth to death must cover all of human development phases. A house is a place for human activities during days and nights in all years. The wide variety of human activities as well as a wide range of times spent in the house emphasis on the necessity of flexibility in housing design. Any changes in the house users affect the space requirements, but the problem is we cannot predict and control the changes, for example, the family size and family structure change during the time without any fixed patterns. Only a flexible system (house) is able to response the predictable and unpredictable changes [1]. In this paper the terms flexible and adaptable housing are used to cover the flexibility and adaptability of the eco-system not only the building. In general, the potential of change is described in terms of flexibility and adaptability. These two words are sometimes confused or used synonymously in literature [2]. So what is the difference between them? Usually, researchers and architects use “flexible” for physical changes and “adaptable” for non-physical changes. Steven Groák (1944–1998) proposed a distinction between these two terms; he defined “adaptability as capable of different social uses and flexibility as capable of different physical arrangements”[3] cited by [2, p. 5].

Keywords:

Review; Flexibility; Adaptability; Housing design

Article history:

Received: 14 January 2016 Revised: 07 March 2017 Accepted: 18 May 2017

Using a space in a variety of ways without making physical changes refers to the adaptability, and according to the Groák’s definition the flexibility is achieved by modifying the physical form of the building; by joining, splitting, extending, and merging spaces [2]. This study tries to use the Groák’s definition, but since the functional and physical changes in the houses usually happen at the same time, there is no rigid or clear border between these terms. Tatiana Schneider and Jeremy Till [2] in their book used the term “flexible housing” to cover issues of both flexibility and adaptability.

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Before addressing the flexibility and adaptability, it is better to distinguish between the development of a house type and the evolution of an individual house. House types develop over time and are adapted to relatively stable natural givens (climate, topography, availability of building material, etc.) and more rapidly changing social and cultural conditions and new economic situations. The introduction of technical innovations also changes house types as well as lifestyles. These long-term transformations take place gradually over generations of builders and users. The adaptability in the individual houses usually involves short-term adaptation. A specific house changes over time to be adapted to the new requirements of residents. The house is evaluated to cope with the new lifestyle, new size of family, new economic situation and so on.

flexible physical, spatial, and cultural structure to respond to the changes. It is interesting to note that even though flexibility is only one aspect of sustainability, in recent years both terms are used almost to the same extent in literature. Building construction and operation consume large amounts of energy and material. Sustainable architecture is designed to reduce this consumption of material and energy. If a building does not only serve the present purposes but is also able to meet future requirements to a certain extent, a lot of energy and material can be saved. Therefore the biggest challenge in architecture is rapidly changing needs and requirements. Buildings need a flexible structure and flexible spatial configuration to be able to meet rapidly changing demands. “A sustainable building is not one that must last forever, but one that can easily adapt to change.”[6, P. 7]

2. Research method A primary search for relevant research was conducted using Google Scholar with search terms including ‘sustainable’, ‘adaptable’, ‘flexible’, ‘housing’ and their cognate and synonymies words. This initial search helps to find the leading researchers and research groups in this field. In the next step, detailed searches were performed in the archives of the architectural journals and conference proceedings. Finally, books and papers cited by works found were checked for relevance.

“If a building doesn’t support change and reuse, you have only an illusion of sustainability....” [7, P. 147] In general, one of the most important ways to achieve sustainability is to develop the flexibility and adaptability of systems. Sebastian Moffatt and Peter Russell [8] argue that adaptable designs and materials can improve the environmental performance of buildings in at least three ways: a- “More efficient use of space - adaptable buildings are likely to use the same amount of space and materials more efficiently, on average, over their entire life.”

This comprehensive review presents a summary of different definitions from different points of view and tries to categorize and classify the findings of researches.

b- “Increased longevity - adaptability extends the total lifetime of buildings.”

3. Sustainability, flexibility and adaptability The words ‘sustainability’ and ‘flexibility’ have become increasingly prominent in recent years. Figure 1 displays a graph showing how those phrases have appeared in English books over the previous years. It indicates that use of the phrase "Flexible Architecture" became more widespread in the late 1960s, and also the phrase "Sustainable Architecture" was more common from 1987 after the first consensus was reached between countries on sustainable development under the auspices of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), known as Brundtland report [4]. According to the (WCED) “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” [4] However, the biggest problem in the architectural case is the users of buildings, their needs, and their wishes change rapidly during the time. Buildings require a

c- “Improved operating performance” [8, pp. 4-5]

4. The history of flexibility and adaptability in housing design If we accept that, the ability of users to change and control the design process is flexibility we can extend the history of flexibility to the history of housing. Nomadism as an earlier lifestyle let people move between summer and winter pastures for hunting, ranching and farming. The regular movement helped nomadic tribes to find the seasonal water resources and fertile pastures and at the same time avoid the harsh weathers and environments. The Tribes and traditional nations designed, made, repaired and extend their houses collaborative. Schneider and Till believed that flexible housing have developed in two ways: non-architect vernacular houses and the second is a result of external pressure that have promoted housing designer. [2] (Table 1)

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Figure 1. Comparing the use of the terms sustainable, flexible and adaptable architecture over time, Google Books Ngram Viewer [5]

Table 1: Flexible housing development (adopted from [2])

Housing Development

way Evolving conditions of vernacular

Designer Non-architect

external pressure that have promoted housing designer

professional architect

Deriving design solution long-term adjustments to patterns of use and cultural formations Authority of expertise

Table 2: Mies van der Rohe’s open plans adapted from Ransoo Kim [13] Flowing space Dynamic space Clear space

“continuously connecting space, in which neighboring rooms are open to each other” “open plan that characterized by a complementary contrast between interior material freestanding walls and exterior full glazed walls” “single uncluttered volume enclosed by glazed skin, and thus, the building is literally clear from both the inside and the outside.”

Vernacular houses emerged gradually, based on the exigencies of a given time. Vernacular architecture can accommodate a certain range of uses and respond to economic and social developments to a limited extent. For this reason, in certain critical situations (e.g., destruction after natural disasters and war, the sudden increase in population, rapid economic growth and changing lifestyle) vernacular architecture is not able to cope with the rapid changes. These rapid changes happened almost simultaneous with the First World War and the beginning of modernism in Europe. This review starts with some leading flexible ideas in the beginning of modernism then focuses on the recent projects and research on flexible and adaptable housing field.

4.1. Modernism and flexibility After the First World War and necessity of industrialised systems for housing on a mass scale Le Corbusier proposed Domino system in 1914. Domino system was a concrete frame stricture that consists of columns and slabs (Figure 2). This design system enables the architects to separate the interior from stricture. Le Corbusier used the term ‘plan Libre’ for this spatial flexibility [9]. He proposed his ideas about the modern architecture- Five Points of Architecture- in his book ‘Towards a New Architecture’ (1923). Two of the five points are free floor plan and free façade design. Using the columns instead of the load baring walls increases the internal usage of building. This idea enables the building to separate the exterior of the building from its structural function [10].

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The other idea proposed by Mies (1923) was ‘skin and bone structures’ , “Supporting girder construction with a nonsupporting wall” [14]. He described his idea in the following statement: “The variability you want is best by an undivided expanse of the individual floor levels; for that reason I have placed the supports in the exterior walls. . . . You need layered floor levels with clear, uncluttered spaces” [15].

4.2. Layer system

Figure 2. Le Corbusier’s Domino House 1914 [11] ©FLC-ADAGP

In 1924, Theo van Doesburg published his manifesto, Towards a plastic architecture, about De Stijl movement. He proposed his manifesto in sixteen clauses. He believed that architecture is elemental, formless and open. The elements - such as function, mass, surface, time, space, light, colour, material, etc. - are plastic. In addition, “produce the functional surfaces arising out of practical, living demands ... The dividing surfaces, which separate the spaces, may be movable” [12]. In 1926, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe attempted to create various kinds of open plans, he classified the open plans into three attitudes towards space design, Ransoo Kim [13] called them flowing space, dynamic space, and clear space (Table 2).

After reading a large number of papers and ideas about the flexibility, it was found that the most of them are based on ‘Building Layer’ idea. Therefore, this paper tries to review this idea in detail. In 1961, N. Jahn Habraken published ‘De Dragers en de Mensen: het einde van de massawoningbouw’ in Dutch, that was translated into English as Supports: An Alternative to Mass Housing in 1972 [16]. The main idea of Open Building approach is the separation of Support and Infill, proposed by Habrakan. Open Building is the term used to indicate a number of different, but related ideas about the making of environment (Table 3). Habraken found a close relation between physical levels and hierarchical territorial structure of environment. He used the five levels of physical systems to study the different projects relate to the levels. Figure 3-A shows the most common distribution of control in the 1980s housing projects. Professional design and control all levels except the furniture, the user only can buy the furniture and change the layout of them.

Table 3: Open Building ideas about the making of environment (based on Habraken [17]) Environment making Idea

Example

Distinct Levels of intervention in the built environment

'Support' and 'Infill', or urban design and architecture The house buyers/renters infill the house according their needs or rearrange them to respond changes

Users / inhabitants may make design decisions as well

Designing is a process with multiple participants also including different kinds of professionals. Interface between technical systems allows the replacement of one system with another performing the same function. Built environment is in constant transformation and change must be recognized and understood. Built environment is the product of an ongoing, never-ending design process, in which environment transforms part by part.

different fit-out systems applied in a given base building

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Figure 3. Different control patterns for the uses of environments (based on Habraken [19])

The users are made responsible from the level of the dwelling downwards [19] (Figure 3-B). The other type of housing financed by the World Bank (In the 1970s) was Core houses, these projects provided primitive shelters and let users fill in themselves (Figure 3-C). The Support /infill idea came from the necessity to build large apartment buildings for high-density situations. Some people challenged that infill is also part of 'building' level. For this reason, Habraken renamed it to 'support' level [19]. This approach lets the house users to control and set their own floor plan (Figure 4). Figure 4: control pattern for Support /infill idea (based on Habraken [19])

Habraken found a close relation between physical levels and hierarchical territorial structure of environment. He used the five levels of physical systems to study the different projects relate to the levels. Figure 3-A shows the most common distribution of control in the 1980s housing projects. Professional design and control all levels except the furniture, the user only can buy the furniture and change the layout of them. In the early 1970s, the World Bank started funding housing and urban development initiatives in many part of developing world. One of these ways of support was called 'sites and services'. In this approach, people house themselves while adhering to some minimum standards advocated by the bank and local governing agency [18].

Habraken’s method has a significant influence on the history of adaptable and flexible architectural design. However, there is a limitation; this approach limits the flexibility and adaptability to the infill level. British architect Frank Duffy [20] also took into account the temporal dimension linked to the building layers. He proposed the first theory of the rate of change in buildings, “Shearing Layers”, in 1990. Stewart Brand [21, p. 12] quotes Duffy: "Our basic argument is that there isn't such a thing as a building…. A building properly conceived is several layers of longevity of built components." Duffy classified the physical and temporal layers of buildings in four layers: Shell, Service, Scenery, and Set. Shell is the permanent structure and enclosure of the building. The service parts - heating, cooling, ventilation devices, pipes and cable- with shorter lives are attached to the building shell. Scenery refers to the fitting-out components which accommodate the particular use in the solid shell. And finally, the setting is

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ISSN 2198-7688

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a short-term managing or rearranging of the furniture and stuff to be adapted to the daily activities [22]. Brand developed and revised the “Shearing Layers” idea in his book in 1995. He expanded the Duffy’s “four S’s” into “six S’s” (Table 4). The time layer idea helps architects to understand how buildings actually behave and how a building relates to the people [21]. The complete separation of different layers in building construction can help to increase the lifespan of the building. Inner partitions and façade elements which are not load-bearing can easily be changed and rearranged to accommodate new uses while the structural carcass is maintained. The main advantage of this approach is adding the time (longevity) to the building layers. That opens a new window in design, maintenance and restoration presses. The other idea in Brand’s concept is the differences in the decision level which facilitate or hamper changes. Different levels of stability and flexibility can be defined according to the ‘shearing layers’ idea; the sequence is as follows: city, neighborhood, load-bearing structure,

façades, inner partitions and finishing and furniture. The city structure is the most stable element, followed by the neighborhood. Changes in this “layer” require a high decision level – a political conception of (top down) town planning intervention or a concerted (bottom up) action from the residents’ side. A few persons or even an individual can implement the changes in the lower levels – finishing, furniture.

5. Different approaches Humans can adapt themselves with physical environment by three flexible skins, first is the skin of body, it can control temperature changes by altering blood vessel diameter. The second level is the clothes you can add or remove some clothes to cope with the heat and cold. The final shield in the face of environmental changes is Architecture. All buildings are flexible on some level e.g. you can open the windows in hot days (passive action), turn on the heater (active action) in cold days, or adjust the thermal comfort by using a smart system (Table 5).

Table 4: Building layers and Longevity (image and data: Brand [21]) Shearing Layers (different rate of change)

Layer

Description

Longevity

Site Structure

Geographic setting, urban location Foundations and load bearing elements Exterior surfaces (Facades) Wiring, plumbing, HVAC systems and … The interior layout Furniture, kitchen

Eternal 30 to 300 years

Skin Services Space Plan Stuff

20 years 7 to 15 years 3 years Daily to monthly

Table 5: Levels of adaptation in order of complexity based on Lelieveld, et al. [23] Level

Description

flexible

“This level of adaptability needs the direct control of the user, which means that the building elements do not have the ability to change themselves.” “An active building component will give a set reaction on a specific change “ “Dynamic architecture has the possibility to give different output on a certain input.”

Active Dynamic Interactive Intelligent Smart

“The building component is able to have a two-way conversation with the users and/or its environment.” “The building can take its own conclusions for certain situation.” “Smart architectural components have the ability of self-initiative. The system is self-learning and would be able to design itself.”

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Table 6: Characteristics of Adaptability based on Robert Schmidt, et al. [24] characteristic Capacity for change

ability to remain “fit” for purpose value

time

Definition (samples) change the size or use of spaces [25] change its capacity, function, or performance [26] Less frequent, more dramatic changes [27] subsequent alteration [28] modified, relocated [29] reduced in mismatches between the building and its users [30-32] maximizing its productive use[6] to fit both the context of a system’s use and its stakeholders’ desires [33] minimum cost [34] speed of change quick transformations” [35] respond readily [36] through life changes future changes [37] in the long term [25] extension of use [38]

You can change the furniture layout of living room to host a party or make some major changes to divide a flat into two parts for renting. The flexibility and adaptability in architecture follow a fuzzy logic like a tonality between black and white. These different degrees of adaptability bring a wide verity of definitions and approaches in literature. Robert Schmidt III and his colleagues at Adaptable Futures Research Group, Loughborough University [24], identified four overarching characteristics gathered from their literature review (Table 6). They proposed a definition based on these criteria: ‘the capacity of a building to accommodate effectively the evolving demands of its context, thus maximizing value through life’ [24]. Table 7 indicates some definitions of flexibility and adaptability in housing design and the concept of each approach.

5.1. Accessibility for all ages

income households. The Grow Home was a narrow, three-storey house with a floor plan of 4.3 m by 11.0 m with fixed and loud baring wall as a structural core, enclosing soft, flexible interior spaces that can be reconfigured, rearranged and expanded upon in the future. Only the first floor was furnished the upper floors were unfurnished and homebuyers could fill in the house according to their needs [48]. In 1995, some people at Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation developed an approach to design, “FlexHousing”, based on “Grow Home” idea. “To buyers, having a FlexHouse means never being forced to move. Building houses to physically grow and adapt, to meet the changing lifestyle needs of singles, families, seniors and different owners is the new direction in residential construction” [49]. The focus of FlexHousing project is to allow people to adapt their houses according to their needs easily and economically. In addition, increases the lifetime of houses. FlexHousing was originally based on four basic principles of flexible design: Adaptability, Accessibility, Affordability and Occupant Health [42]. The Canada FlexHousing project is similar to “Universal Housing” in the U.S. and “Lifetime Homes” in the U.K. [42] (Table 8).

Due to aging population increases in the developed countries, the need for accessible housing rises. One of the most repetitive approaches in adaptable housing is focus on accessibility for elderly people especially in practical projects and national standards.

6. Indicators

Avi Friedman and Witold Rybczynski of the Affordable Homes Program in McGill University developed the “Grow Home” in 1990. The project was a housing design that is easily modifiable and can suit people of all ages and family situations especially for low and moderate-

Table 9 presents different indicators of flexible/ adaptable architecture. It is clear each project according to its unique circumstances applies a limited numbers of these strategies.

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Table 7: Definitions of flexibility and adaptability in housing design

Author

James A. Bostrom Ronald L. Mace, AIA Maria Long

Stewart Brand

Australian Standard

Canada Mortgage And Housing Corporatio n

Sebastian Moffatt, Peter Russell Roger Bruno Richard

Date

Title

Definition or essence

Ref

1987

Adaptable Housing: A Technical Manual for Implementing Adaptable Dwelling Unit Specifications

“Adaptable housing is accessible housing that does not look different from other housing and which has features that in only minutes can be adjusted, added, or removed as needed to suit the occupants whether they are disabled, older, or non-disabled.”

[39]

1995

How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They're Built

“An adaptive building has to allow slippage between the differently-paced systems of Site, Structure, Skin, Services, Space Plan, and Stuff.”

[21]

Layering system

AS 4299: Adaptable housing

- develop the accommodation needs of users of all ages and abilities. - Should be possible at relatively little extra initial cost. - provide safer houses - Continuation of existing community and family networks - Suitability for people with any level of ability

[40]

Affordability Accessibility

FlexHousing Homes That Adapt To Life's Changes Sustainable Housing and Communities Flexible Housing

An approach to design easily adapt to the changing lifestyle requirements of its occupants, developed in 1995 by the people at Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation

[41, 42]

Accessibility Affordability Healthy Housing

1995

1999

2012

2001

2006

Adaptability refers to the capacity of buildings to accommodate substantial change. Over the course of a building’s lifetime, change is inevitable, both in the social, economic and physical surroundings, and in the needs and expectations of occupants.

[8]

Individualisation & Industrialisation

“Adaptability itself is the capacity to alter a course of action when new information becomes available or when new conditions arise.”

[43]

[26]

[2]

Assessing the Adaptability of Buildings

James Douglas

2006

Building adaptation

“‘Adaptation’ is …any work to a building over and above maintenance to change its capacity, function or performance (i.e. any intervention to adjust, reuse or upgrade a building to suit new conditions or requirements).

Tatjana Schneider, Jeremy Till

2007

Flexible Housing

“… definition of flexible housing is housing that can adjust to changing needs and patterns, both social and technological.”

Concept

Accessibility

General

Industrialisation

General

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Minister of Housing and Social Developme nt (Canada) Manewa Anupa, et al.

Holger Schnädelba ch Robert Schmidt III, et al. (Adaptable Futures Research Group, Loughboro ugh University)

2009

British Columbia Building Code

“Adaptable dwelling unit means a dwelling unit designed and constructed to facilitate future modification to provide access for persons with disabilities.”

2009

A Paradigm Shift Towards Whole Life Analysis in Adaptable Buildings

“We define adaptable buildings as dynamic systems that carry the capacity to accommodate a set of evolving demands regarding space, function, and componentry.”

[45]

2010

Adaptive Architecture – A Conceptual Framework

“Adaptive Architecture is concerned with buildings that are designed to adapt to their environments, their inhabitants and objects as well as those buildings that are entirely driven by internal data.”

[46]

Adaptable Futures: A 21st Century Challenge What Is the Meaning of Adaptability in the Building Industry?

“the capacity of a building to accommodate effectively the evolving demands of its context, thus maximizing value through life.”[24]

[47] [24]

2009

2011

[44]

Accessibility

Lifetime

General

Table 8: practical projects and standards, Accessibility for all ages Project

Date

Place

Universal housing

1988

U.S.

Founder/Sponsor

Description

Ref.

Ron Mace, The Center for Universal Design/ North Carolina State University

Universal design is the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design.

[50] [51]

Grow Home

1990

Canada

Avi Friedman and Witold Rybczynski /McGill University

“Modifiable house that can suit people of all ages and family situations especially for low and moderate-income households“

[48]

Lifetime Homes

1990

U.K.

A group of housing experts, including Habinteg Housing Association and the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. / Foundation for Lifetime Homes and eighbourhoods (from 2010)

“Lifetime Homes are all about flexibility and adaptability; they are not ‘special’, but are thoughtfully designed to create and encourage better living environments for everyone. From raising small children to coping with illness or dealing with reduced mobility in later life, Lifetime Homes make the ups and downs of daily living easier to manage.”

[52]

Flex-Housing

1995

Canada

Canada Mortgage And Housing Corporation

Building houses to physically grow and adapt, to meet the changing lifestyle

[49]

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Universal housing

1997

Australi a

Landcom Projects/ Australian Network for Universal Housing Design

needs of singles, families, seniors and different owners is the new direction in residential construction

[42]

“Universal housing refers to homes that are practical and flexible, and which meet the needs of people of different ages and abilities over time.”

[53]

[41]

Table 9: Some Indicators of Flexible/ Adaptable Architecture Type of Flexibility/ Adaptability Convertibility Expandability

Durability Design for Disassembly Upgradability Lifetime Compatibility Partitionability Connectability Extendibility Multifunctionality Neutral Functionality Divisibility Visitability

Disaggregatability Demountablility Convertibility Dismantlability Rearrange-Ability Rejection Responsive Transform-ability Scalability

Definition

Ref.

allowing for changes in use within the building facilitating additions to the quantity of space in a building “Allowing for increases in volume or capacity (the latter can be achieved by inserting an additional floor in a building, which does not increase its volume)” “Selecting materials, assemblies and systems that require less maintenance, repair and replacement” “Making it easier to take products and assemblies apart so that their constituent elements can more easily be reused or recycled.” “Choose systems and components that anticipate and can accommodate potential increased performance requirements” Do not encapsulate, or strongly interconnect short lifetime components with those having longer life times.

[8] [8] [26]

“… is the possibility of splitting up, rearranging or combining different spatial units in a simple way.” “... refers back to the traditional system of ‘Enfilade’, whereby a series of adjacent rooms can be connected through sliding wall panels or doors.” “… is the possibility of adapting the building and its installation in a simple way to additional user demands…” “…is the possibility of using or deploying space, construction or installation components for several functions.” “Room without labels that do not have a specific use... this means that the later can take on other uses (i.e. work spaces, sitting in the bedroom).” (Dividing up) The potential to divide a larger unit “means that a person who uses a wheelchair, scooter or other mobility aid is able to visit friends and relatives.” “… people with disabilities will be able to enter the front door without difficulty and at least be able to get to the living areas and be able to use the toilet.” Materials and components from any dismantled building should be as reusable or reprocessable (i.e. recyclable) as possible. A system capable of major reconfigurations or even of a complete dismantling for rebuilding somewhere else Allowing for changes in use (economically, legally, technically) Capable of being demolished safely, efficiently and speedily – in part or in whole. Change the layout of spaces which extent the use surface of a building can be decreased in the future (horizontal and/or vertical). Smart, Intelligent, Automated Change of shape and arrangement of spaces Change of size

[54]

[8] [8] [8] [8]

[2] [54] [54] [2] [2] [55] [40] [26] [56] [26] [26] [57]

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Refittability Convertibility Recyclability Combinability Polyvalency Redesign-(ability) Expansion Transferability

Change of performance Change of function (Reusability) The ability of reuse (space, component and material) Generating a multitude of combinations from a set of basic components produced in large quantity. “It means that a building can be used in different ways without adjustment to the way it is built.” “… concerns the wishes/demands for changing the layout of the user units in a building and/or the functions of the user units in the building.” “This factor concerns to which extent the use surface of a building can be increased in the future (horizontal and/or vertical).” Portable-ability, Movability, Change of location, “This factor considers whether or not the building can be transferred to another location.”

[58, 59] [57] [57] [57]

[2]

Schneider, Tatjana and Till, Jeremy Flexible housing. 2007: Taylor & Francis.

[3]

Groák, Steven, The idea of building: thought and action in the design and production of buildings. 1992: E & FN Spon, London

[4]

Brundtland, Gro Harlem, Report of the World Commission on environment and development:" our common future.". 1987: United Nations.

[5]

Google Books. Google Ngram Viewer. 2015 [cited 2015 10 May]; Available from: https://books.google.com/ngrams.

[6]

Graham, P., Design for adaptability - an introduction to the principles and basic strategies. The Royal Australian Institute of Architects, 2005. GEN66.

Flexible Environment (physical and cultural)

Flexible Society (users)

Flexible Spatial Configuration, relationship between spatial layout and users (using Space Syntax theory)

[7]

Croxton, Architectural Record. 2003: p. 147.

Assessing the flexibility (quantitative research)

[8]

Case study feedback from the occupants of flexible houses- Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE)

Moffatt, Sebastian and Russell, Peter, Assessing the Adaptability of Buildings, in Annex 31, EnergyRelated Environmental Impact of Buildings. 2001, IEA Annex.

[9]

Risselada, M, Raumplan versus Plan Libre: Adolf Loos and Le Corbusier, 1919-1930. 1988.

Acknowledgements The sections one to four of this paper is based on the second chapter of my PhD dissertation. I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Karin Raith, University of Applied Arts Vienna, Building Technology Department, for her comments.

References [1]

[43]

Architecture ”The New ARCH“, 2014. 1(1): p. 26– 35.

7. Conclusion This review determines that most of these approaches focus on the physical flexibility and adaptability. House as an eco-system consists of three main parts: Environment, users and system (building). Any changes in one of them affect on the others, to maintain the balance and stability of the eco-system the other variables must change and reorganize themselves according to the new situations. Too much attention to the physical and technical solutions may disrupt the balance of the house (eco-system). I found some lacks of comprehensive researches in the following areas that I can suggest for further studies:

[24] [24]

Estaji, Hassan, Flexible Spatial Configuration in Traditional Houses, the Case of Sabzevar. International Journal of Contemporary

[10] Le Corbusier, Cohen, J.L., and Goodman, J., Toward an Architecture. 2007: Getty Research Institute. [11] Fondation Le Corbusier. Maison Dom-Ino, Not located, 1914. 2015 [cited 2015, 12 May]; Available from: http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr. [12] Doesburg, Theo van, Towards a plastic architecture (1924). as in De Stijl, ed. Hans LC Jaffé, New York: Harry n. Abrams, Inc, 1971: p. 188-188. [13] Kim, Ransoo, The art of building (Baukunst) of Mies van der Rohe, Doctor of Philosophy, Georgia Institute of Technology,. 2006.

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[14] Mies van der Rohe, “Office Building, ” G (1923), 3. Republished by Fritz Neumeyer, The Artless Word: Mies van der Rohe on the Building Art, translated by Mark Jarzombek (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1991), 241., 1923. [15] Mies van der Rohe, Draft of a letter on the project for the Adam Building (1928). Published by Fritz Neumeyer, 305. (cited by Kim, Ransoo, The art of building (Baukunst) of Mies van der Rohe, Doctor of Philosophy, Georgia Institute of Technology,. 2006.). 1928. [16] Habraken, N John, Supports: an alternative to mass housing. 1972: Architectural Press London. [17] Habraken, N John. Open Building; brief introduction. 2015 [cited 2015, 30 April]; Available from: http://www.habraken.org/html/introduction.htm.

Adaptability and flexibility in school building. Paris: OECD. [cited by Schmidt III, Robert, et al., What is the meaning of Adaptability in the building industry? O&SB 2010, 2010: p. 233]. [29] CSA. 2006. Guideline for design for disassembly and adaptability in buildings. Ontario: Canadian Standards Association, Z782-06. (cited by Schmidt III, Robert, et al., What is the meaning of Adaptability in the building industry? O&SB 2010, 2010: p. 233). [30] Friedman, A., The Adaptable House: Designing Homes for Change. 2002: McGraw-Hill. [31] Blakstad, Siri Hunnes, A strategic approach to adaptability in office buildings (PhD thises). 2001: Norwegian University of Science and Technology.

[18] Nathan, V, Residents’ satisfaction with the sites and services approach in affordable housing. Housing and society, 1995. 22(3): p. 53-78.

[32] Ridder, H and Vrijhoef, Ruben, Developing A strategy for'living buildings': Beyond cradle to cradle with living building concept. Cardiff, UK, 2008.

[19] Habraken, N John, The uses of levels. Unesco Regional Seminar, Shelter for the Homeless, Seoul, Open House International. re-issued by Open House International 2002, 1988. 27(2): p. 9-20.

[33] Engel, Avner and Browning, Tyson R, Designing systems for adaptability by means of architecture options. Systems Engineering, 2008. 11(2): p. 125146.

[20] Duffy, Francis, Measuring building performance. Facilities, 1990. 8(5): p. 17-20.

[34] Blue mountains: Better living DCP. 2005. Australia: Blue Mountains City Council. (cited by Schmidt III, Robert, et al., What is the meaning of Adaptability in the building industry? O&SB 2010, 2010: p. 233.).

[21] Brand, S., How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They're Built. 1995: Penguin Group US. [22] McGregor, W. and Then, D.S.S., Facilities Management and the Business of Space. 1999: Arnold. [23] Lelieveld, CMJL, Voorbij, AIM, and Poelman, WA, Adaptable Architecture. Building stock activation, TAIHEI Printing Co., Tokyo, 2007: p. 245-252. [24] Schmidt III, Robert, et al., What is the meaning of Adaptability in the building industry? O&SB 2010, 2010: p. 233. [25] DCSF., Department for children, schools, and family. Crown, 2010. http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/ (cited by Schmidt III, Robert, et al., What is the meaning of Adaptability in the building industry? O&SB 2010, 2010: p. 233.). 2010. [26] Douglas, James, Building adaptation. Second ed. 2006: Routledge.

[35] Juneja, P and Roper, KO. Valuation of adaptableworkspace over static-workspace for knowledge organizations. in Construction and Building Research Conference of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, Georgia Tech, Atlanta USA. 2007. [36] Kronenburg, D., Flexible: Architecture that Responds to Change. 2007: Laurence King Publishers. [37] Gorgolewski, Mark, Understanding how buildings evolve. The 2005 World Sustainable Building ConferenceTokyo, 2005: p. 27-29. [38] Hashemian, M., Design for adaptability. PhD thesis, University of Saskatchewan. 2005.

[27] Leaman, Adrian and Bordass, Bill, Flexibility and adaptability. Designing Better Buildings: Quality and Value in the Built Environment, 2004: p. 145, London.

[39] Bostrom, J.A., Mace, R., and Long, M., Adaptable Housing: A Technical Manual for Implementing Adaptable Dwelling Unit Specifications. 1987: Diane Publishing Company.

[28] Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. 1976. Providing for future change:

[40] Australian Standard, AS 4299: adaptable housing ‘. 1995, Australian Standard, Australia.

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[41] Canada Mortgage Housing Corporation, Flexhousing: Homes that Adapt to Life's Changes. 1999: Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. [42] CMHC. Sustainable Housing and Communities Flexible Housing. CANADIAN HOUSING OBSERVER 2012 [cited 2016 12 May]; Available from: www.cmhc.ca/en/corp/about/cahoob/upload/Ch apter_6_EN_W_dec12.pdf. [43] Richard, RB. Individualisation & Industrialisation. in Proceedings of Adaptables2006, TU/e, International Conference On Adaptable Building Structures. 2006. Eindhoven [The Netherlands]. [44] MINISTER OF HOUSING AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, British Columbia Building Code,Local Governmenf Act, Ministerial Order No. M 191. 2009: Canada. [45] Manewa, Anupa, et al., A paradigm shift towards Whole Life Analysis in adaptable buildings. 2009. [46] Schnädelbach, Holger, Adaptive Architecture-A Conceptual Framework. proceedings of Media City, 2010. [47] Schmidt, R., et al. Adaptable Futures: A 21st Century Challenge. in Changing Roles - New Roles, New Challenges. 2009. Noordwijk AAN ZEE, The Netherlands. [48] Friedman, A., The Grow Home. 2001, Montréal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [49] Canada Mortgage Housing Corporation, Flexhousing: Building Adaptable Housing. 2001: Research Division, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. [50] Mace, Ronald, Universal design: housing for the lifespan of all people. The Center for Universal Design, Nort Carolina State University, 1988.

[51] The Center for Universal Design, Universal Design in Housing. 2006: North Carolina State University. [52] Lifetime Homes. Lifetime Homes. 2015 [cited 2015 7 May]; Available from: http://www.lifetimehomes.org.uk/pages/lifetimehomes.html. [53] Landcom, universal housing design guidelines. 2008, Australia. [54] Geraedts, R. P. Design for Change; Flexibility Key Performance Indicators. in I3CON Conference. 2008. Loughborough, UK. [55] Australian Network For Universal Housing Design, Universal Housing A lifecycle approach to sustainable housing design. 2006. [56] Richard, Roger Bruno. Industrialized, flexible and demountable building systems: Quality, economy and sustainability. in The CRIOCM 2006 International Symposium on “Advancement of Construction Management and Real Estate”. 2006. Beijing, China. [57] Geraedts, RP, et al. Adaptive capacity of buildings: A determination method to promote flexible and sustainable construction. in UIA2014: 25th International Union of Architects World Congress" Architecture otherwhere", Durban, South Africa, 37 August 2014. 2014. [58] Kyung Wook, Seo and Chang Sung, Kim, Interpretable Housing for Freedom of the Body: The Next Generation of Flexible Homes. Journal of Building Construction and Planning Research, 2013. 2013. [59] Heijne, René, Time-based architecture. 2005: 010 Publishers.

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DOI: 10.14621/tna.20170205

Impacts of Housing and Community Environments on Children’s Independent Mobility: A Systematic Literature Review Lingyi Qiu*, Xuemei Zhu Department of Architecture, Texas A&M University 3137 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3137, USA; lingyi1106@tamu.edu, xuemeizhu@tamu.edu

Abstract

1. Introduction

Rationale: Homes and communities are the most important spaces where people live, work, and recreate on a daily basis. They are especially impactful for children, who have limited mobility and rely more on their immediate surroundings. Limited studies have linked housing and community environments with children’s independent mobility (CIM), implying potential influences on child development. But recent decades have witnessed a steep decline in CIM, while it is unclear what the specific environmental barriers are and how design can help. Objectives: This systematic review examines the literature about environmental correlates of CIM and discusses its implication for future design. Methods: Based on an online search via multiple databases, this study identified and reviewed 42 articles about environmental correlates of CIM and relevant theories. Study characteristics and findings about the environment—CIM associations were reviewed and summarized to inform the development of a conceptual framework and design suggestions. Results: CIM is related to not only parents’ and child’s individual factors (e.g., age, gender, and socioeconomic status) but also environmental and social factors. Environmental correlates include community walkability, aesthetics, and safety; home type and location; and community-home relationships. Social factors include neighbourhood deprivation, social cohesion, and parenting social norms. Design suggestions include providing abundant destinations within walking/cycling distance, improving traffic safety, and creating child-friendly spaces for disadvantaged children. Conclusion and Discussion: This study identified environmental correlates of CIM and proposed design suggestions for promoting CIM. Further studies are needed in more countries and should build on a socio-ecological framework addressing multi-level factors.

Children are our future. It is our responsibility to provide child-friendly environments for them to live, play, and grow in. Children’s independent mobility (CIM) refers to children’s moving around in neighbourhoods without adults’ accompany [1]. It associates with children’s physical, mental, and social development [2-6], and helps to create a stronger sense of community [7]. Independent mobility used to be normal experiences among children decades ago. However, it has shown a steep decline in recent years, which partially accounts for the decrease of children’s physical activity and the rising obesity epidemic [8, 9]. Some previous studies have identified the significant impacts of physical environmental factors such as nature, destination accessibility, walkability, and safety on CIM. Other research has discussed the influences of factors in other domains, including personal factors (e.g., parents’ socioeconomic status and children’s own characteristics) and social factors (e.g., neighbourhood deprivation and parenting social norms). But there are limited numbers of systematic reviews of relevant studies or summary about state of knowledge in this area. This study expects to provide a more comprehensive synthesis of relevant literature, and thereby, a more complete understanding of the impacts of physical environment on CIM. It also provides design suggestions to help guide child-friendly housing and community design to improve CIM.

2. Methods Keywords:

Article history:

Housing; Community; Environment; Children; Independent mobility Received: 25 April 2017 Revised: 21 July 2017 Accepted: 31 July 2017

2.1. Search strategy The systematic review was conducted between October 2016 and March 2017, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta Analyses

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guidelines from Canada [10]. Literature search was conducted through the Texas A&M University Library website and the Endnote software’s online search function. Seven most relevant databases in different domains were searched, including: Urban Studies and Planning, Social Sciences Full Text, Psychology and behavioral sciences collection, PsynINFO, Anual Review, MEDLINE Complete, and MEDLINE (PubMed). Studies were selected if they are peer reviewed empirical studies on correlates of CIM or relevant literature review, and written in English. Reports, briefs, letters, and editorials were excluded. Studies focusing on larger geographic scale beyond the community level were also excluded. Publications before the year of 2000 were excluded because CIM has shown a steep decline in recent years. Keywords used for the search included children, independent mobility, physical activity, community, housing, and environment, and a total of 273 articles were identified. After deleting duplicates and a review of the titles and abstracts, 238 papers remained. A further review of the full text identified 42 articles for an in-depth systematic review.

2.2. Data extraction Main characteristics were extracted from each study. They include the first author, title, year of publication, journal of publication, study design, sample characteristics (e.g., sample size, gender, age, race), study location and settings, confounding variables, measurements of variables, statistical analysis, results, and conclusions.

3. Results This section first summarizes the main study characteristics and the theories and conceptual frameworks applied or proposed in these studies. It then reviews and summarizes the correlates of CIM, which are grouped into domains of personal, social, and physical environmental factors.

3.1. Main study characteristics Among 42 selected articles, there are 35 (83%) crosssectional studies, 1 (2%) longitudinal study, 4 (10%) literature reviews, and 2 (5%) case studies (Table 1). The majority (79%) were published between 2010 and 2017. Most studies were conducted in Europe (43%) and Oceania (38%); and in urban or suburban settings (69%). The sample size ranged from 40 to 1830.

Table 1: Main characteristics of reviewed studies Study Characteristics Number (%) Publication Year 2010-2017 33 (79%) 2000-2010 9 (21%) Study Design Cross-sectional 35 (83%) Longitudinal 1 (2%) Literature Review 4 (10%) Others 2 (5%) Region of Study U.S./ Canada 7 (17%) Europe 18 (43%) Oceania 16 (38%) Asia 1 (2%) Study Setting No specific/ General 10 (24%) Urban/ Suburban 29 (69%) Rural 0 (0%) Both Urban and Rural/Mixed 3 (7%) Sample Size (For Reviewed Empirical Studies) <500 15 (43%) 500-1000 9 (26%) >1001 11 (31%) CIM Measures (For Reviewed Empirical Studies) Subjective Measures 30 (86%) Objective Measures 0 (0%) Mixed Measures 5 (14%)

3.2. Theoretical basis and conceptual frameworks This review also examined theories and conceptual frameworks in the reviewed articles to identify relevant ones that can inform a better understanding about the topic. Social-ecological model is the most commonly used theory in identified studies. Researchers from diverse disciplines also proposed several conceptual frameworks for different CIM modes. Since the late 1980s, researchers have adopted the social-ecological model into health promotion research, shifting from an over-emphasis on individual responsibility to a comprehensive perspective addressing multi-level correlates of health behaviour, as well as the interactions among different levels [11-13]. This model was later extended as a guiding theory for health promotion from the community level [13, 14]. In the 42 reviewed studies, 13 either directly applied the socio-ecological framework or showed the influence of this theory in their concept and study design. In addition, several conceptual frameworks for correlates of CIM were proposed in previous studies. One study examined British children’s use of community environments and proposed a conceptual model with nested “ranges” of activity spaces, which emphasizes

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the fact that children do not spend their time equally within all places around their neighbourhoods [15]. Three ranges—habitual range, frequented range, and occasional range—are defined by spatial and temporal differences in children’s use of their immediate surroundings. This model (Figure 1) was later adopted in

a study in Canada, which used global positions systems (GPS) to detect children’s activity spaces and examine their neighbourhood activity and mobility [16]. A recent study [17] proposed a systems model (Figure 2) that addresses comprehensive interrelationships among multiple factors, while providing flexibility in tailoring the model to diverse settings. Factors in the framework were categorized into five levels based on the socioecological theory, including policy and society norms, neighborhood, household, individual, and behavior levels. Another recent review explored the impact of housing on children’s development and proposed a conceptual framework (Figure 3) that links several housing features to children’s health outcomes from a broad ecological scope [18].

Figure1. Moore’s model of childhood domain. (AS=activity spaces) (Source of image: Loehach and Gillilan, 2016)

In another Canadian study, based on a literature review on independent mobility and school transportation, a conceptual framework (Figure 4) was proposed to explain children’s school travel behavior. Multiple levels of influences on CIM and mode choice for school transportation are considered, including external influences of natural and policy contexts, urban environment, household, and intrapersonal characteristics of the child [19].

Figure 2. A Systems model about multi-level factors related to children’s independent mobility (IM= independent mobility; NADI-C= Neighbourhood Destination Index-Child). (Source of image: Badland et al., 2016) ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ L. Qiu, X. Zhu: “Impacts of Housing and Community Environments on Children’s Independent Mobility: A Systematic …”, pp. 50–61

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Figure 3. Conceptual model of the role of housing in children’s development (Source of image: Donkervoort et al., 2009)

Figure 4. A behavioural model of school transportation (Source of image: Mitra, 2013)

3.3. Variables examined in the reviewed studies This section summarizes definitions and measurements of CIM used in previous studies, as well as their findings about correlates of CIM. It refers to the social-ecological model and grouped the variables into three categories,

including (1) physical environment factors, (2) individual factors, and (3) social factors. 3.3.1. Definitions and measurements of children’s independent mobility Children’s independent mobility was originally defined as independent travel and unsupervised play by Hillman,

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Adams [1] in his book “One false move”. As summarized later by Kytta [6], there are three types of definitions used in studies on CIM. The first definition considers CIM as the geography range and distance that children can move around independently from their home. In the second definition, CIM was identified as the mobility licenses that are issued by parents to permit children to move around individually in the environment. The degree of a mobility license reflects parent’s concerns about and decision-making on CIM. The third definition reflects the level of children’s actual mobility by asking them to record their activities (e.g. mobility diaries) within a certain period of time. The measurements of CIM can be classified into quantitative and qualitative ones. Quantitative measurements are often based on Global Position Systems (GPS) or GPS-based apps on cell phones. They can capture geography-related variables like distance, ranges and active spaces. For example, as discussed earlier, one Canadian study measured children’s neighbourhood activity space by using portable GPS [16]. In most studies, qualitative methods are adopted due to the complexity of data identification and extraction when using quantitative measures from GPS devices or GPS-based apps. Such qualitative measurement methods included surveys, interviews, focus groups, and child or parent drawn maps. These measurements are seen more often in studies on parents’ reported mobility licence for children and children’s self-reported mobility. One study used interactive online-mapping software to measure CIM and travel modes to destinations [20]. A couple of studies combined quantitative and qualitative measures. One study published in 2011 discussed the potential of using mixed methods, combining ethnographic fieldwork with GPS technology and an interactive survey to study children’s mobility patterns, and identified that as a valid triangulation method that can enhance data quality [21]. 3.3.2. Physical environment factors related to CIM Physical environmental correlates of CIM can be grouped into three levels, including community level, housing level, and community-housing relationships. Table 2 summarizes key physical environmental variables identified from the review. 1) Community level In the community level, significant correlates include community walkability, neighbourhood aesthetics, perceived safety, residential density, access to public transport, and level of urbanization. Also some of these variables interact with others.

Community walkability is typically captured as the number of built environment features that support walking and especially children’s active travel (e.g., walking and cycling). Studies have reported that children living in high-walkability neighbourhoods reported more physically activity and independent mobility, including active travel, and were more likely to have a healthy body size [20, 22]. One cross-sectional study from western Australia reported that high neighbourhood walkability had a positive impact on CIM especially for girls [23]. Also, pedestrian friendly neighbourhoods with natural surveillance have been found to increase parents’ perceived safety and relieve worries about stranger danger [24]. In addition, the normalization of children’s daily walking has been suggested to help relief parental fears and increases CIM [25]. Nearby traffic influences walkability and also affects the perception of safety among both parents and children, and consequently has a positive impact on CIM. Villanueva, Giles-Corti [26]’s study found that girls living in neighbourhoods with well-connected low-traffic streets had more than twice independent mobility than others. They also found parents living on a busy road reported less independent mobility for their children, including both boys and girls. Parents’ concerns about neighbourhood safety affect their decision on CIM [27]. Such concerns mostly related to strangers, crimes [28], and traffic [29]. Compared to parents from affluent suburban neighbourhoods, parents in poorer inner-city neighbourhoods with more diverse, vulnerable, or unfamiliar populations worried more about their children’s safety and therefore had stricter restrictions on CIM [30]. Parents who perceived stronger neighbourhood cohesion (characterized by friendliness, helpfulness, trust, shared norms and values) were more likely to allow their children to have longer distance for individual travel and outdoor play [31]. Also, CIM for school travel decreased if the community was perceived unsafe [32]. One study in Flanders, Belgium found that boys reported more active transport when parents perceived mixed land uses, shorter distances to school, good land use mix access, higher residential density, and less pleasing neighbourhood aesthetics etc. [27]. A few studies also reported that children’s perceptions of environment played an important part in their own choice-making of moving individually [16]. Researchers from Scotland studied children’s landscapes of risk and safety through individually interviewing 52 children. They discussed that children’s risk landscapes were associated with multiple factors like space, time, people, actions, and their judgment of risk based on their personal experience and knowledge. Also, fear appears to be gender specific [33]. A study on fear among young adolescents reported girls to be more likely to experience fear than boys [34]. Nevertheless, children’s

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Table 2: Summary of key physical environmental correlates of CIM*

CP, children’s perceptions; O, objective measures; PP, parents’ perceptions; b(+) positive association; (−), negative association; (×), non-significant association; CIM*: CIM’s definitions and modes are different in reviewed studies.

perception of environment is related to multi-level factors and the underlying mechanic is still unclear. Further studies are needed in this area. Findings about the impact of residential density on CIM are inconsistent. Researchers from Finland found that dense urban environments encouraged CIM, but did not support active transport [35]. Other researchers conducted a study in Turku, Finland and found positive associates between residential density and children’s active travel to and from school, but that conflicted with findings in another study in Finland [36].

Other significant variables have also been reported in a few studies. Negative correlates include neighbourhood aesthetics, increased urbanization, and inner-city neighbourhood street features [29, 30, 37]. Access to public transport was identified as a positive correlate [38]. 2) Housing Level A limited number of studies focused on the relationship between housing and CIM specifically. Variables that have been examined included housing types, housing location, and housing density.

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Housing types have shown significant impacts on CIM. One study from Sweden reported boys living in a house had less fear and higher independent mobility than those living in an apartment, but no significant difference was reported in the case of girls [39]. Researchers from Auckland, New Zealand concluded that single-family housing helped to promote both CIM and active transportation, and higher-density housing seldom provided child-friendly environments [30]. Another study in Melbourne, Australia interviewed 40 children and reported that children in public housing had higher levels of independent mobility compared to children in private housing. Researchers from Italy also found out that children living in apartments with courtyards and near parks and newly-built communities reported higher independent mobility [40]. In addition, lower CIM was observed among children living in housing along a busy road [26]. One review article summarized housing characteristics that affect children’s physical, social, mental development; behavioural outcomes; as well as school achievement and economic attainment. Six features were reported, including physical housing quality, crowding, residential mobility, homeownership, subsidized housing and unaffordability [41]. However, only hazardous physical housing environment and crowding have been reported to have a strong relationship with children’s health. CIM plays an important role in children’s physical, mental, and social development. But it is unclear whether those housing characteristics have specific correlations with CIM and what the underlying mechanisms may be. In sum, existing studies reported some inconsistent findings on the impact of housing characteristics on CIM. More empirical studies are also needed in this area. 3) Community—housing relationship Variables concerning community-housing relationship included general independent mobility range from home, distance of play spaces from home, distance of school from home, and types and numbers of destinations within the neighbourhood. One Australian study examined CIM to neighbourhood destinations like schools, friend’s houses, parks and local shops and reported that CIM associated with distances between destinations and children’s home, but were also affected by other factors such as destinations’ specific characteristics (e.g., green space’s types and sizes), perception of safety, and parenting social norms [32]. Another research showed that 8-16 youth live in urban and rural areas with lower socioeconomic status (SES) in Victoria, Australia had greater self-reported independent mobility as shown by more frequent independent visitation to parks through active transport of either cycling or walking [42]. Another Australian study in Melbourne showed that children living in lower

SES outer-urban communities had to travel greater distance to access local parks than their counterparts who live in inner-city above-mid SES areas [43]. Villanueva, Giles-Corti [26] explored relationships between access to local destinations and CIM, and also reported general positive correlations. In addition, impacts of certain types of destinations were found to be gender specific in this study. However, their earlier study reported that more local destinations within a small range from neighbourhood (less than 800 m) restricted children’s active space possibly due to increased traffic and strangers [22]. School is a special place among all accessible destinations. Active travel to and from school is a typical mode of CIM, and is positively associated with total level of CIM and decreases possibility of children being overweight [36, 44]. Some studies reported that children are more likely to active travel to school if the distance from home is less than 1.6 kilometres [16]. One article summarized 480 variables that were associated with children’s active school transportation based on a review of 42 studies. It also identified four factors that have the strongest associations with active transportation to school, including distance, income, traffic and crime fears, and parental attitudes and schedules [45]. Some studies have focused on the specific means of active transportation, such as walking, cycling, and taking school bus or public bus. In one study on cycling to school, around 40% of the participants (1012 year old Belgian children) never cycled to school. Meanwhile, children living in neighbourhoods with better perceived traffic safety or had company (e.g., friends) on the school trip, or had encouragement from parents were more likely to cycle to school [46]. 3.3.3. Individual factors related to CIM Personal factors from both parents and children also play significant roles in influencing CIM. This section summarizes findings about individual factors correlated with CIM in reviewed studies. 1) Parent Level Parents’ socioeconomic status, age, gender, parenting style, education level, income, employment, occupation, and even language proficiency influence their decision-making on their children’s independent mobility [5, 31, 47]. Some researchers from Australia examined parents’ attitudes on CIM range and found out that parents with lower education level have stricter restrictions for their children’s individual travel distance or outdoor play range, but no relationship has been observed between parents’ age groups and their attitudes about CIM [31, 47]. Mother’s strong neighbourhood relations were identified as a positive correlate of CIM in one Italian study [40]. One study also identified parents’ self-reported physical activity as a

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positive correlate for CIM and suggested further research in this area [27]. 2) Child Level Children’s characteristics like age, gender, language spoken at home, and other sociodemographic factors have shown significant impacts on their independent mobility in many studies [4, 28]. In general, CIM increases with age [1, 40, 48]. A longitudinal study examined and compared independent mobility of children (aged between 7 and 15 years old) in 16 countries, and reported that children under 11 years old have the greatest restrictions on independent mobility from their parents or guardians [49]. Also, boys have been identified to have higher independent mobility because of their own physical characteristics and less concerns about safety issues from parents comparing to girls at the same age groups [5, 25, 29]. Meanwhile, girls and minority children have been reported to be more restricted in terms of neighbourhood activity [28, 50]. Another study claimed that CIM showed a stronger correlation with boys in urban neighbourhoods and girls who live in suburban neighbourhoods [4]. Nevertheless, both boys and girls with more self-confidence in traveling autonomously have been identified larger active space areas around their homes [22]. Furthermore, impact of child’s age interacts with physical environmental features. For example, researchers from Portugal reported that as the level of urbanization increased, the age limit for children to engage in active travel independently also increased [29]. Besides the factors discussed above, children’s siblings and dog ownership also have impacts on their independent mobility. Studies reported that children who have accompany of older sibling of the same gender or a family dog have higher independent mobility for travel to school, local shops, and other more destinations [51, 52]. Additionally, children with high independent mobility were found more often with peers [40]. 3.3.4. Social factors related to CIM Social factors have also been identified as important correlates of CIM. Key variables are neighbourhood SES disadvantage, neighbourhood social cohesion, parenting social norms, and informal social control in neighbourhood. For neighbourhood SES disadvantage, the findings were inconsistent. One UK study examined the difference between high deprivation and medium-to-high deprivation neighbourhoods and their impacts on children’s self-reported independent mobility. Children in high-deprivation areas reported higher independent mobility than children in medium-to-high deprivation

neighbourhoods [37]. Similar results were found in another study in Canada [28]. However, Schoeppe, Duncan [31]’s study found no significant association between neighbourhood SES disadvantage and CIM. In addition, poor parenting social norms (e.g. parents are supposed not to allow children to play alone without adults’ accompany) was reported as a negative correlate of CIM [32], while neighbourhood social cohesion and informal social control in neighbourhood (e.g. parents’ confidence that other residents would look after children move around without adults’ supervision) were positive correlates [31] [25]. One study mentioned above also specifically examined many other social environment factors such as social incivilities, loitering teenagers in public places, dangerous or drunk driving, poor neighbourhood maintenance, graffiti and vandalism etc. but no significant associations with CIM were detected among them [32].

4. Discussion The decline of CIM has been reported in many developed countries including the U.S. in recent decades. Based on this literature review, we found out that comparing to countries in Europe and Oceania, the number of studies in the U.S. on CIM is small. Even though many researchers have shown interests in this area, few studies on CIM and its relationship with housing and community environments have been found. Therefore, more studies on CIM and the impacts of housing and community environment in the U.S. should be encouraged in the future.

4.1. Potential conceptual framework Based on the results of this review, the authors proposed a conceptual framework for addressing impacts of f housing and community environment as well as other factors on CIM (Figure 5). In this framework, the specific community/housing physical environment will be taken into account as the independent variables, and parents’ decision-making will be the dependent variables. As discussed, parents’ decision-making is a crucial factor that affects their children’s independent mobility. The social environment is a mediator while individual parental factors and children’s characteristics will be considered as confounding variables.

4.2. Design suggestions Based on findings from this review, the authors also proposed some housing and community design

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Figure 5. Potential conceptual framework

suggestions that will help provide more child-friendly environments for the promotion of CIM.

5. Conclusion and limitation of this review

Provide affluent destinations within walking or cycling distance in community design. As concluded, the diversity and accessibility to destinations within the neighbourhood and the distance between those places and the child’s home are crucial to CIM. For the future community planning and design, more accessible destinations such as schools, playgrounds, grocery stores, and parks etc., should be provided within a walking/cycling distance to increase the neighbourhood walkability, and consequently, promote children’s independent active travel by walking or cycling.

This review has some limitations that need to be addressed. First, the literature search and selection were conducted by one reviewer that may introduce the bias. Also, due to the diversity in concepts and measurement of CIM, the keywords used for the search in this study may not be broad enough and increase the risk of omitting significant articles.

Enhance neighbourhood traffic safety. Neighbourhood safety influences CIM, and could be enhanced through appropriate design solutions. Physical street infrastructure like speed humps could be installed within the neighbourhood to calm traffic. Also, it will be helpful to install crosswalks or other devices to assist child pedestrians or bicyclists to cross busy roads and increase CIM.

Despite these limitations, this review helped develop a better understanding about the state of knowledge about environmental factors associated with CIM. Overall, CIM has shown a worldwide decline, and so far, relevant studies are mainly from European and Oceania countries like Finland, UK, Australia and New Zealand. However, children in Europe still remain higher independent mobility than their counterparts from many other countries and areas. In addition, the majority of the studies have been conducted in urban or suburban settings. CIM in rural area is understudied.

Create specific child-friendly space for disadvantage children. Referring to findings of the study, children living in high-density housing often lack child-friendly environments to play in freely, while housing with courtyard or near parks has a positive impact on CIM. It is recommended that special play spaces or courtyards be taken into account at the initial planning or design phase of high-density or public housing in SES disadvantaged areas.

CIM is related to immediate housing and community environment. Most of the previous studies examined the physical environments on the neighbourhood level, but only a few studies have considered environments on the housing level. Both children’s and parents’ individual factors and perceptions of their communities affect CIM. Parents’ attitudes and decision-making are crucial to their children’s independent mobility. Future research and practice should employ a comprehensive

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perspective while addressing the issues of CIM through design interventions.

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[20] Oliver, M., et al., Neighbourhoods for Active Kids: study protocol for a cross-sectional examination of neighbourhood features and children's physical activity, active travel, independent mobility and body size. BMJ Open, 2016. 6(8): p. e013377. [21] Christensen, P., et al., Children, mobility, and space: using GPS and mobile phone technologies in ethnographic research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 2011. 5(3): p. 227-246. [22] Villanueva, K., et al., How far do children travel from their homes? Exploring children's activity spaces in their neighborhood. Health & Place, 2012. 18(2): p. 263-273. [23] Villanueva, K., et al., Does the walkability of neighbourhoods affect children's independent mobility, independent of parental, socio-cultural and individual factors? Children's Geographies, 2014. 12(4): p. 393-411. [24] Foster, S., et al., Suspicious minds: Can features of the local neighbourhood ease parents' fears about stranger danger? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 2015. 42: p. 48-56.

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[25] Foster, S., et al., The impact of parents' fear of strangers and perceptions of informal social control on children's independent mobility. Health Place, 2014. 26: p. 60-8. [26] Villanueva, K., et al., Where do children travel to and what local opportunities are available? The relationship between neighborhood destinations and children’s independent mobility. Environment and Behavior, 2013. 45(6): p. 679-705. [27] De Meester, F., et al., Parental perceived neighborhood attributes: associations with active transport and physical activity among 10-12 year old children and the mediating role of independent mobility. BMC Public Health, 2014. 14: p. 631. [28] Mitra, R., et al., Do parental perceptions of the neighbourhood environment influence children’s independent mobility? Evidence from Toronto, Canada. Urban Studies, 2014. 51(16): p. 34013419. [29] Lopes, F., R. Cordovil, and C. Neto, Children’s independent mobility in Portugal: effects of urbanization degree and motorized modes of travel. Journal of Transport Geography, 2014. 41: p. 210-219. [30] Witten, K., R. Kearns, and P. Carroll, Urban inclusion as wellbeing: Exploring children's accounts of confronting diversity on inner city streets. Soc Sci Med, 2015. 133: p. 349-57. [31] Schoeppe, S., et al., Socio-demographic factors and neighbourhood social cohesion influence adults’ willingness to grant children greater independent mobility: A cross-sectional study. BMC public health, 2015. 15(1): p. 690. [32] Christian, H.E., et al., The Effect of the Social and Physical Environment on Children's Independent Mobility to Neighborhood Destinations. J Phys Act Health, 2015. 12 Suppl 1: p. S84-93. [33] Harden, J., et al., Scary faces, scary places: children's perceptions of risk and safety. Health Education Journal, 2000. 59(1): p. 12-22.

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[47] Schoeppe, S., et al., Too far from home? Adult attitudes on children's independent mobility range. Children's Geographies, 2016. 14(4): p. 482-489.

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DOI: 10.14621/tna.20170206

The Use of Metaphors as Design Communication Tools in an Architectural Team Hernan Casakin Ariel University P.O.Box 3, 44837 Ariel, Israel; casakin@ariel.ac.il

Abstract

1. Introduction

Metaphors play a key role in architectural practice. These tools are seen as critical heuristics supporting cognitive and communicative necessities in design problem solving. By structuring the way architects think about problems, reasoning by metaphor enables to approach design situations from unorthodox perspectives, and to produce innovative ideas. This paper investigates empirically the use of metaphors during the early stages of the architectural design process. In particular, it explores the effect that external stimuli in the form of text have on metaphor generation, and classifies into main categories the metaphors that are produced by architects during discourse interactions. It is concluded that in design problem solving, the availability of external stimuli enhances metaphor generation. Architects, on the other hand, make fluent use of metaphors as a rhetorical mechanism that helps them develop and communicate their ideas in a coherent and efficient way.

Design problem-solving is a complex activity that frequently requires teams working in collaboration. A major claim is that the shared understanding of team members can be supported by the use of metaphors. Metaphors are frequently used as linguistic devices in daily communication, e.g., [1], which can be also found in a diversity of domains such as science, art, and design. They are viewed by cognitive psychologists [2] and linguistics [3] as effective heuristics aiding problem solving. Reasoning by metaphors has shown to play a critical role in both the development of creative ideas, and in the process of communicating them among team members. Moreover, the theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson [1] and by Lakoff [3, 4] considers metaphor as a mechanism that allows categorizing experiences according to a conceptual system. In their view, this is determinant in the way people think, perceive, understand, and classify experiences in their minds. Metaphorical reasoning enables the identification of overlooked similarities despite of the existence of vast difference. As an outcome of this, conceptual meaning emerges and new categories of knowledge are created [5].

Keywords:

Metaphor classification; Architectural discourse interaction; Design problem solving; Teamwork; Text stimuli

Article history:

Received: 19 May 2017 Revised: 06 July 2017 Accepted: 31 July 2017

One of the disciplines where the study of metaphor has come to the foreground is in design [6]. Metaphor is especially suitable in the solving of architectural problems that by definition are ill-structured and involve unconventional thinking. Scholars have drawn attention to the contribution of metaphors as a cognitive resource that is particularly useful in the early, most creative stage of generating design ideas. One reason is because it offers unlimited possibilities for transforming and displacing concepts, by enabling to approach architectural problems from unorthodox perspectives. Another reason is because metaphors aid in integrating individual knowledge, and enhancing communicative interaction between team members, all of which promote the potential emergence of successful design outcomes.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ H. Casakin: “The Use of Metaphors as Design Communication Tools in an Architectural Team”, pp. 62–70

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In the architecture literature, there is a comprehensive number of buildings designed by outstanding architects using metaphors. An example can be found in the Sydney Opera House, by Jorn Utzon [7]. The identity of this building can be related to its soaring roofs shells modelled on the idea of the ‘movement of the sailboats of Sydney Harbour’ as a central metaphor. In Saint John the Divine, Santiago Calatrava uses the tree as the structural metaphor for the cathedral. One of his first drawings for this building reflects an interpretation of the tripartite section as foliage (roof), trunk (nave), and roots (crypt) [8]. In spite of the frequent use of metaphor in architectural design practice, except for a few exceptions, e.g. [9] no empirical works about its role during the design process were carried out). Metaphors generated during design interaction can be stimulated by the availability of external inspiration sources, such as texts. Depending on the type of contexts that the sources and the design problem are embedded, a metaphor can be related to within-domain or between-domain sources. Whereas the former fits into a situation in which both source and problem belong to a same or very close knowledge domain, the latter refers to two conceptually distant domains that share a common explanatory structure. Scales of different level of detail have been considered to categorize the distance between source and problem. Examples are the bipartite scales of highly-related and distantly-related to the problem [10], and near and far distance [11], the tripartite scales of near, medium, and distant [12], and the quadripartite scale of near, near distant, medium distant, and distant [13]. While most of these studies explored the use of different types of sources for the generation of design ideas based on analogical reasoning, none of them was carried out to investigate how these sources can be used to generate ideas based on metaphors. Whereas studies of metaphors in the cognitive and linguistic domains are vast, only few works attempted to integrate cognitive theory with discourse analytic procedures in order to investigate their function in communication in general, and in the domain of architecture specifically [14]. This is regrettable given the importance of metaphors in discourse interaction in design. This situation was criticized by several researchers, who stressed the importance of the real communicative contexts in which metaphors are generated to gain a deeper insight about this phenomenon [15]. In this regard, Gibbs [16] argued that an accurate understanding of the connection between linguistic expressions and conceptual schemas cannot take place disregarding ‘the cultural contexts in which conceptual metaphors arise and support particular uses of language’. Consequently, studying the types of metaphors that are produced when solving design tasks entails the consideration of cognitive and linguistic

schemas developed in this singular context. Such an approach may allow the identification of the use of the specific language that articulates discourse interactions, also known as the genre, in disciplines such as architecture. Genre can be defined as the semiotic patterns and relationships that respond to recurring situations, which is viewed as a maker of meaning [17]. Our aim in this study is to explore empirically the generation of metaphors during the most creative stage of the design process concerned with the production of idea-solutions. A major goal is to investigate the type of metaphors produced by architects as they come out in architectural design, considered as the genre that expresses their discourse interactions. This entails analyzing the phenomena in its real context, while considering essential issues of metaphor description in cognitive linguistics that are concerned with the identification and categorization of dominant metaphors. Given that when dealing with design problems architects use to make resource of a variety of external displays, another goal is to investigate the effect that different type of external stimuli may have on the generation of metaphorical ideas. The research questions that guided our study were the following: • What types of metaphors were generated during the discourse interactions maintained by the architects during the design process, and what can be learned when approaching metaphors from a genre perspective? • How the availability of external stimuli such as texts contributed to the generation of metaphors?

2. Methodology of research 2.1. Participants and set up A team composed by three architects, which are PhD students belonging to the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Department of Urbanism at TU Delft participated in the design session. They were informally approached in their offices, and invited to take part in the experiment. They received 15 Euros as a reward for their participation. The architects were requested to use the external text stimuli and to generate as much ideas as possible to solve the design problem.

2.2. Design task, procedure and instruments The task called for the design a square in order to revitalize an awkward area of the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, TUDelft University. To this aim, architects were requested to propose design ideas about functions and spaces that could make the area a more enjoyable

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place. The plaza was situated at the least used entrance of the faculty. Architects were well acquainted with the physical, cultural, and social aspects of the problem. Since the experiment focused on the preliminary stages of the process, also known as conceptual phase, the produced solutions were expected to be schematic and therefore not completed in every detail. Participants were given a task sheet containing general instructions, a design problem, and a map and photographs of the site. In addition, they were provided with a set of four texts about poems, two of which were within-domain sources (i.e., an amusement park, and a harbour), and another two were between-domain sources (i.e., a volcano, and a mother board of a computer). Participants were told that they have to use the text information in order to deal with the problem at hand. They were also supplied with a set of A3 numbered sheets of paper, and were requested to produce and discuss as many idea solutions as possible. The session lasted 30 minutes, from which 7 minutes were assigned to produce a final solution to the design problem, including a brief description of how the solution works. Students were told to think aloud as the team session was videotaped. Following the standard procedure of analysing verbal data, the recordings were transcribed, and analysed independently by the author and another researcher who is an expert in linguistics and metaphors.

3. Identification and categorisation of metaphors The study was informed by the cognitive linguistic theory of metaphor originally developed by Lakoff and Johnson [1]. The analytical procedure included identifying metaphorical expressions in the transcript, and classifying them into diverse experiential domains. Expressions were tagged as metaphorical in cases that they represented any domain incongruity; i.e., a reference to a domain different from architecture [14]. The researchers analysed independently the raw data produced by the participants. Provided that the identification of some cross-domain incongruities is subjective and often a matter of disagreement, some cases were discussed by both researchers until full agreement was achieved. Thereafter, a categorization system intended for organizing the identified metaphorical expressions into four experiential domains was proposed, which are illustrated below. These are part of a larger categorization system developed in the research, in which more design sessions were analysed. The first experiential domain is labelled Artificial, and includes metaphors drawing upon human-made

aspects. This was the richest set of metaphors of the study, and was decomposed into three groupings highlighting morphological or functional aspects of the design. These included: Built spaces are shapes or 3-D entities, Built spaces are machines, and Built spaces are built spaces. The expressions that represent spaces as shapes or 3-D entities specifically focus on formal and structural aspects. This is explicitly illustrated in example 1 below: 1 “...it (the built space) is a sail which is happening underneath, it’s like a tent.” Within Built spaces are machines, spaces are equated to artifacts or devices working in a mechanical way. For example: 2 “… (the built space) is a computer chip.'” Built spaces are built spaces reflects the view that certain designs can be described in terms of other designs. This metaphorical schema refers to establishing a mapping between the design problem, in this case a square, and an architectural typology that is remote to the problem. This is illustrated in example 3: 3 “This space is a theatre… a theatre with circles.” Human activity is an experiential domain referring to the manipulation of space in any form. It turns spaces as malleable and flexible artefacts that can be modelled or transformed. The expressions belonging to this category are best represented by the expression Architectural practice is a (manual) craft, which is mainly concerned with the action rather than the outcome. This is depicted in example 4: 4 “Because of this connection thing I also thought about that ...” Another experiential domain corresponds to Motion, which reflects a kind of movement evoked by the metaphorical expressions. This category was organized into two ontological metaphors highlighting dynamic aspects of the design: Built spaces are journeys or motion experiences, and Built spaces are kinetic entities. The expressions that correspond to Built spaces are journeys or motion experiences equate space as a voyage or as an experiential passage. An example is: 5 “…these level changes take you out of the borders.” Metaphors in the form Built spaces are kinetic entities bring to mind the idea that spaces are animated entities with a life of their own. This is illustrated by: 6 “This (space) starts very small and then curves around …” The last experiential domain refers to Nature, and draws upon physical non-man-made phenomena. These include Built spaces are geological entities or forces, and

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Built spaces are water entities or forces. The former refers to expressions that equate spaces to geological things or geological processes. For example: 7 “It (the space) is not volcano-shaped… but there’s still an eruption here” Metaphorical expression incorporating natural sources concerned with water can be exemplified by: 8 “This (space) has something to do with waves… maybe we can do something with green waves” In the next sections, we present an example about the generation of metaphors, and the use of external stimuli by the architects during the design task, followed by a quantitative analysis.

3.1. Illustrating the use of metaphors during the design session From the outset, participants keep trying to use the ideas from the four inspiration sources - volcano, harbour, computer, and amusement park-, and apply them into the design. Constant references to these sources were observed along the process. As a result, to produce the final solution the architects attempted to combine metaphorical ideas retrieved from all the

inspiration sources, which led to different types of metaphors. For example, Egbert said: “I think you should combine these two [in reference to previous sketches based on an octopus from the amusement park and the volcano] into one design because it's also the same shape; like it starts very small and then curves around…”, which was categorized into the form “Built spaces are kinetic entities”. In another example, Peter combined the volcano with the harbour stimulus: “it’s a sail in a way of a tent eruption…for eruption is something like movement”, generating metaphors that were categorized as “Built spaces are geological forces”, and “Built spaces are shapes and 3D objects”. Merging the volcano with the computer, Sally commented: ”Yeah… eruption of computer shape, of computer chips, chips shape…” leading to the following types of metaphors: “Built spaces are geological forces”, “Built spaces are shapes and 3D objects”, and “Built spaces are machines”. Figure 1 shows the final solution produced by the architects when designing the plaza, as an outcome of metaphor use.

4. Empirical results A total of 89 metaphors were generated by the team of architects, from which 65 (73%) were based on the

Figure 1. Design of the square located in the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, TUDelft University by the architects ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ H. Casakin: “The Use of Metaphors as Design Communication Tools in an Architectural Team”, pp. 62–70

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Table 1: Frequencies and percentages for main metaphors of the categorization system according to the stimuli available to the architects

Table 2: Frequencies and percentages of metaphors according to the categorization system

Table 3: Frequencies and percentages of groups of metaphors according to the stimuli available to the architects

available stimuli, and 24 (27%) were produced by other means. When focusing on the stimuli available to the participants, we found that the poem about the volcano was the source that led to the generation of the largest number of metaphors, followed by the harbour, the amusement park, and the computer ones (see Table 1). The metaphors generated by the architects were organized into the four major categories presented in section 3. From Table 2 it can be seen that almost half of the metaphors belong to the category labelled Artificial, followed by Nature, Motion, and Human activity. In order to understand the influence of the available stimuli to the metaphorical ideas, the above categories were analysed according to the different stimuli used during the design process. Table 3 shows that in the artificial category, the stimuli that contributed most was the harbour. Remarkably, the volcano was the stimulus with a higher contribution in the other three categories.

Generally speaking, this source was the most frequently used along the design process, followed by the harbour, the amusement park and the computer. It should be noted that most of the metaphors created by the architects were based on the available stimuli, whereas less than a third was produced without regard to these sources. In a more refined analysis, the input of the stimuli was examined in relation to the sub-categories of metaphors. Table 4 indicates that within the human activity category, and regarding the ‘architectural practice is a (manual) craft’ specifically, the volcano was the most recurrently employed stimulus, followed by the amusement park, and the harbour. In the nature category, specifically in ‘built spaces are natural entities/forces’, the harbour was largely, whereas in ‘built spaces are geological entities/forces’, the volcano was predominant. Within the motion category, in ‘built spaces are kinetic entities’ again the volcano prevailed.

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Notably, metaphors labelled ‘built spaces are journey/motion experiences’ were not related by any available stimuli. Moreover, in the artificial category, specifically in ‘built spaces are machines’, the computer was most frequent, whereas in ‘built spaces are shapes/3D entities’, the use of the harbour and the amusement park was more recurrent. Remarkably, metaphors labelled ‘built spaces are built spaces’ were not based on any available stimuli. Independently of the existing stimuli, two types of metaphor were the most recurrent ones. More than a forty percent of these correspond to ‘built spaces are shapes/3D entities’, whereas a quarter belongs to ‘built spaces are geological entities/forces’ (see Table 5).

5. Discussion Bearing in mind the exploratory nature of the study and the small sample, we do not intend to generalize findings observed along the design process. Together

with this, the case study provided a suitable framework to explore what types of metaphors were generated during the problem-solving task, to propose a categorization system, and to analyse what type of stimuli was related to what kind of metaphors. The analysed utterances indicated that most of the metaphors generated by the architects were based on the external stimuli. This important finding suggests that the availability of different type of stimuli can enhance the generation of metaphorical ideas in communicative contexts such as architecture [14]. Regarding the use of external stimuli during the design task, the two sources that contributed most to the generation of metaphors were the volcano and the harbour. Whereas the first one can be seen as a between-domain-close source, the second one corresponds to a within-domain-far source [10, 11, 12]. From the two available between-domain sources, architects preferred to use the closer one. In spite that

Table 4: Frequencies and percentages of groups of metaphors according to the stimuli available to the architects

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Table 5: Frequencies and percentages of sub-categories of metaphors according to the categorization system

between-domain-far sources are considered to help in the production of creative solutions [13], it is probable that architects found difficulties to identify and establish metaphorical relations between the computer (between-domain-far source) and the problem at hand. On the other hand, from the two available withindomain sources, architects favoured to use the farther one. Possibly, the amusement park (within-domainclose source) was too near to the problem at hand to stimulate the generation of metaphors, and therefore they were prone to use the harbour stimuli, which was at a relatively mid-distance to the problem [12]. Additional analyses centre on the categorization system upon which metaphors were organized. It is interesting that most of the metaphors created during the design process belong to two contrasting groupings: ‘artificial’ and ‘natural’. This may not come as a surprise considering that the assigned task had to do with the design of a square which, by definition, is concerned with both man-made and nature issues. The existence of metaphors belonging to the motion category reconfirms that an experience of implied movement is always present in architecture [18]. The motion metaphors were useful to signify that architecture – or in this case the square- can express or imply movement without actually moving. Other findings centred on the relation of the external stimuli to the distinct categories of metaphors. That most metaphors from the ‘artificial’ category were based on the ‘harbour’ and the ‘amusement park’ can be explained by the fact that these stimuli are withindomain sources, which are considered to belong to the same domain of the problem at hand, in this case the architectural domain. In contrast, the vast majority of metaphors in the ‘nature’ category was generated from the ‘volcano’, a between-domain source considered to be remote to the design task. These suggest that the type of stimuli available to the architects plays a key role

on the kinds of metaphors produced during the task, and possibly on the final outcome as well. Finally, the study focused on the relation between the sub-categories of metaphors and stimuli. The most frequent sub-category was ‘built spaces are shapes/3D entities’, which was largely based on the harbour, a within-domain-far stimulus. This important finding suggests that, besides that different types of metaphors aid in dealing with a variety of aspects of the design activity, issues related to morphology are probably at the core of the metaphorical language in architecture. Moreover, that the harbour and the volcano were the most frequently used displays in all sub-categories of metaphors suggest that mid-distance sources are the preferred inspiration sources for the creation of metaphors.

6. Conclusions Studying metaphor from a genre perspective contributed to transcend disciplinary jargon, and enhance our understanding into how these rhetorical devices are approached in the architectural design community. The study allowed identifying main genre conventions, and it informed about some of the most usual categories of metaphors that architects employ during discourse interaction. Moreover, the present work pioneered the analysis of the role of text stimuli in the generation of metaphors in design problem solving. The availability of poems was found to be an effective mean to enhance and enrich metaphorical expressions, and it also demonstrated to have a strong influence on the category and type of metaphors created. Thinking in terms of metaphors not only helped designers to define and understand many aspects of the problem at hand, but also to develop, communicate, and discuss a variety of idea solutions throughout the design process. An indication of this is

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the large number of metaphorical expressions of various kinds that were used in reference to the different aspects of the design problem. Along the process, the designers were able to transform abstract metaphorical expressions into concrete sketches, and to combine and integrate different metaphorical ideas into an unconventional and creative solution. Based on the present findings, implications for architectural practice, and design education, should be taken into consideration. Teachers can develop intervention programs aimed to promote the use of metaphors in the architectural design studio. Such an approach may help support communication needs among designers, guide the design process, and contribute to produce original solutions. In sum, departing from the works of Lakoff and Johnson and combining discursive and cognitive perspectives, this paper offered a comprehensive approach that allowed gaining insight into how metaphor, as a domain specific scheme, works in architectural design. In a future study, we will extend our analysis on the characterization of metaphorical instances to include a larger number of design teams with different levels of expertise. In addition to text stimuli, we will explore the effect that other types of inspiration sources - such as visual images- have on metaphorical reasoning in architectural design.

[6]

Casakin, H. An empirical assessment of metaphor use in the design studio: Analysis, reflection and restructuring of architectural design, International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 2012, 22, 329-344.

[7]

Drew, P. Sydney Opera House: Jorn Utzon, Phaidon Press, London, UK, 1995.

[8]

McQuaid, M. Santiago Calatrava: structure and expression. The Museum of Modern Art, NY, USA, 1993.

[9]

Casakin, H., & Kreitler, S., Meaning profiles of metaphors and design products in architecture, European Journal of Engineering Education, 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2016.1236 073

[10]

Tseng, I., Moss, J., Cagan, J., & Kotovsky, K., The role of timing and analogical similarity in the stimulation of idea generation in design, Design Studies, 2008, 29, 203-221.

[11]

Chan, J., & Schunn, C., The impact of analogies on creative concept generation: Lessons from an in vivo study in engineering design, Cognitive science, 2015, 39, 126-155.

[12]

Chai, C., Cen, F., Ruan, W., Yang, C., & Li, H., Behavioral analysis of analogical reasoning in design: Differences among designers with different expertise levels, Design Studies, 2015, 36, 3-33.

[13]

Ozkan, O., & Dogan, F., Cognitive strategies of analogical reasoning in design: Differences between expert and novice designers, Design Studies, 2013, 34, 161-192.

[14]

Caballero, R.M., Metaphor and genre: The presence and role of metaphor in the building review, Applied Linguistics, 2009, 24, 145-167.

[15]

Cameron, L., Operationalising ‘metaphor’ for applied linguistic research, in Researching and Appling Metaphor, (Cameron, L. & Low, G.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, USA, 1999. pp. 3-28.

[16]

Gibbs, R., Taking metaphor out of our heads and putting it into the cultural world, in Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics, (Gibbs, R.W. & Steen, G.), John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1999, pp. 145-166.

[17]

Devitt, A.J., Generalizing about genre: New conceptions of an old concept. College Composition and Communication, 1993, 44, 573586.

Acknowledgements Thanks are due to Rosario Caballero for helping with the identification and categorization of metaphors in the transcript.

References [1]

Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. Metaphors we live by, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA, 1980.

[2]

Gentner, D., Bowdle, B., Wolff, P., & Boronat, C. Metaphor is like analogy, in The analogical mind: Perspectives from cognitive science, (Gentner, D. Holyoak, K. J. & Kokinov, B. N.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA:, USA, 2001, pp. 199–253.

[3]

Lakoff, G. Women, fire and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA, 1987.

[4]

Lakoff, G., The contemporary theory of metaphor, in Metaphor and thought, (Ortony, A), Cambridge University Press, New York, USA, 1993, pp. 202–251.

[5]

Coyne, R., Designing information technology in the postmodern age: From method to metaphor, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1995.

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[18]

Hardy, H., The expression of movement in architecture, The Journal of Architecture, 2011, 16, 471-497.

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DOI: 10.14621/tna.20170207

Modular Architecture as a Synergy of Chaos and Order – Case Study Prishtina Arta Jakupi*, Berat Istogu Department of Architecture, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Prishtina Bregu i Diellit p.n, Prishtina, Kosovo; arta.jakupi@uni-pr.edu

Abstract

1. Introduction

Modularity has been applied in many fields and is always seen as a synergy of opposite sides, as: independence and inter relation; as standardization and customization; fixed module and flexible design; whereas this study will investigate a novel perspective of modular architecture as coexistence of chaos and order. The research methodology of this study employed combined strategy: of historical and comparative interpretation; and case studies as a phenomenon rooted in its realistic setting. This study aims on finding the most favourable answer to the informal architecture, residential buildings in particular, which are very often presented as chaotic. The chaos created by informal builders' actions implies that it’s actually their living necessities for expansion that have emerged in such a format. The project proposal of modular architecture still respects the residential need for expansion, as dynamic vibrant organism that grows and changes accordingly to the needs and projections of its tenants. The modular architecture remains a powerful and visible expression of resident’s requirements and dreams, only channelled into an ordered module and strategy. The specific context of Kosovo (where the informal architecture has been quite evident), has been used for a better comprehension of a problem, but the same approach can be easily converted into other architectural stands and contexts.

It is believed that the architecture contains order and chaotic elements at the same time. By manipulating these two elements, outstanding designs can emerge. Chaos and order is a combination that represents true quest for the future. This study tends to elaborate the flexible approach, transformable in form and content, at the lowest cost as possible, to residential buildings in particular addressing informal architecture as a threatening phenomenon in environmental, economic and social development. Our focus has been the city of Pristina as one of the most affected cities in the region by informal and unplanned buildings or planned buildings adapting to a small group of interests and destroying the urban structure of the entire city. Since 1981, there has been no proper population census in Kosovo. After the recent conflict, Pristina is overloaded with population, it is estimated that during the day, there are approx. 500 thousand citizens. According to the latest statistics made by the Municipality of Prishtina, only in Pristina (during the post-conflict construction period) the number of illegal constructions exceeds the figure of 43 thousand objects of different categories, such as: new constructions, extensions of different types, garages, occupation of public spaces, etc. as showed in Figure 1. City is facing serious problems, due to: fast urbanization; expansion of the city boundaries; illegal constructions; bad construction practices; overloaded infrastructure; outdated urban plans; weak institutional capacity; unemployment; social differential; environmental challenges [1].

Keywords:

Modular architecture; Informality; Chaos; Order; Modular design; Sustainability; Flexibility; Space diversity

Article history:

Received: 18 July 2017 Revised: 24 July 2017 Accepted: 01 August 2017

Therefore this study will consider the modular, flexible and prefabricated architecture governed by the order as a basic principle and sufficient criterion for meeting the diverse needs of residents and at the same time will try to answer the research questions: 1. How can the synergy of opposite stances such as “chaos” and “order” be achieved?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A. Jakupi, B. Istogu: “Modular Architecture as a Synergy of Chaos and Order – Case Study Prishtina”, pp. 71–81

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Figure 1. Identification of buildings without and with legal permission in Pristina; (red-without permission; blue-with permission); (Source: Municipality of Prishtina)

Figure 2. Illegal construction in Pristina (Source: author’s photo)

2. Is modular architecture a solution for informal architecture and social problems? The methodology of this study uses a mixed methodology design, it was considered that a more integrative approach to research will complement the shortcomings of only one method [2]. The raised problem is of a complex nature whereby multiple methods from diverse traditions are incorporated in one study. The specificity of the subject allowed original tailoring of the alteration of the phases, entailing the combination of not just data collection tactics but also distinct research designs, such as: Interpretive-Historical design of modular architecture in three distinctive cases;

Urban analyses of the site in Prishtina; Archival documentation of informal buildings in relevant institutions; Verbal / visual analyses of media representations; Configurational analyses of representative projects; and Computer-based spatial and building analyses.

2. Chaos and order in informal architecture This study aims at addressing the informal architecture through modular architecture as synergy of chaos and order, therefore the informal architecture will be segmented into the two opposite stances, so that later

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in this study, can find its correlation through modular architecture.

2.1. Chaos in informal architecture By aiming to address the issue of informality in architecture, regarded as an unpredicted growth and leaded by the user’s life style necessities (Figure 2), the natural investigation line of the study leads the treatment of the chaos as theoretical discourse. One of the main achievements of chaotic theory is its ability to show how easily models and organizations can be created when their final result is unpredictable [3]. Same as in informal buildings, whose pace is hard to track and the actions of the people are based on different assumptions and not reliable data’s, endangering firstly themselves and the others around them; by not following any building codes, ecological misuse of environment, or by occupying arable land. Being burden to the city and at the same time burdening themselves from the full usage of the benefits of the city, and never having the sense of security [4]. The chaotic system never returns to their initial state, their further development continues to produce unpredictable results. The chaotic development is characteristic to the informal architecture, and identified as such, it must remain as part of the solution. The objectives of a "chaotic" system in this study are to create a new architecture, environment tolerance, different, "n" spaces and perspectives.

2.2. Order in informal architecture The informal architecture cannot have a true correlation with order in its rigorous justification. In this study it is the order itself which aims to be a solution to the informal architecture. As Albert Einstein, when supporting Le Corbusier modular architecture said, ‘it is a scale of proportions which makes the bad difficult and the good easy’ [5]. The only order found in the informal habitation is the order of function, since the entire architecture has been created as a respond to the needs of the inhabitants, implicating, it has been created in harmony with their life style order, and in return it functions just fine. While on the other hand if the user’s necessities need to be fulfilled, then this continues need for expansion, adaption, needs to be formatted into regulation and standards, which can be controlled and manipulated within certain order. Same as Le Corbusier noted that pure architecture is led by simple geometry laws that produces forms and embeds them into an easily calculated design/layout. This order is governed by laws that mimic or are inspired by nature [6, pp 9].

The current architectural phenomenon established on astounding technical acquisitions expressed by means of the purest geometry, the modern architectural phenomenon brings us to the heart of the mathematic domain…. constantly meeting and overlapping on precise formulas which are the formulas of greater efficiency, inevitable functionality, more beautiful proportion [6, pp10]. Informality is characterized by growth and change, a phenomena that needs to be taken into consideration when addressing the issue. If these aspects can be fitted into an ordered strategy, a simple mathematical order of functions, a framework which allows the expansion and change, than the informal becomes ordered and formal architecture. The integrated order must enable the user to become the leader of the changes of their living space, having in mind that the tenant of the illegal building is always led by its own interests autonomously from the system. Therefore the proposal should enable the replacing or adding elements within their living area but without damaging the rest of the object.

3. Modular architecture This study represents modular architecture as a synthesis of chaos and order. What modularity makes possible is ordered strategies in which architects define numerous variations that provide different functions, features, with dynamic performance of resident’s choices, which is viewed as a chaotic from the outside configuration and exterior. Modules are units in a larger system that are structurally independent of one another, but work together. The system as a whole must therefore provide a framework—an architecture—that allows for both independence of structure and integration of function [7]. This modularity brings several advantages such as reduced financial investments especially when the scale and scope of the project is relatively large. In such cases, it is a practical and economic option. Architecture needs to create structures and projects that are capable of providing the flexibility to customize the living space for individuals. The specification of the modalities is critical to the design of flexible architectures that allow you to substitute component variations within a design without having to make adjustments in other components. With modular architecture, the users can become the drivers of the module variety. In effect, the advantage of modularity allows the module definition to shift from architects to its users/community [8]. For a better comprehension three distinctive cases of modular architecture have been analysed. These cases have assisted during the design proposal by tackling specific issues, be it in a capacity of advantages or short fallings.

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Figure 3. Nakagin Capsule Tower [9]

Figure 4. Habitat 67 [13]

The Nakagin Capsule Tower, built in 1972, in Tokyo (Figure 3), designed by Kisho Kurukava was chosen for its emblematic role in Japan's postwar cultural resurgence [9]. A total of 140 capsules are stacked and rotated at varying angles around a central core, standing 14-stories high and completed in just 30 days [10]. The modules contain all the needed amenities for one person to live in, although the capsules were designed with mass production in mind there was never a demand for them [11]. The idea of expansion and adaptability did not happen, reality deviated from the anticipated future. The replacing of the capsules is too expensive while the durability of the materials was of short and unpredictable lifespan since the architect used the Japanese way of building with natural materials [12]. The building has not been maintained for more than 40 years, and there are various stands toward its existence: the ones that want the building to be demolished and the ones who appreciate its symbolic meaning and try to keep it.

The second case study is characteristic since it seeks to reconcile quality of life and urban environment by rethinking living spaces building. It’s chosen for its captivating work, which keeps on inspiring. Habitat 67, was designed by Moshe Safdie, in 1967, in Montreal Canada, as the Canadian pavilion for the 1967 World Exposition (Figure 4). It was originally intended as an experimental solution for high-quality housing in dense urban environments. Safdie explored the possibilities of prefabricated modular units to reduce housing costs and create a new typology of residential units with high quality living in a high urban growth. The module is the basis, 354 identical prefabricated concrete modules are placed one on top of each other in various positions that form 148 residential units in different sizes. All come together in a giant sculpture with a rich interior, large terraces, air space, glass roof at different angles [13]. The year it was built, 1967, was marked by social change, which fostered the emergence of a new openness and to the world it is still a dominant element in the Montreal landscape.

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The third case is of a recent projects and of new emerging architect, Alejandro Aravena as a winner of architecture’s top prize, the Pritzker, at the relatively young age of 48. He tackles many fronts, from guaranteeing very concrete, down-to-earth living standards to interpreting and fulfilling human desires, from respecting the single individual to taking care of the common good, from efficiently hosting daily activities to expanding the frontiers of civilization. As in his speech as a curator for Venice Architecture Biennale 2016, under the title Reporting from the Front, he emphasized the role of the architect as being challenged to serve greater social and humanitarian needs [14], and true to its words his project, such as the Quinta – Monroy (Figure 5), where the architects together with the government, have contributed meaningfully to the discourse of social housing. Their solution of providing a basic quality house, for a very small amount of money, was to provide half of the house. By working closely with the residents of squatters that had lived unsteadily on an urban site, the architects designed a lot of capacity for the community to live their lives and which could then add on and expand their house whenever possible, and in many different ways, customizing and individualizing their spaces [15]. Each of the three cases comprises elements that will be treated into proposal projects, Nagakin Capsule Tower for its original aspiration and inspiration to later architecture; The Habitat 67 for its actual remaining magnificence same as at the initial appreciation, by addressing a high quality living space in densely urban environment; and the Quinta Monroy for finding a descent solution to great number of the low-income habitants. It is at this point where this study is considered to extend the literature and concept of the modular architecture, with its creative endeavor on addressing the issue of informal architecture in an original setting of Kosovo.

4. Modular in informal architecture — Results and conclusion The correlation of Modular architecture and informal buildings is seen as a natural bond, having in mind that the modular architecture arose as a respond to the postwar and post-construction initiative of rebuilding the place. Modular was an instrument with which architects tried to maintain their control over post-war production [6, pp.9]. The informal buildings in Kosovo are a byproduct of the recent war, where the legal vacuum of post war period made possible a massive informal undertakings [16]. The illegal architecture/settlements is an undertaking of numerous individuals each with its own interests and desires. The different lifestyles and their everyday concern is represented in an uncoordinated and chaotic look of their built setting. One of the main challenges of today architecture (especially in collective residential buildings) is finding a way how architects can design altogether with the community, by trying to find the principle design strategy that needs to be used, in order to accommodate all diversities of needs and desires of the users. This axiom recognizes that human beings have an innate ability to improve their living space by changing their designs. Value-seeing and -seeking are what ultimately cause designs, hence living space to improve and to become more complex [7, pp 93]. Modularity, allows various designs, while achieving lowcost for development, as well as cost saving in design and construction. Location: As a basic feature of the project proposal is the location itself, which includes a large space in the center of Prishtina. This will make the position more attractive and more representative. Based on the Regulatory Plan of the site, the plot is in harmony with the surrounding, and vividly maintains the vertical as well as horizontal

Figure 5. Quinta – Monroy [15] ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A. Jakupi, B. Istogu: “Modular Architecture as a Synergy of Chaos and Order – Case Study Prishtina”, pp. 71–81

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Figure 6. Dardania– neighborhood (source: Berat Istogu)

Figure 7. Dardania neighborhood 3D model

proportionality [17]. The construction of the buildings in the urban area "Dardania", dates back to 1946. Post conflict period (1999) of this neighborhood is characterized by usurpation, illegal buildings as well as degradation of common facilities and spaces. Dardania location was chosen as the most suitable site in Prishtina, due to: the available regulatory plan for this area "PRRU Dardania" (which is still actual); Streets provide easier mobility for pedestrians and vehicles (Figure 6); Most of the area is defined mainly as residential area with high rise buildings; and appropriate orientation of the building within the location. Most of the area is largely defined for high rise residential buildings with some mixed use areas, mainly commercial

(Figure 7). The plot for the development of the conceptual design of modular architecture is oriented in the North -South stretch. The situation in which the conceptual project is foreseen, is in block 8d of the urban regulatory plan of the Dardania neighbourhood. The terrain configuration is steep, and bordered by streets on its three sides. The surface of the block 8d is 22045 m2. Floorplans: The concept of organizing such residential buildings with a modular, flexible function and the ability to transform without changing the basic shape (Figure 8) requires that the interior spaces needs to be carefully designed (Figure 9). Especially the vertices

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Figure 8. Modules

Figure 9. Modules within the living unit for different size of family

Figure 10. Floorplan of the level four ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A. Jakupi, B. Istogu: “Modular Architecture as a Synergy of Chaos and Order – Case Study Prishtina”, pp. 71–81

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(baths and kitchens) need to be situated in a favourable position which can be easily interlinked and adapt to the future changes that may arise. Another aspect to consider is to ensure sufficient natural light to the moving modules. The ground floor is foreseen for different commercial use and business needs, while the first floor is designated for administrative use respectively offices with different activities. If necessary the ground floor as well as the ground floor-I can be easily transformed into residential units. The floorplan, of the second floor up to the ninth are conceived to be residential units of different sizes (Figure 10). All residential units are anticipated to be developed in these floors with variety combination that is most conducive on meeting different requirements for different families. While basement will be used as parking area, and the rest will be a storage for the substation of heating, water tanks and storage for different resident’s needs. The idea of such an organization has been to create a concept of organizing a hybrid object with many functions and characters that will suit the changes of the time, and at the same time enrich the contents of such a compound that would be more attractive and more

conducive to the development of many activities that would enrich people's lives in particular (Figure 11). Facades: Careful handling of the facades of residential buildings is as important as their function. The importance of the line in art and especially in architecture is crucial to adequate expression. In architecture, the lines are formed with planning and many architectural, constructive, functional and decorative elements. During the design and analysis of the facades and the whole form, particular attention has been paid especially to the character of the object - in what way these façades reflect and show what is actually happening in that object, for what this object actually serves . It has been attempted that the object, the spaces and the form of the object, clearly and definitely determine the destination, the importance of the object and our conceptual order. The facades are modularly conceived, with a 4.2 m wide module being divided into two equal parts: one side of the module is a window while the other is a wall materialized with ventilated facade materials. The windows change its position in such a way that they are not repeated during the same vertical. Part of the facade is of steel structure which is visible from the outside, and besides the constructive aspect of the building it plays a very important role in the aesthetic formation of it.

Figure 11. Axonometric section of the hybrid object with many functions and characters ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A. Jakupi, B. Istogu: “Modular Architecture as a Synergy of Chaos and Order – Case Study Prishtina”, pp. 71–81

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Figure 12. Development projection of the building, progression in year 2020; 2030; 2040

3D Model concept: Space composition of the proposed building is conceived as a composition of two spatial forms: the architecture formed by a closed body that isolates / confines a space inside it, as well as the architecture formed by an open body that embraces a space that is connected to endless continuity. Figure 12 foresees of the progress of the building within 30 years, by reaching its full potential of expansion. The development of the 3D concept of this work is also closely related to the modular concept, flexible architecture, the idea is that this flexibility should be reflected in the exterior of the building and not just in its functional organization (Figure 13). The modular shape combined with the volumes that emerge on the: façade, in the balcony and gallery section, aims at giving a dynamic and flexible appearance the object, so that from the outside its dynamicity can be felt and experienced.

5. Conclusion The study aims to challenge the issue of chaos created with informal architecture, the study still remains within these discourse, but this time leaving it visible only in the exterior appearance. The informal buildings/ settlements are built upon the base of anarchy, they are unsure of their setting, the chaotic development is a natural process that signifies change and development (even if associated as a negative aspect in the context of informality), the chaotic development needs to be noted, as that is understood as life necessity of those living in it. The project proposal still respects the residents need for expansion and growth, as dynamic vibrant organism that grows and changes accordingly to the needs and projections of its tenants. The proposed project of modular architecture allows this expansion and this change, which in any other case would appear chaotic, however in this study, all modalities of:

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expansion; flexibility; prefabrication; low budget; sustainability; were analysed and as such were channelled into an ordered forms. The project proposal remains a powerful and visible expression of resident’s requirements and dreams. The greatest power is that the modular approach raises the design to a more strategic level, where all stakeholders co-design the space. A very important issue which needs to be further developed is that the adaptation to modular design needs to be understood and supported by city/state officials. It works out best with the involvement of the local people, architect and the government/agencies departments for a more effective realization. The modular architecture has to be a strategic decision, not just a technical one, because it decides the future options of the city. Modularity is already beginning to happen in a number of industries. The biggest advantage would be that the modular architecture would enable the city to think about developing a strategy for a broad approach, including plans for future upgrading of the city-life and its inhabitants.

Architecture "Ordered Chaos" is architecture led by possible geometric/organic rules and ordered strategy, with the integration of chaos in the sense of creating an impression to the observer as impossible to comprehend, anticipate and aesthetically diverse composite. What leads to such perception is the chaotic architecture representation but based on a consistent and easily accessible rule and algorithm of the function. Architecture has to move to "n" dimensions and should surprise the observer, in these cases it should not be foreseeable. The project proposal of this study is relevant and can address other social and architectural issues first and foremost because of the today dynamic city and transcultural trend. Modular architecture is driven by dreams as much as by everyday concern.

References [1]

UN-HABITAT, Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD 12) 2004, Sustainable Recovery

Figure 13. Modular architecture as a solution to the informal architecture ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A. Jakupi, B. Istogu: “Modular Architecture as a Synergy of Chaos and Order – Case Study Prishtina”, pp. 71–81

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in Post-Crisis Situations, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment, 2004.

[10] Koolhaas R., Obrist H. U., Project Japan. Metabolism Talks, Taschen, (2011), p. 388.

[2] Groat, L. N., David W. Architectural research methods. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.

[11] Qin, X. Micro-apartment in Beijing China. Diss. University of Cincinnati, 2015.

[3] David L., "Chaos theory and strategy: Theory, application, and managerial implications." Strategic management journal 15, no. S2 (1994): 167-178.

[12] Soares, A.L. Magalhães F. “A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972.”Failed Architecture, 26 June 2014. https://www.failedarchitecture.com/nakagin/ 17 July 2017 Accessed.

[4]

Jakupi A. The effect of the international organizations on the post conflict urban development, Lambert, Saarbrucken, 2013.

[5] Le Corbusier, Modular 2: 1955 (Let the User Speak Next). Francie P.D, Bostock A. (translators) MIT Press, 1958. [6] Cohen J-L, Le Corbusier’s Modulor and the Debate on Proportion in France, Architectural Histories, Vol.2, No.1, 2014, pp. 1-14. [7] Baldwin C. Y. and Clark K. B., Design Rules Volume 1. The Power of Modularity The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England, 2000. [8] Sanchez, R. Modularity, strategic flexibility, and knowledge management. Oxford University Press, 2003. [9] Ouroussoff N., Architecture: Future Vision Banished to the Past, The New York Times, July 7, 2009, Accessed July 15, 2017.

[13] www.habitat67.com, ‘Habitat 67’, [Online] in http://www.habitat67.com/en/homage/ [accessed 28 November 2016]. [14] Alejandro Aravena La Biennale di Venezia, Press information, Venice Architecture Biennale 2016. [15] Quinta Monroy Housing. MoMA.The Museum of Modern Art, 2010 Published. https://www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/ 2010/smallscalebigchange/projects/quinta_monr oy_housing.html. 10 November 2016 Accessed. [16] Jakupi, A., Direct International Community Engagement and Kosovo's Urban Development, Regions Magazine, Vol.274, No.1, 2012, pp. 17-18. [17] Municipal Assembly Prishtina, Prishtina Urban Development 2004-2020, Strategic Plan, The Department of Urban Planning and Construction, 2004.

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The Journal

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About the Journal

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Instructions for Authors

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ABOUT THE JOURNAL Aim and Scope International Journal of Contemporary Architecture “The New ARCH” publishes research articles and studies on solutions to architectural projects and urban planning. Papers that are multidisciplinary and/or address new or emerging areas of architecture are particularly encouraged. Thus, the scope includes but is not limited to the design process and case studies with performance evaluation, buildings for tomorrow, transforming cities towards the future, course of adapting architecture, challenges of buildings refurbishment, energy efficiency and savings including building technologies, design in-line with environment associated with ecological impact of materials. “The New ARCH” is committed to publishing original papers communicating both recent research findings and innovative new practice. Thus, it provides an active interface between theory, science and practice serving both researches and practising professionals. The accent is on the architectural quality demonstrating different approaches of relations between good architecture and environment, without focusing only on technical aspects of building. So, the sustainability and great design does not exclude each other in the process of creating architectural spaces. Joined, they provide contemporary pillar to architecture. Language “The New ARCH” is published in English and accepts contributions written only in English. Frequency “The New ARCH” is a thrice yearly open-access electronic journal. Contributions Two types of contributions are expected: - Original Article - must either be of a current general interest or of a great significance to readers, - Review - introducing a particular area through a concise overview of a selected topic by the author(s). Responsibility Submission of a manuscript implies that the work described has not been published previously, that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, that its publication is approved by all authors and that, if accepted, it will not be published elsewhere in the same form, in English or in any other language, without the written consent of the copyright holder. The author(s) should provide a statement attesting to the originality of the work submitted for publication. Exception is an abstract or part of a published lecture or academic thesis. Peer Review “The New ARCH” is a peer-review journal. All submitted manuscripts, which follow the scope of the journal, are read first by the editorial stuff and only those that meet editorial criteria are sent for formal double-blind peer review process. Both the referees (at least two independent reviewers selected by the editors) and the author(s) are kept anonymous. Authors are obliged to follow remarks and comments of reviewers, instructions for preparing manuscripts, reference list specification as well as remarks and corrections of the Editorial Board.

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International Journal of Contemporary Architecture ”The New ARCH“ Vol. 4, No. 2 (2017)

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS General Information Procedure The authors are obliged to submit papers only in English and free of typing errors. The manuscript should not exceed 14 pages (A4 format), including figures and tables. For the review process the manuscript should not exceed 14 pages and should be submitted in electronic form only as MS Word file. All titles listed in the reference list have to be in English, or translated in English with indication of the original language. Full name and affiliation have to be given for each author. Last name(s) has to be written in capital letters. The corresponding author should be indicated, with full postal and e-mail address.

margins of 20 mm from left/right and top/bottom paper’s edge, with spacing one line after. Illustrations (graphics, pictures) and tables have to be also separately prepared. The width of the Illustrations/tables has to be either 7.5 cm or 16.5 cm. Authors may submit a manuscript of maximum 14 A4 pages containing plain text (including nomenclature and references) and illustrations/tables.

Checklist 1.

Title page as a separate MS Word document (one A4 page) including: - Title - Author(s) and affiliation(s) - One author labelled as the Corresponding Author with full postal and e-mail address

Plain text (without illustrations/tables) as a separate MS Word file including all sections stated above in Manuscript Structure

All illustrations/tables as a separate MS Word file

Numerated captures of all illustrations as a separate MS Word file

Manuscript Approval

Numerated captures of all tables as a separate MS Word file

After computer lay-out of the paper, corresponding author will obtain text as .PDF file for approval.

Title

Submission Declaration By submitting the manuscript the author(s) declare that the work described has not been published previously (except in the form of an abstract or as part of a published lecture or academic thesis or as an electronic preprint), that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, that its publication is approved by all authors, and that, if accepted, it will not be published elsewhere including electronically in the same form, in English or in any other language, without the written consent of the copyright holder.

Manuscript Structure Only English and Greek alphabet must be used in preparing the whole manuscript. There are no strict formatting requirements but all manuscripts must contain the essential elements needed to convey your manuscript and should be written according to following order: – Title – Author(s) – Affiliation(s) – Abstract – Keywords – Introduction – Body of the text with numerated sections and subsections – Conclusions – Acknowledgement – Funding source – Nomenclature – References All pages must have page numbers.

Conflict of Interest All authors are requested to disclose any actual or potential conflict of interest including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations within three years of beginning the submitted work that could inappropriately influence, or be perceived to influence, their work. Referees If you want, you can submit, with the manuscript, the names, addresses and e-mail addresses of three potential referees. Note that the editor retains the sole right to decide whether or not the suggested reviewers are used.

Copyright Transfer Agreement A properly completed and signed Copyright Transfer Agreement must be provided by author(s) for each submitted manuscript.

Manuscript Preparation General Text has to be separately prepared as Microsoft Word plain text document (without illustrations and tables) using Arial 10 font, with

Maximum 3 rows title (ALL CAPITAL LETTERS, bold, centred, with spacing one line after) has to concisely, informative, clearly, accurately and grammatically correct reflect emphasis and content of the manuscript. Abbreviations and acronyms should be avoided.

Author(s) and Affiliation(s) Author(s) Personal (First) Name(s), initial (optional) and FAMILY (LAST) NAME(S) (bold, centred, with spacing one line after) of all who have made substantial contributions. At least one author must be labelled with an asterisk (*) as the corresponding author. Affiliation(s) of author(s) must include Institution, City and Country (regular letters, centred, with spacing one line after). The full postal and e-mail address of the corresponding author should be placed on a separate line below the affiliation.

Abstract The paper must have an Abstract supplying briefly general information about the purpose and objectives of the paper, techniques, methods applied, significant results, and conclusions. Abbreviations and acronyms should be avoided. The optimal length for the abstract is one paragraph with 100 to 200 words, justified, with indent 20 mm from left and right margin, with spacing one line after. An abstract may also be presented separately from the article, so it must be able to stand alone. For this reason, References should be avoided, but if essential, then cite the author(s) and year(s).

Keywords Maximum 8 characteristic words (regular letters, with indent 20 mm from left and right margin) explaining the subject of the manuscript (for example, “of”, “and” ... have to be avoided) should be provided directly below the abstract. Be sparing with abbreviations: only abbreviations firmly established in the field may be eligible. These keywords may be used for indexing purposes.

Introduction It should place the work in the appropriate context and clearly state the purpose and objectives of the contribution.

Body of the Text Authors are obliged to use System International (SI) for Units (including Non/SI units accepted for use with the SI system) for all physical parameters and their units. Titles of sections and subsections have to be written in bold, left, numerated (decimal classification) in Arabic numbers, with spacing one line before and one line after.

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___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Ensure that each graphics/illustration has a caption. A caption should comprise a brief title (not on the figure itself) and a description of the illustration. Keep text in the illustrations themselves to a minimum but explain all symbols and abbreviations used. Figure captions should be placed below figures, in bold, justified left; one line should be left blank below figure captions. Table captions have to be placed above tables in bold, left justified with the table; one line should be left blank above captions and below tables. Place footnotes to tables below the table body and indicate them with superscript lower-case letters. All tables and figures must be referred in the text. All equations, formulas, and expressions should be numbered in parentheses, with right alignment, in the order of appearance in the text, and must be centred with one line left above and below. Also, equations, formulas, and expressions should be referred within the text with Eq., or Formula, or Expression, with corresponding number in parentheses.

The mark of variables with dimensions in brackets used and explained only once in the text, do not include into the nomenclature.

References References should be numbered in brackets in the order of appearance in the text, e.g. [1], [3, 4], [7-11], etc. The full references should be listed at the end of the paper (left alignment, hanging indentation) in numerical order of citation in the text. For references having two authors, names of both authors should be given. For more than two authors, only name of the first author should be given, followed by latin abbreviation et al. Data in References should be given according to the Reference List Specification, given in the next section. Footnotes Footnotes should be used sparingly. Number them consecutively throughout the article. Indicate the position of footnotes in the text and present the footnotes themselves separately at the end of the article. Do not include footnotes in the Reference list.

Preparation of Graphics (Illustrations) Graphics intended to appear in black and white or grayscale should not be submitted in colour. Graphics have to be submitted also in separated files in a JPG and/or TIF format. Use of colour in manuscript graphics is encouraged when it is important for clarity of presentation. It has to be noted that the quality of the graphics published in the journal depends on the quality of the graphic images provided by authors. Do not supply graphics optimised for screen, that are too low in resolution or that are disproportionately large for the content. Digital graphics should have minimum resolution of 1200 dpi for black and white line art, 600 dpi for grayscale art and 300 dpi for colour art. For uniformity of appearance, all the graphics of the same type should share a common style and font. For scanned half-tone illustrations a resolution of 300 dpi is sufficient.

Conclusions

Reference List Specification Journals Author(s)1, Paper title, Journal title, Volume number, (Year), Issue, pp. xx-yy, DOI number2

Books Author(s)1, Book title3, Publisher, City, Country, Year

Chapters Author(s)1, Chapter title, in Book title3, (Editor(s) of the book)4, Publisher, City, Country, Year, pp. xx-yy

Proceedings, Transactions, Book of Abstracts Author(s)1, Paper title, Proceedings, Proceedings information5, Conference, City, Country, Year, Volume6, pp. xx-yy

Thesis Author(s)1, Thesis title, Thesis rank, University, City, Country, Year

Reports

Content of this section should not substantially duplicate the abstract. It could contain text summarising the main contributions of the manuscript and expression and idea for the work to be continued.

Author(s)1, Report title, Report number, Institution, City, Country, Year

Acknowledgement

Literature or Data on web Sites and Documents without Authors

May be used to acknowledge helpful discussion with colleagues, assistance providing starting material or reference samples, data and services from others who are not co-authors, or providing language help, writing assistance or proof reading the article, or financial support.

Funding Source Author has to identify who provided financial support for the conduct of the research and/or preparation of the manuscript and to briefly describe the role of the sponsor(s), if any, in study design, as well as in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data, as well as in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to submit the manuscript for publication. If the funding source(s) had no such involvement then this should be stated here.

Nomenclature Author should use a systematic name for each compound. The variables in nomenclature have to be written in alphabetical order and, if exist, must have dimension in brackets. The Greek symbols must be separated, and as well as subscripts and superscripts, abbreviations, and acronyms.

Author(s)1,2, Title/Data/Institution, Link

Web As a minimum, the full URL should be given and the date when the reference was last accessed. Any further information, if known (DOI, author names, dates, reference to a source publication, etc.), should also be given

Patents Owner(s)1, Title of patent, Patent number, Year __________________________________________ 1 Last name, Initial (optional), First name 2 If exist 3 Title in original language or in transliteration, the English translation in parentheses with the indication of the original language 4 Editor(s)1 (in parentheses) 5 (Name(s) of the editor(s), if exist, in parentheses), Title of the publication if it is not the same as the title of the meeting 6 Only for Transactions

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