45 June 2015 Volume 22 No. 1
ISSN 1173-5465
Table of Contents Husbandry Report Use of a Bird Bath and Sugar-Water Feeders by Birds, Including a Breeding Pair of Tui, Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae, in an Urban Garden.......................................................................1-6
Conferences Wildlife Society N.Z.V.A. 2014 Conference, Wanaka:
Conference Programme.............................................................................................................7-8
Conference/Research Report: Applying Structured Decision Making to Management of the Reintroduced Hihi, Notiomystis Cincta, in the Bushy Park Reserve............................................. 9
Wildlife Rehabilitators Network of NZ (WReNNZ) 2015 Conference, Hamilton:
Conference Programme......................................................................................................... 10-11
Conference Report...................................................................................................................... 11
Notice of Wildlife Society N.Z.V.A. 2015 Conference............................................................................12
News Massey University Students' Wildlife Conservation Club: Club News (Semester 1, 2015)................... 12 The New Wildbase Hospital at Massey University: Ground Breaking Ceremony............................13-14 Historical: Memberships of Committee of the N.Z.V.A. Wildlife Society...........................................14-18
Laboratory Reports Squamous Cell Carcinoma with Lung Metastases in a Captive Kea, Nestor notabilis....................18-19 Predation of North Island Brown Kiwi Chicks, Apteryx mantelli, by Cats, Felis catus........................... 20 Avian Malaria Caused by Plasmodium elongatum in a Fiordland Crested Penguin, Eudyptes pachyrhynchus.................................................................................................................21-22
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Kokako 22 (1) 1-6, 2015
Husbandry Report
Use of a Bird Bath and Sugar-Water Feeders by Birds, Including a Breeding Pair of Tui, Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae, in an Urban Garden R.N. (Neil) Ward Senior Technical Officer Institute of Veterinary, Agriculture and Biomedical Sciences Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442. Abstract A bird bath in the author’s garden has long been utilised by about 20 species of free-living birds. Four years ago, the author installed two sugar-water feeders, and later attached outrigger perches to them. These feeders, suspended from branches of trees, are used by waxeyes [silvereyes], Zossterops lateralis; bellbirds, Anthornis melanura; and tui, Prosthemadera novaeelandia, but this use has been dominated by one tui, a bird which undertakes “excretal bombing”. Concurrent with their use of the bird bath and both sugar-water feeders, this bird and its partner raised 3 nestlings on leaves, fruit and insects. (A fourth nestling was found dead on the ground soon after hatching.) After fledging, the 3 offspring had direct access to the bird bath and sugar-water for a few days, without any abnormalities having been apparent in them at any stage of their development. These young birds were then driven away by the dominant parent bird and have not been seen again. Key Words: bacteria, bellbirds, bird bath, cat, disease, excretal bombing, fledgling, fungi, nestling, perch, Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae, protozoa, silvereyes, sugar-water, tui, waxeyes. Contents: Introduction. The bird bath and sugar-water feeders. Structure of each and use by birds. Addition of outrigger perches to the feeders. Observations of aggressive, nesting and rearing activities by tui. Discussion. Conclusions. Acknowledgements. References. Introduction The provision of bird baths and garden feeders for birds, a common procedure in many parts of the Britain (Thomas, 1984) and North America (Abbott, 2012), has been adopted in Australia (Dixon and Churchill, 1998) and New Zealand (Kikkawa, 1962; Scott and Pescott, 1985; Powlesland and others, 2008; Bolt, 2011; Newcombe, 2011; Anthony, 2012). The author’s household garden in urban Palmerston North (40o 21’ S, 175o 37’ E) has for many years contained a commercially-produced bird bath for use by free-living birds. Plastic sugar-water feeders are also readily available commercially and are widely used by the Department of Conservation for supplementary feeding at translocation sites and sanctuaries throughout New Zealand (Armstrong and others, 1999; Armstrong and others, 2007). Four years Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
ago, the author installed, close to the water bath, 2 sugarwater feeders (of separate types), both purchased from a local garden supply shop. Individuals of three avian species have become regular visitors to the sugar-water feeders: waxeyes (silvereyes), Zosterops lateralis, endemic bellbirds, Anthornis melanura, and tui, Prosthemadura novaeseelandiae. The relative sizes of these birds became important at the sugar-water feeders. Waxeyes are small olive-green birds (standard length 12 cm, bodyweight of adults 13 g), bellbirds are also olive-coloured, but larger (20 cm, males 34 g, females 26 g) and tui are medium-sized birds (30 cm, males 120 g, females 90 g), with dark (green, bluish-purple and bronze) iridescent feathering and distinctive white throat feathers, with the sexes alike (Craig and others, 1981a; Heather and Robertson, 2015). Tui are widely distributed throughout New Zealand, and usually nest in the canopy or sub-canopy of forest trees (Heather and Robertson, 2015). The following sections first describe the bird bath and the sugar-water feeders, and the addition of outrigger perches to these feeders. The author then records his observations of the raising of 3 fledglings by a pair of tui (after one of the pair had become dominant at the bird bath and feeders) and discusses his concerns about the nutritive value of sugar-water for nestlings and the possibility that the bird bath and feeders might help the spread of diseases. The Bird Bath and Feeders The bird bath (Figure 1) is an open, circular (70 cm internal diameter, 6 cm maximum depth) unit. The considerable overhang of the bath itself beyond its central support frustrates cats, Felis catus, and other mammalian predators. The bath is cleaned/replenished every 2-3 days from the city’s water supply, via a hose from a garden tap. At each cleaning, any faecal material and fallen leaves seen in the bath or on its scalloped surrounds are hosed away. Any pooling of water on the ground is quite transient, and faeces do not accumulate beneath the unit. A total of about 20 species of birds (both introduced and native) visit this bath. All drink water at the bath, but only some species, e.g., kereru (large native pigeons), Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae, (singly, in pairs, or in trios) and tui will bathe in the bath. (Sparrows, Passer domesticus, consistently prefer to dust-bathe.) The birds appear to enjoy the relatively shallow depth of the bath, in addition to the security which the bath provides, for all of the avian species in the garden are reluctant to visit water of varying depths available from time to time in buckets which happen to have been left placed on the ground. Page 1
The larger of the sugar-water feeders (Figures 2A and 2B) is essentially a removable rectangular plastic tray which is (internal dimensions) 150 cm long x 110 mm wide x 8 mm deep. The tray sits on a shelf within a roofed, open-sided, wooden frame which is suspended by chains from the branch of a tree. Waxeyes visit in large numbers, perching on the wood surrounding the tray and on the rolled-over walls of the tray itself. The smaller sugar-water feeder (Figure 3) is basically a removable, inverted, 300 ml glass bottle which opens into a circular tray set in the centre of the lowest shelf of a wooden frame also suspended from a branch of a tree, there being approximately 3 cm width of shelf remaining around the tray that visiting birds can use while perching. The sugar-water is produced every 2-3 days by adding a quarter-cup of white sugar (the kitchen measure used holds approximately 45 g of sugar) to each litre of household tap water. Both feeders are 1.6 m above the ground, this being the maximum height at which the author can readily reach them for routine servicing. Following the installation of the sugar-water feeders, several weeks elapsed before birds in the garden began to visit these units. The author soon noticed that while the waxeyes perched freely and easily on the wood surrounding the plastic
sugar-water tray in the larger unit and on the lowest shelf of the smaller unit, few bellbirds or tui attempted to visit the feeders. These latter 2 species had difficulty in landing on the feeders without their wings hitting the frames of the units, and they seemed to need larger footholds when they did perch. The author therefore added outrigger perches, of approximately 25 mm diameter (being lengths of an old broom handle), to the larger feeder, and a 10 mm diameter perch (being a length of dowelling fixed tightly into holes drilled in the lowest shelf and kept away from the dispenserbottle) to the smaller feeder (Figures 2A, 2B and 3). The additions allow clearance for the birds’ wings and for the birds to perch further from the sugar-water itself while they drink. More waxeyes and tui visit the larger feeder than visit the smaller unit. Bellbirds readily visit the smaller feeder, but they do not visit the larger unit. At an early stage, a black fungus grew transiently where sugar-water had been spilt on the perches and the ground. Care is now taken to avoid further spillages during replenishments. The sugar-water trays and dispenser-bottle are, on most occasions, washed in household detergents and rinsed, before being refilled, and the perches are cleaned as necessary. As with the bird bath, avian faeces have not accumulated on the feeders, or the ground beneath them. Observations of Aggressive, Nesting and Rearing Activities by Tui From mid-2014, a particular pair of tui were among the regular visitors to the bird bath and sugar-water. One tui of the pair became increasingly aggressive toward other birds (apart from its partner) of both the same and other
Figure 2A. Oblique view of the larger sugar-water feeder. The original unit was formed by an open-sided wooden frame (F) which comprised a roof, two solid ends (each 130 mm wide) and a base. The plastic sugar-water tray (SWT, internal measurements 150 mm x 100 mm x 8 mm) rests on shelf within the frame. Figure 1. The bird bath and feeders, in the author’s garden. The bird bath has an overall height of 70 cm. The bath itself (W) has an internal diameter of 70 cm and a maximum depth of 6 cm. The bath’s considerable overhang relative to its smooth, fluted, central support protects birds using the bath from attacks by mammalian predators. A wide base (not visible) provides good stability to the unit. The two sugar-water feeders (F) hang from nearby trees. Their bases are 1.6 m above the ground. Photograph taken by the author. Page 2
The author attached a horizontal, 300 mm long, wooden beam (B) across the bottom of one end of the frame, and a similar beam at the opposite end of the frame. On each side of the unit, a cylindrical, 25 mm diameter, wooden rod links the beams to provide a secure perch (P) for tui when they arrive to drink. The whole apparatus is suspended by two chains, the lower end of each (C) being attached to an end of the frame. The apex of the roof is 250 mm above the lower border of the horizontal beam. Photograph taken by the author. Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
species. It has been assumed to be male because it is also the larger bird of the pair (Craig and others, 1981a; Robertson and others, 1983). From the time the larger tui began to dominate, the bird and its partner vigorously chased other birds away, with a mutual noisy whirring of their wings. At the same time, the larger bird began “excretal bombing” of other birds and of humans (including the author) who visit the bird bath or feeders. This bombing behaviour has continued to date (mid-May, 2015). The tui positions itself directly above its victim, either by hovering or by rapidly adjusting its position on a branch, and then releases from its cloaca a spurt of liquid excreta which almost always lands on the target below. The greyish-white deposit shows clearly on blackbirds, Turdus merula, but also appears on other birds, including other tui (apart from this dominant tui’s partner). The partner has joined in aggressive flights toward other birds, but has not been seen to undertake, or attempt to undertake, “excretal bombing”. In September-October 2014, the presumptive female tui began building a nest in a rather open tarata (lemonwood) tree, Pittosporum eugenioides, growing approximately 3 metres from the feeder. (The birds often also visited a taller, adjacent totara tree, Podocarpus totara, but made no attempt to nest in it.) The roughly-assembled nest was approximately 10 metres above the ground, and thus difficult to monitor. Inspection of the nest, after the young had fledged and departed, revealed a lining of small sticks and feathers.
While rearing their offspring, the parent tui continued their frequent visits to the sugar-water feeder, but they also continued to carry leaves, fruit and insects to the nest, the food also being brought from neighbouring gardens and small patches of bush. The 3 remaining nestlings fledged early in January 2015, and then moved actively on the branches of the tree, obtaining small insects from beneath the bark. They also accompanied the parent birds on many of the parents’ visits to the water bath and sugar-water feeders, for about 2 weeks. The fledglings then dispersed, almost certainly as a result of paternal aggression. Following the departure of the fledglings, the parents have remained in the garden and the dominant tui is now somewhat less aggressive toward other birds. Discussion The provision of the bird bath and sugar-water feeders has brought a great deal of pleasure to human observers of the birds. The bird bath continues to be used by a variety
The female bird began sitting in late November 2014. Four nestlings appeared in mid-December, but within the first few days one was found dead on the ground below the nest.
Figure 2B. End view of the larger sugar-water feeder, suspended by a chain(C) at each end. The dominant tui (T) is using one of the two perches added to the original unit. Photograph taken by the author. Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Figure 3. The smaller sugar-water feeder comprises a green-tinged 300 ml glass bottle inverted as a dispenser (D) over a basal, circular, plastic sugar-water tray (SWT) which projects below the lowest shelf (S). The bottle is held within an open cylindrical wooden frame which is suspended by a chain (C) attached to each side of the uppermost shelf. To drink sugar-water, birds either perch on the unit’s lowermost shelf, or they use the wooden perch (P, a 10 mm diameter dowelling) which the author attached to the original unit. The fixed end of P is firmly held within holes drilled across the lowest shelf (without blocking the central position of the dispenser-bottle), leaving an 8 cm length of dowelling to form the perch itself. The frame is 250 cm high and the shelves have diameters of (approximately) 15 cm. The lichen growing on the trunk of the tree (seen behind the feeder) was already present when the feeder was installed, and has not received any sugarwater spilt from the SWT. Photograph taken by the author. (In the above image, the shading in the region of P has been modified to show the perch more clearly.) Page 3
of species. The renewal of supplies is not a burdensome chore, but the replenishment of the sugar-water does require care, especially while installing the smaller feeder’s refilled dispenser-bottle. The author believes that the addition of the outrigger perches has made it easier for the larger birds to perch while they visit the feeders, and has recently discovered that Craig and others (1981a) stated that they presumed that the size and weight of tui would preclude them from feeding within small enclosed feeding stations. The smaller feeder is suspended by a single chain and swings considerably in strong winds, but the birds are quite able to cope with this increased mobility of their target. Tui often set the smaller feeder swinging when they arrive on or depart from the outrigger perch of this feeder, and some sugar-water may spill from the feeder at these times. Bellbirds seem quite fussy regarding perch size, for waxeyes, although smaller birds, readily use both the small feeder’s perch and the wider perches of the larger feeder. Norton (1980) noted that when bellbirds and tui ate berries of horopito, Pseudowintera axillaris, bellbirds perched on smaller branches, and closer to the berries, than did adult tui. The whirring sound produced by combative tui results from a notch in the eighth primary feather of each wing (Craig, 1984; Onely,1986). The noisy flight of kereru (Moon, 1992; Heather and Robertson, 2015) was equally prominent as they flew to or from the bird bath. The activities of the parent tui confirm the dominance of tui over bellbirds reported by Craig (1985). No ritual display flights by the tui (Blackburn, 1984) were seen, but nevertheless could have occurred while the author was absent from the garden. Edgar and others (1965) reported repeated dive-bombing of humans by a tui. Defensive ejection of excreta by nestlings and/or adults of some bird species has been reported overseas (Skutch,1976; Sims, 1983). The term “excretal bombing” is used in the present report because the digestive and the urogenital systems of birds both terminate in the cloaca (Nickel and others, 1977). The present tui’s bombing actions have, from the start, been so rapid, and the accuracy of the “bombing” is so good, that the behaviour seems innate. The tuis’ nesting and rearing behaviours were consistent with the clutch size of 2-4 eggs, about a 14-day incubation period, 3 weeks to fledging, and dispersal of the juveniles reported as typical of the species (Craig, 1984; Craig, 1985; Lipscombe, 2013; Thorpe, 2013; Heather and Robertson, 2015). The cause of the early death of one hatchling remains unknown (but might have been congenital or an infection). As the remaining 3 nestlings developed, the author became concerned about two possibilities. First, a diet containing sugar-water could have been giving the nestlings an excessive intake of carbohydrates. Secondly, the bird bath and feeders could have become reservoirs of infective organisms which could spread among visiting birds. Although the parent tui visited the sugar feeders often (and more frequently than they visited the bird bath) the author Page 4
has no means of knowing what volumes of the sugar-water might have been fed to the nestlings, but assumes that any such volumes were quite small. The 4.5 % (w/v) strength of the sugar-water which the author provides is much lower than the 15 % (w/v) sugar water provided for tui by Bergquist (1985a) or the 20 % dextrose solution commonly used when dosing adult birds (Mills, 2014). Young avian honeyeaters being raised in captivity are not usually given sugar-water but are fed a commerciallyavailable diet which is in the form of a powder (Morgan, 2015). In the present case, the parent birds continued to bring leaves, fruit and insects to the nest. This was consistent with reports of the normal diet of tui (McCann, 1952; Prickett, 1959; Pyke, 1980; Craig and others, 1981b; Bergquist, 1985b). The parents were concurrently visiting garden plants, such as kowhai, Sophora microphylla; bottlebrushes, Callistemon spp.; and Camellias, Camellia spp., which are well-known sources of nectar (McCann, 1952; Prickett, 1959; Innes and others, 2005). It therefore seems likely that the presence of the sugar-water feeders did not have any appreciable effect on the growth and development of the young birds. Few bees, wasps, ants or flies have visited the sugar-water feeders, although Moller and Tittley (1989) reported these creatures being visitors to honeydew in beech, Nothophagus spp., forests. One of the dangers of using sugar-water feeders is that they become attractive to wasps and bees (Hymenoptera) which are then caught by parent birds and fed to their hungry chicks. Inflammation of the wall of the gizzard (i.e., ventriculitis) caused by the migrating shafts of stings of hymenopterans has been identified in hihi chicks, Notiomystis cincta, of less than two weeks of age that died at the Karori/Zealandia reserve in Wellington City (Rippon and others, 2013). The author does not know where, and to what extent, the birds in his garden access water elsewhere, but the water in the bird bath has not become unduly dirty before being replaced, and no fungal growth has appeared in or around the bath. The absence of faecal accumulation in and around the bird bath and feeders suggests a low risk of infection from gastrointestinal pathogens. The regular replacement of the water limits possible development of mosquito larvae, irrespective of whether visiting birds might capture such larvae. The range of disease-producing organisms infecting New Zealand’s wildlife has long been recognised by veterinary clinicians and veterinary pathologists to include bacteria (Reed, 1995; Smits, 1997; Alley and others, 2002; Tizard, 2004), protozoa (Pauli, 1994; Blanks and others, 1995; Jakob-Hoff, 1996; Orr, 1998; Gartrell, 2002; Schoener and others, 2013a; Schoener and others, 2013b), nematodes (Clemance, 1994) and fungi (Williams, 1955; Boardman, 1994; Goold, 1994; Alley and others, 2000; Alley and others, 2005; Rippon and others, 2010), and it is possible that any such organisms might contaminate a water bath or a sugar-feeder, or spread directly among visiting birds (Cork Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
and others, 1995; Reed, 1995). In particular, Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans are fungi known to cause respiratory disease in birds (Williams, 1955; Boardman, 1994; Goold, 1994; Alley and others, 2000; Rippon and others, 2010; Morgan, 2015). The unidentified black fungus seen by the author on the perches and the ground below them (but not on the plastic sugar-water trays in the feeders) appeared to the author to be similar to the fungus which he had seen on honeydew in beech forests. The extensive but dispersed, whitish growths of lichen on the trunks of the trees in the garden that support the feeders (Figures 2A, 3) were already present when the feeders were installed, and have increased only slightly since that time. The water bath and feeders are cleaned regularly, and no sick or unkempt birds have been seen in the garden. The bird bath and feeders therefore do not seem to present any undue risk to the health of the birds which visit them. The parent tui and the 3 nestlings appeared to remain healthy throughout the growth of the young birds. Nevertheless, the possibility remains, even if unlikely, that before their departure the juvenile tui became infected with a disease-producing organism which would not produce overt disease until later. Conclusions • The installations are visited regularly by birds and provide enjoyment for human observers. • The bird bath is used by many avian species (including tui), for both drinking and bathing. • The larger sugar-water feeder is used more often by the parental tui than is the smaller unit, and they usually prefer to drink sugar-water rather than plain water. • The added outrigger perches provide secure footholds for the bellbirds and tui. • Unlike the waxeyes and tui, the bellbirds do not use the larger (25 mm diameter) perches provided. • One tui (presumed to be male) has assumed a dominant role in the garden that is reinforced by “excretal bombing” of other birds and of humans. • The process by which the pair of parent tui reared 3 fledglings seemed to be quite normal. • The availability of the water bath and the sugar-water feeders did not appear to have adverse effects at any stage on the health of the parent birds and their 3 fledglings. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Dr Kerri Morgan for her comments on the provision of bird baths and sugar-feeders for birds, and to Kokako’s editorial team for their help. Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
References Abbott, C. (2012). The Everything Small-Space Gardening Book Adams Media, Avon, Massachusetts, U,.S.A., page 259. Alley, M., Perrott, J., Springett, B., MacGregor, N., Armstrong, D. and Castro, I. (2000). Aspergillosis in the hihi (Notiomystis cincta): studies of the ecology of the organism in the nesting environment of hihi on Mokoia and Little Barrier Islands. Kokako, 7 (2) 4, Issue No. 16. Alley, M.R., Connolly, J.H., Fenwick, S.G., Mackereth, G.F., Leyland, M.J., Rogers, L.E., Haycock, M., Nicol, C. and Reed, C.E.M. (2002). An epidemic of salmonellosis caused by Salmonella Typhimurium DT160 in wild birds and humans in New Zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 50 (5) 170-176. Alley, M.R., Gartrell, B.D. and Morgan, K.J. (2005). Aspergillosis in tui, Prosthemadura novaeseelandiae. Kokako, 12 (2) 29, Issue No. 26. Anthony, D. (2012). The Ornamental Edible Garden David Bateman Ltd, Auckland, page 29. Armstrong, D.P., Castro, I. Alley, J.C., Feenstra, B. and Perrott, J.K. (1999). Mortality and behaviour of hihi, an endangered New Zealand honeyeater, in the establishment phase following translocation. Biological Conservation, 89 (3) 329-339. Armstrong, D.P., Castro, I. and Griffiths, R. (2007). Using adaptive management to determine requirements of re-introduced populations: the case of the New Zealand hihi. Journal of Applied Ecology, 44 (5) 953-962. Bergquist, C.A.L. (1985a). Movements of groups of tui (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) in winter and settlement of juvenile tui in summer. New Zealand Journal of Zoology,12 (4 ) 569-571. Bergquist, C.A.L. (1985b). Differences in diet of male and female tui (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae: Meilphagidae). New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 12 (4) 573-576. Blackburn, A, (1984). Unusual display by tui. Notornis, 31 (3) 231. Blanks, R., Bailey, K. and Graham, C. (1995). Native wood pigeon - trichomoniasis. Kokako, 2 (2) 3, Issue No. 4. Boardman, W. (1994). Some clinical observations on the treatment of aspergillosis in New Zealand native birds. Kokako, 1 (1) 4-5, Issue No. 1. Bolt, F. (2011). A garden nest. Forest & Bird, Issue No. 339 (February 2011), pages 28-30. Clemance, M. (1994). Tapeworms in saddlebacks. Kokako,1 (1) 6, Issue No. 1. Cork, S.C., Marshall, R.B., Madie, P. and Fenwick, S.G. (1995). The role of wild birds and the environment in the epidemiology of Yersinae in New Zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 43 (5) 169-174. Craig, J.L. (1984). Wing noises, wing slots, and aggression in New Zealand honeyeaters (Aves: Meliphagidae). New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 11 ( 2) 195-199.
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Craig, J.L. (1985). Status and foraging in New Zealand honeyeaters, New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 12 (4) 589-597. Craig, J.L, Douglas, M.E., Stewart, A.M. and Veitch, C.R. (1981a). Specific and sexual differences in body measurements of New Zealand honeyeaters. Notornis, 28 (2) 121-128. Craig, J.L., Stewart, A.M. and Douglas, M.E. (1981b). The foraging of New Zealand honeyeaters. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 8 (1) 87-91. Dixon, T. and Churchill, J. (1998). The Vision of Edna Walling Bloomings Books, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia, pages 13, 22, 33, 69, 119. Edgar, A.R., Kinsky, F.C. and Williams, G.R. (1965). The Kermadecs Expedition, 17-27 November 1964. Notornis, 12 (1) 3-[39]-43. Gartrell, B. (2002). Kereru with trichomoniasis. Kokako, 9 (2) 9, Issue No. 20. Goold, M. (1994). Aspergillosis in keas. Kokako, 1 (2) 5, Issue No. 2.
Orr, M. (1998). Giardiasis. Kokako, 5 (1) 3, Issue No. 10. Pauli, J.M. (1994). Wild is not always ‘clean’. Kokako, 1 (2) 66-7, Issue No. 2. Powlesland.R., Miskelly, C. and Innes, J. (2008). City slickers. Forest & Bird, Issue No. 330 (November, 2008), pages 36-38. Prickett, A. (1959). Tuis in an Auckland garden. Notornis, 8 (4) 123-124. Pyke, G.H. (1980). The foraging behaviour of honeyeaters: a review and some comparisons with hummingbirds. Australian Journal of Ecology, 5 (4) 343-369. Reed, C. (1995). The development of disease management protocols for the Department of Conservation. Kokako, 2 (1) 6-8, Issue No. 3. Rippon, R.J., Alley, M.R. and Castro, I. (2010). Candida albicans infection in free-living populations of hihi (stitchbird; Notiomystis cincta). New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 58 (6) 299-306.
Heather, B. D. and Robertson, H. A. 2015). The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand Fourth Edition, Penguin-Random House New Zealand, pages 172, 406-407.
Rippon, R.J., Alley, M.R. and Castro, I. (2013). Traumatic ventriculits following consumption of introduced insect prey (Hymenoptera) in nestling hihi (Notiomystis cincta). Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 49 (1) 80-90.
Innes, J., Fitzgerald, N., Watts, C., Thornburrow, D., Blackwell, H., Lancaster, E. and Burns, B. (2005). Distribution, movement and nesting success of Waikato tui. (Abstract) Notornis, 52 (3) 173.
Robertson, H.A., Whittaker, A.H. and Fitzgerald, B.M. (1983). Morphometrics of forest birds in the Orongorongo Valley, Wellington, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 10 (1) 87-98.
Jakob-Hoff, R. (1996). A possible epornithic in feral spotted doves Streptopelia chinensis. Kokako, 3 (1) 3, Issue No. 6.
Schoener, E.R., Alley, M.R., Howe, L. and Castro, I. (2013a). Coccidia species in endemic and native New Zealand passerines. Parasitology Research, 112 (5) 2027-2036.
Kikkawa, J. (1962). Wintering silvereyes at bird tables in the Dunedin area. Notornis, 9 (8) 280-291. Lipscombe, M. (2013). Tui: a nest in the bush Craig Potton Publishing, Nelson, photo for day 15. McCann, C. (1952). The tui and its food plants. Notornis, 5 (1) 6-14.
Schoener, E.R., Alley, M.R., Twentyman, C.M., Howe, L., Barta, J.R., Charleston, W.A.G. and Castro, I. (2013b). Coccidiosis in hihi/stitchbirds (Notiomystis cincta) due to coccidia of the Eimeriidae. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 61 (2) 68-76.
Mills, D.H. (2014). Drug dosages for avian patients. Kokako, 21 (2) 27-36, Issue No. 44.
Scott, N. and Pescott, R.T.M. (1985). The Complete Book of Gardening For New Zealand Lloyd O’Neil Pty Ltd, Victoria, Australia, page 35.
Moller, H. and Tittley, J.A.V. (1989). Beech honeydew: Seasonal variation and use by wasps, honey bees, and other insects. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 16 (3) 289-302.
Sims, E. (1983). A Natural History of British Birds J M Dent & Sons Ltd, London, page 173.
Moon, G. (1992). A Field Guide to New Zealand Birds Reed Books, Auckland, page 166. Morgan, K.J. (2015). Personal communication. Contact address: Dr K.J. Morgan, Wildlbase, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442. Newcombe, J. (2011). The Kiwi Backyard Handbook Pelican, Penguin Group, Auckland, pages 124-127. Nickel, R., Schummer A. and Seiferle, E (1977). Anatomy of the Domestic Birds. Translation by Siller, W.G. and Wight, P.A.L. Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin & Hamburg, page 56. Norton, S.A. (1980). Honeyeaters feeding on Pseudowintera - a new record. Notornis, 27 (1) 99-100.
Skutch, A.F. (1976). Parent Birds and Their Young University of Texas Press, Austin and London, pages 430-431. Smits, B.(1997). Diseases of wildlife seen at Alpha Scientific (March - May 1997). Kokako, 4 (2) 14, Issue No.8. Thomas, G.S. (Editor) (1984). Recreating the Period Garden Swallow Publishing Ltd, London, page 155. Thorpe, R. (2013). Introduction. In: Lipscombe (2013), pages 3-8. Tizard, I. (2004). Salmonellosis in wild birds. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine, 13 (2) 50-66. Williams, G.R. (1955). A case of aspergillosis in the blackbacked gull. Notornis, 6 (6) 166-167.
Onely, D.J. (1986). A method of ageing the tui (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) and its use in assessing body measurements. Notornis, 33 (1) 45-49. Page 6
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Kokako 22 (1) 7-8, 2015
Conference Programme
Wildlife Society N.Z.V.A. 2014 Conference, Wanaka General Theme: "Wildlife Connect" Conference Programme (Only the presenters of the papers have been named below.) Friday, 05 December, 2014
Saturday, 06 December
Venue:
8.40 a.m.
Pathology of Kiwi, Apteryx spp. Stuart Hunter, Veterinary Pathologist, Wildbase, Massey University, Palmerston North.
9.00 a.m.
Coccidiosis in the Kiwi, Apteryx spp. Kerri Morgan, Wildbase, Massey University, Palmerston North.
9.20 a.m
Coccidia in a Kiwi Creche. Harry Taylor, Veterinarian, Te Puke Veterinary Centre, Te Puke.
9.40 a.m.
Coccidia Panel: Stuart Hunter, Kat McInnes, Kerri Morgan, Harry Taylor.
Talks: 9.00 a.m.
Edgewater Resort, Wanaka.
Fighting extinction: Veterinary Management of Endangered Skink Programmes at Zoos Victoria. Franciscus Scheelings, Veterinarian. Melbourne, Australia.
9.30 a.m. Re-establishing the California Condor, Gymnogyps fornianus, in the Arizona: Challenges and Opportunities. Roberto Aguilar, Veterinarian, Wildbase, Massy University, Palmerston North. 10.00 a.m. MORNING TEA
10.00 a.m. MORNING TEA. 10.30 a.m. Post-mortem Findings in Wild Saker Falcons, Falco cherrug, in Mongolia. Janelle Ward, Veterinarian. 10.50 a.m. Orangutan Conservation: A Field Update of Borneo’s Newest Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Centre. Micah Jensen, Veterinarian, Hamilton. 11.10 a.m. Basic Principles of Avian Orthopaedic Surgery. Franciscus Scheelings, Veterinarian. Melbourne, Australia. 11.40 a.m. Session questions. 11.45 a.m. LUNCH 12.45 p.m. Workshops (held at Edgewater Resort and Aorangi College) Workshops on: (a) Avian Surgery (b) Avian Pathology (c) Avian Haematology & Biochemistry 2.45 p.m.
AFTERNOON TEA
3.00 p.m. 5.00 p.m.
Workshops resumed. Workshops ended.
5.30 p.m.
A.G.M. of N.Z.V.A. Wildlife Society.
7.00 p.m.
Movie-and-Dinner evening, at “El Paradiso”, Wanaka.
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
10.30 a.m. Caring for Kea, Nestor notabilis - a Community Partnership. Tasmin Orr-Walker, The Kea Conservation Trust, Wakatipu. 10.50 a.m. Understanding Attacks by Kea, Nestor notabilis, an endemic high country parrot, on sheep in New Zealand. Clio Reid, Postgraduate student, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Plamerston North. 11.10 a.m. A Survey of Lead levels in Wild Kea, Nestor notabilis. Kate McInnes, Veterinarian, Department of Conservation, Wellington. 11.30 a.m. Beef Cows and Banded Kokopu -- Balancing Veterinary and Conservation Roles in the East Coast. Jamie Foxley, Veterinarian, Eastland Veterinary Services, Gisborne. 11.50 a.m. Translocation of Kiwi from Moehau to Motutapu Island. Inge Bolt, Locum Veterinarian, 12.10 p.m. Engaging the Veterinary Profession and Community in Wildlfe Work. Nigel Dougherty, Veterinarian, Northern Southland Veterinary Services, Te Anau.
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12.30 p.m. LUNCH 2.00 p.m.
7.30 pm.
Boat departed for visit to Mao Waho Island, in Lake Wanaka; with optional climb to Island’s lake and summit. Birds seen on the Island included Buff weka, Gallirallus australis hectori, translocated from the Chatham Islands, to where the sub-species had been introduced before disappearing from the eastern South Island [Reference: Miskelly, C.M. and Powlesland, R.G. (2013). Conservation translocations of New Zealand birds, 1863-2012. Notornis, 60 (1) 3-28.] While near the lake, the climbers saw an endemic (but not threatened) “Southern Alps gecko”, Woodworthia “Southern Alps” This species occurs in inland areas from northern Otago, through the mountainous and arid regions of Canterbury, to southern Marlborough, and on all islands in Lakes Wanaka and Hawea, except Ruby Island. [Reference: Jewell, T. (2008). Reptiles and Amphibians of New Zealand New Holland Publishers (NZ) Ltd, Auckland, page 58]. Conference Dinner (at Edgewater Resort).
Sunday, 07 December Talks:
(at Edgewater Resort)
9.00 a.m.
Emergency Medicine for Reptiles. Franciscus Sheelings, Veterinarian. Melbourne, Australia.
9.20 a.m.
Foraging Behaviour of Brown Kiwi. Isabel Castro, Ecologist, Institute of Agriculture & Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North.
9.40 a.m.
How Important is the Uropygial Gland in Kiwi.? Maurice Alley, Veterinary Pathologist, Wildlbase, Massey University, Palmerston North.
10.00 a.m. Epidemiology of Diphtheritic Stomatitis in Yellow-eyed Penguins, Megadyptes antipodes. Kelly Buckle, Veterinary Pathologist, Ministry of Primary Industries, Wellington.
11.05 a.m. Applying Structured Decision Making to Management of the Reintroduced Hihi, Notiomystis cincta, Population in Bushy Park Reserve. Julia Panfylova, Postgraduate Student, Massey University, Palmerston North. 11.20 a.m. Liver Hydrocarbon Levels in Little Blue Penguins, Eudyptula minor, Affected by an Oil Spill, Compared to Baseline Levels. Serena Finlayson, Veterinary Resident, Wildbase, Massey University, Palmerston North. 11.35 a.m. Approaches to Automatic Bird Song Recognition. Nirosha Priyadarshani, Postgraduate Student, Computer Science, Massey University, Palmerston North. Noon LUNCH 1.00 p.m. Kakapo Recovery Project; A Student’s Volunteer Experience. Brandy Maloney, Veterinary Student, Massey University, Palmerston North. 1.15 p.m. Working With Wildlife in South Africa: the Good, the Bad and and the Ugly. Chelsea Dillon, Veterinary Student, Massey University, Palmerston North. 1.30 p.m.
Working With Wildlife in South Africa: Long Horns and Long Tails. Stefan Gordon, Veterinary Student, Massey University, Palmerston North.
1.45 p.m. Recent Yellow-eyed Penguin Population Trends on Whenua Island and Stewart Island. Sarah McCallum, Veterinary Student, Massey University, Palmerston North. 2.00 p.m. CLOSE of Conference.
Craig Pritchard Kerri Morgan Conference Co-Convenors.
10.20 a.m. MORNING TEA 10.35 a.m. Conservation Medicine at Auckland Zoo. Melanie Leech, Veterinarian, Postgraduate student, Murdoch University. 10.50 a.m. What Kiwi and Cats Get Up To After Dark: A Pilot Study Using Trail Cameras. Kathryn Strang, Postgraduate Student, Massey University, Palmerston North. Page 8
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Kokako 22 (1) 9, 2015
Research Report
Applying Structured Decision Making to Management of the Reintroduced Hihi, Notiomystis cincta, in the Bushy Park Reserve J. (Julia) Panfylova Postgraduate Student in Conservation Biology, Institute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442. Reintroduction is a complex process which requires cooperation between conservation managers and stakeholders to make management decisions before and after translocation. Before a translocation, managers need to decide what release site will be appropriate, how many individuals will be translocated, the origin of individuals, and what release method should be used. After release, managers need to decide what management to apply in order to increase population viability. Structured Decision Making (SDM, Martin and others, 2009) is a useful tool for resolving these complex problems and finding a decision that is a good compromise for stakeholders. We used SDM to determine the optimal management of a recently reintroduced population of an endangered New Zealand forest bird, the hihi, Notiomystis cincta, in Bushy Park Reserve near Kai Iwi (39o 55’ 48” S, 175o 2’ 52” E, northwest of Whanganui, Figure 1). Bushy Park is relatively small (100 ha), is enclosed by a predator-proof fence and has nest boxes and sugar-water feeders for hihi. Forty four juvenile hihi from Tiritiri Matangi Island (36o 36’ S, 174o 53’ E) were reintroduced to Bushy Park in March 2013. Of the 21 females originally reintroduced, only 4 survived to the first breeding season, and 2 of these 4 survived to the second breeding season (i.e., for 18 months). The improved female survival rate after the first 6 months indicated that the elevated mortality during the initial period was probably a result of post-translocation stress. However, overall, the two breeding seasons were successful, with 13 chicks being banded during the first breeding season and 25 during the second. One of the subsequent management proposals was to translocate more birds from Tiritiri Matangi Island to reinforce the Bushy Park population. Follow-up translocation is a common management action, as in most such projects more than one translocation is required in order to establish a viable population. Although this action is potentially beneficial to the Bushy Park population, these benefits have to be weighed against the impact on the
source population, especially in this case, because only one source population is available for harvesting hihi. One of the most important and difficult steps in SDM is to model and predict the outcome of management actions. In order to understand the consequences of harvesting and translocation, we estimated survival and reproductive rates of the Bushy Park population (we used existing vital rates for the Tiritiri Matangi population) and built a model which combined two populations together. We projected population dynamics under the alternatives: (i) Status Quo, which means continue supplementary feeding and monitoring during the breeding season, and (ii) Follow-up translocation. Projections indicated (although with great uncertainty!) that the Bushy Park population will grow over the next ten years, with a very small probability of extinction. At the same time, modelling indicated that harvesting will not risk extinction of the Tiritiri Matangi population. Another difficult step in SDM is the evaluating of tradeoffs and selecting the appropriate management action, especially when the decision is complicated by uncertainty. Several techniques can help to deal with uncertainty and allow incorporation of stakeholders’ preferences. We used Simple Multi-Attribute Rating Technique (SMART, Edwards, 1977). Based on our projection and decision analysis, the Hihi Recovery Group decided that follow-up translocation is not necessary at this point, and that Status Quo is the preferred alternative for managing the Bushy Park population. Further monitoring of the Bushy Park population, with the aim of collecting more data on reproduction and survival, will help to reduce uncertainty in the projections of population dynamics and further management should be adapted in accordance with new knowledge. References Edwards, W. (1977). How to use multivariate utility measurement for social decision making. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 7 (5) 326-240. Martin, J., Runge, M.C., Nichols, J.D., Lubow, B.C. and Kendall, W.L. (2009). Structured decision making as a conceptual framework to identify thresholds for conservation management. Ecological Applications, 19 (5) 1079-1090.
Figure 1. Diagram showing that the Bushy Park Reserve is northwest of Whanganui and inland from Kai Iwi. The inset shows that Whanganui city (more extensive than indicated above) is on the southwestern coast of the North Island of New Zealand. SH = State Highway. Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Much of the information in this report was included in a paper given by the author at the 2014 Conference (at Wanaka) of the Wildlife Society of the New Zealand Veterinary Association. Page 9
Kokako 22 (1) 10-11, 2015
Conference Programme
Wildlife Rehabilitators Network of New Zealand (WReNNZ) Annual Conference, May 2015, Hamilton Main Theme: What is Wildlife Rehabilitation? [In this context, a 'rehabilitator' ('rehabber') is a person who cares for an animal during its recovery from injury or illness, especially during the longer-term phases of this recovery. 'Rehabilitating' and 'rehabbing' are other terms commonly used within WReNNZ.] Conference Programme Friday 22 May, 2015 Venue:
Department of Conservation, Northway Street, Te Rapa, Hamilton
2.30 p.m. Workshop: Introduction to Wildlife - 4.30 p.m. Rehabilitation [Rescue → veterinary care → rehabilitation → release.] Janelle Ward, veterinarian, Wildlife Health Solutions, Papamoa. (5.30 p.m. - 7.30 p.m. Committee Meeting – committee members only) Saturday, 23 May Venue:
Department of Conservation, Rostrevor Street, Hamilton.
Talks: 8.45 a.m. Welcome & Official Opening of Conference Bill Smith, Conference Convenor. Rosemary Tully, WReNNZ Chairperson. 9.00 a.m. Research on saker falcons in Mongolia. Janelle Ward, veterinarian, Wildlife Health Solutions, Papamoa. 9.40 a.m. Keeping treatment records and reporting outcomes, using an already-available, “cloud”based program for rehabilitators: www.WRMD. org. Bill Smith, Avian Wildlife Rehabilitation Trust, Waikato.
Noon
12.30 p.m. Working and renting, while rehabbing: when the rehabber is living in a rented property. Sam Rufus, Avian Wildlife Rehabilitation Trust, Waikato. 1.00 p.m. LUNCH 1.30 p.m. Compassion fatigue, i.e., the lessening of compassion with time. Bridey White, Technical Officer, Oiled Wildlife Unit, Wildbase, Palmerston North. 2.00 p.m. Caring for the first Mottled Petrel chicks translocated to Boundary Stream, Hawkes Bay, to re-establish a colony. Pam Turner, rehabilitator, Hastings. 2.30 p.m. Core basics of wildlife care: what to do in the first 24 - 48 hours. Roberto Aguilar, veterinarian, Wildbase, Palmerston North. 3.00 p.m.
AFTERNOON TEA
3.30 p.m.
Acomparison of diets used during translocations of Grey-faced Petrel chicks in New Zealand. Micah Jensen, veterinarian, Hamilton Zoo.
4.00 p.m.
10.10 a.m. MORNING TEA 10.30 a.m. Tales from the other side: personal experiences of rehabilitation, as described by a rehabilitator’s spouse. Brian Robertson, professional civil engineer, Auckland. 11.00 a.m. To be, or not to be: that is the question - deciding whether or not to begin rehabilitation of a malformed or physically-disabled patient. Rosemary Tully, retired rehabilitator, Tauranga. 1130 a.m. Going batty! Studying bats in the Pureora Forest. Krystal Jansen, postgraduate student, University of Waikato.
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The influence of light on the foraging behaviour of mice. Bridgette Moffat, postgraduate student, University of Waikato.
Statutory Requirements, under the Wildlife Act 1953, for interaction with protected wildlife. Wilma van Orsouw (aka Wilma Howard) and Paul Hardy, Shared Service Centre, Department of Conservation, Hamilton.
5.00 p.m. Session ended. 7.00 p.m. Conference Dinner. Sunday, 24 May Venue:
Department of Conservation, Rostrevor Street, Hamilton.
Talks: 9.00 a.m. Our Far South: Seabird capital of the World Andrew Dallas (Guest Speaker), wildlife enthusiast, Tauranga. 10.00 a.m. Some mistakes rehabilitators have made. Rosemary Tully, retired rehabilitator, Tauranga.
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
10.30 a.m. Please release me! Please let me go! Deciding what style of release has become appropriate. Rosalie Goldsworthy, Penguin Rescue, Moeraki. 11.00 a.m. Proposed new Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre in Palmerston North. Peter Russell, Curator of birds, Palmerston North City Council. 11.10 a.m. MORNING TEA 11.30 a.m. Conservation, environmental sustainability and animal welfare. Liza Schneider, veterinarian, Animal Rescue & Rehabilitation Centre, Tauranga. Noon
A visit to the Galapagos Islands. Thomas Stracke, Christchurch Penguin Rehabilitation Trust.
12.15 p.m. Conservation and Rehabilitation Work at the Kiwi Birdlife Park, Queenstown. Jennifer Clark, Kiwi Birdlife Park. 12.30 p.m. Regional Updates: Chrissy Jefferson Thomas Stracke Craig Shepherd Annemieke Kregting -
Bay of Plenty Christchurch Wellington Coromandel
1.00 p.m. Details of trip to Hamilton Zoo Samantha Kudeweh, Curator, Hamilton Zoo. 1.15 p.m. Official close of conference. 1.30 p.m. LUNCH
Post-lunch excursion to Hamilton Zoo.
Bill Smith Conference Convenor
Kokako 22 (1) 11, 2015
Conference Report
Wildlife Rehabilitators Network of New Zealand (WReNNZ) Conference, 2015 The wildlife rehabilitators network of New Zealand (WReNNZ) [Ko te Whakaora na te Whakauka] is a network formed among people who rehabilitate sick or injured wildlife, veterinarians in clinical practice who treat wildlife cases, and others interested in the conservation and rehabilitation of wildlife. The network’s 2015 Conference was held in Hamilton on Saturday 23 & Sunday 24 May, with the overall theme being “What is Wildlife Rehabilitation?”. The conference itself was preceded by a Friday afternoon workshop, titled “Introduction to Wildlife Rehabilitation”, that covered the successive stages of rescue, veterinary care, rehabilitation and release of wildlife patients. Several of the younger participants had either recently begun rehabbing, or were thinking of starting, and these folk found the session particularly useful. Helpful comments and practical tips from “less-young” participants added to the discussions. The same friendly spirit continued during the conference itself. As indicated by the conference programme, within a periphery set by falcons in Mongolia, penguins in the Galapagos, the mammals and birds of New Zealand’s Subantarctic islands, and concern for the environment, and supplemented by reports on bats and mice in Pureora forest, several talks considered petrels, penguins and practicalities (including regulatory requirements). After a description of the ways in which young birds in incubators can be given frequent feeds by those in regular employment, further talks focussed (usually anonymously) on rehabbers’ personal problems of fatigue, frustration and failure, along with questions of whether or not to start rehabilitation of particular patients, and of when and how to release the successes. Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
The informal dinner on the Saturday night was, in effect, an additional workshop, for it provided excellent opportunities for practical self-rehabiliation using the wide variety of dietary items and a range of fluids to oil ongoing discussions of successes and failures. The conference ended with a visit to Hamilton Zoo that highlighted further perspectives. A behind-the-scenes visit to the hospital area showed the capability for using the apparatus for anaesthesia and surgery both within the building and when transported readily out to the field, and the extensive food-preparation area. Two caged sulphurcrested cockatoos, Cacatua galerita, commanded attention before a free-ranging weka, Gallirallus australis, scrutinised the group. Loud “popping” sounds of contentment from the lips of mutually-grooming chimpansees, Pan troglodytes, strangely echoed the association in humans, Homo sapiens, between contentment and the popping of ringtabs on aluminium cans. A watchful tigress, Panthera tigris sumatrae, sitting apart from her cubs, provided the prelude to a close-up encounter with a male tiger (on the other side of a strong mesh fence) and then the work-in-progress to create further exhibits. Passing westerly showers added realism to the “rain forest” area, and meant that the native birds were readily seen, from an initial inquisitive kaka, Nestor meridionalis, to a dignified sentinel kereru, Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae, perched near the exit from the enclosure. Prominent throughout the weekend was the goodwill of the staff of the Department of Conservation and of Hamilton Zoo, a spirit which is also strongly evident among the rehabbers themselves and between rehabbers and the Department of Conservation in other parts of New Zealand.
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Preliminary Notice of N.Z.V.A. Wildlife Society’s 2015 Conference Plans are underway for the N.Z.V.A. Wildlife Society’s 2015 Conference to be held at Hamilton, from Friday 27h to Sunday 29th November, 2015.
It is expected that a draft programme, together with details of registration and suggestions for accommodation, will become available in September/October.
Massey University Students' Wildlife Conservation Club (MUSWCC) Club News (Semester 1, 2015) The following Committee (Figure 1) is currently operating the Club: Co-Presidents:
Miss Dani Stevens Mr Kyle Jones
Secretary:
Miss Siobhan Ellis
Treasurer:
Miss Erin Maesson
Committee:
Miss Nicolette Adamson Miss Rebecca Barwell Miss Chelsea Dillon Mr Stefan Gordon Miss Amy Kachurowski Mr Daniel Koh Miss Emily Lewis Miss Brandy Maloney Miss Marina Mendes Dean Miss Brittany Schlotfeldt Miss Lia Watson
The Club’s regular Wednesday meetings began for the year with a talk on a veterinarian’s first response to avian
trauma. The scope of the talks then ventured out to sea, to consider whether seismic testing is linked to strandings of beaked whales (Order Ziphiidae); before reporting on research on giraffes in Africa and of efforts to rescue tigers and cobras in India. Topics based back in New Zealand then introduced members to the preparation and mechanisms for responding to the oiling of free-living wildlife; pain recognition and relief in birds; hormone responses and the ability of birds and other animals to cope with environmental change; the translocation of hihi, Notiomystis cincta, from Tiritiri Matangi Island (36o 36’ S, 174o 53’ E, in the Hauraki Gulf) to Bushy Park (39o 51’ S, 174o 56‘ E, near Kai Iwi). The meetings continued with talks on long-term research on southern hairy-nosed wombats, Lasiorhinus latifrons, in South Australia; strategies for the repair of fractures in birds; dealing with large native pinnipeds, Arctocephalus forsteri; and the carriage of Salmonella spp. by wild and captive species of reptiles. During a weekend excursion early in May, 12 students enjoyed an opportunity to undertake the Tongariro Crossing (in the central region of the North Island). In addition, members’ help with rehabilitation of wildlife patients at Dawne Morton’s Whanganui Bird Rescue continued during the semester.
Figure 1. Committee: Back Row (left to right) Daniel Koh, Amy Kachurowski, Rebecca Barwell, Emily Lewis, Brandy Maloney, Erin Maesson. Front Row (left to right) Marina Mendes Dean, Siobhan Ellis, Dani Stevens, Kyle Jones, Brittany Schlotfeldt. Absent: Nicolette Adamson, Chelsea Dillon, Stefan Gordon, Lia Watson. Page 12
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
The New Wildbase Hospital at Massey University: Ground Breaking Ceremony Site-work has begun for the construction of the new Wildbase hospital at the Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences (IVABS), Massey University, Palmerston North. The planned $1.44 million project will erect the stand-alone building alongside the campus “Ring Road”, between the existing Veterinary Teaching Hospital and Clinic and the Hopkirk Research Institute building (Figure 1). The new three-storied building will provide ground floor space for the Wildbase Hospital, and contain multiple treatment rooms, a surgical area, and dedicated areas for feeding animals and housing wildlife patients. The complete building will provide a total of 2,100 square metres of floor space and is expected to be finished by April, 2016. The project has been made possible by funding from Shell New Zealand (the company which has partnered the existing Wildbase hospital for the last 12 years), grants from the Lotteries Commission, Eastern and Central Communities Trust, Central Energy Trust, Craig Shepherd and Provet, and many smaller contributions from supporters and friends of Wildbase, including many Massey staff members. A ground breaking ceremony to mark the beginning of the project was held on 25th February this year when Hon. Maggie Barry, Minister for Conservation, turned the first sod in collaboration with children from the local Turitea Primary School (Figure 2). The ceremony was attended by a number of major sponsors and supporters including Massey University’s Vice-chancellor Steve Maharey; Paul Kenyon, Head of IVABS; Brett Gartrell, Director of Wildbase; Rob Jager, General Manager of Shell New Zealand; Lady Raewyn Henry; Craig Shepherd; Vicki and David Stewart; Palmerston North Mayor, Grant Smith; and local Members of Parliament, Iain Lees-Galloway and Ian McKelvie. Rob Jager complimented the hospital for its success in the last 12 years and praised the quality and dedication of its team,
Figure 2. Rob Jager and Hon. Maggie Barry, together with Maggie Rate, a Turitea School pupil, turn the first sods for the foundation for the new Wildbase Hospital. The existing veterinary tower building is in the background (at upper right). [Photograph taken by David Wiltshire.
and Steve Maharey commended Associate Professor Brett Gartrell for his efforts in contributing to the development of the new facility.
At the beginning of the ceremony the Turitea school children helped plant native trees in a nearby area (Figure 3) to compensate for the loss of the oak trees that have been removed to make way for the construction of the new building. While at Massey University, Maggie Barry visited several of Wildbase’s current patients and helped feed two yelloweyed penguins (hoiho), Megadyptes antipodes, recovering from bite wounds. She also met a North Island brown kiwi, Apteryx mantelli, from the Pukaha Mt Bruce Wildlife Centre (40o 44’ S, 175o 41’ E) that was being treated Figure 1. The architect’s concept of the southern view of the new Wildbase Hospital (large, light coloured for lead poisoning after building) attached to the existing Veterinary Teaching Hospital and Clinic (dark coloured, single-story building having ingested a piece at right). The Hopkirk Institute building (dark coloured) is toward the left of the Figure and the “Ring Road” of wire (Figure 4). is in the foreground. [The existing veterinary tower is not shown: it is to the right of the whole picture.] Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
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Figure 3. The Hon. Maggie Barry planting a rimu tree, Dacrydium cupressinum, opposite the site of the new Wildbase hospital, with the assistance of Maggie Rate, a Turitea School pupil who is wearing a mask. [Photograph taken by David Wiltshire.]
Figure 4. Pauline Nijman (supervising wildlife technician) is holding a kiwi patient in the existing Wildlife Ward, with Hon. Maggie Barry looking on. [Photograph taken by David Wiltshire.]
Kokako 22 (1) 14-18, 2015
Historical Report
N.Z.V.A. Wildlife Society is in its 40th Year The N.Z.V.A. Wildlife Society had its beginnings in a “Wildlife Group” formed in February, 1976. Tables 1A and 1B record the names of the Society’s members who have served on the Society’s sucessive Committees, or helped with activities other than the Society’s Seminars/Conferences. Some landmark events in the Society’s growth are also noted. Memberships of Society’s Committee, and Some Major Events (Excludes details of Society’s Seminars/Conferences) Table 1A: 1976 - 1995 Inaugurated, as a “Wildlife Group”, at an informal meeting (during NZVA’s Conference at Wairakei in February 1976) convened by Ian Crook and Graham Meadows. (From late 1978, most AGMs were held in November/December each year.) President SecretaryCouncillor(s) Helper(s) Treasurer / Committee 1976 Graham Meadows Ted Kirk Alistair Farrier Lionel Horton 1976-1977 Graham Meadows Ted Kirk Alistair Farrier Cheque co-signer: Peter Wilson During 1977, discussions with N.Z.V.A. led to the Group becoming a Branch (Wildlife Society) of the N.Z.V.A. 1977-1978 Graham Meadows Ted Kirk Alistair Farrier Cheque co-signer: Barry Stevenson Peter Wilson The farming of captured feral deer having developed in the 1970s, the Society held a “Seminar on Deer” at Te Anau in 1978, and helped establish a “Deer Panel of the N.Z.V.A”. Peter Wilson then took a major role in replacing the Panel with the separate Deer Branch of the N.Z.V.A. 1978-1979
Ted Kirk
Liz Sommerville
Alistair Farrier Cheque co-signer: Barry Stevenson John Baragwanath A.G.M. on 25 November, 1979, resolved that henceforth the accounts be audited. 1979-1980 Ted Kirk Liz Sommerville Alistair Farrier Cheque co-signer: Barry Stevenson John Baragwanath Help with wording of texts of submissions: Marion Cunningham Auditor: External (i.e., non-veterinary) Page 14
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
1980-1981
Ted Kirk
Liz Sommerville
Alistair Farrier Barry Stevenson
1981-1982
Lindsay Frazer
Ted Kirk
John Baragwanath
1982-1983
Lindsay Frazer
Ted Kirk
John Baragwanath
1983-1984
Roger Marshall
Ted Kirk
John Baragwanath
1984-1985
Roger Marshall*
Ted Kirk*
John Baragwanath Marion Cunningham
Cheque co-signer: John Baragwanath Texts of submissions: Marion Cunningham Auditor: External Texts of submissions: Marion Cunningham Auditor: External Texts of submissions: Marion Cunningham Auditor: External Texts of submissions: Marion Cunningham Auditor: External Auditor: External
* Maurice Alley was Acting-Secretary/Treasurer in the period January-July,1985 (and much involved in arranging the 1985 Seminar); and was Acting-President at the time of the Seminar. 1985-1986
Roger Marshall
Ted Kirk
1986-1987
Roger Marshall
Ted Kirk
1987-1988
Roger Marshall
Ted Kirk
1988-1989
Roger Marshall
Ted Kirk
1989-1990
Roger Marshall
Ted Kirk
1990-1991
Roger Marshall
Ted Kirk
1991-1992
Roger Marshall
Ted Kirk
1992-1993
Roger Marshall
Ted Kirk
John Baragwanath Marion Cunningham John Baragwanath Marion Cunningham John Baragwanath Marion Cunningham John Baragwanath Marion Cunningham John Baragwanath Marion Cunningham John Baragwanath Marion Cunningham Paul Prosée Ros Rothschild John Baragwanath Marion Cunningham Paul Prosée Ros Rothschild John Baragwanath Marion Cunningham Paul Prosée Ros Rothschild
Auditor: External Auditor: External Auditor: External Auditor: Maurice Alley Auditor: Maurice Alley Auditor: Maurice Alley Auditor: Maurice Alley Auditor: Maurice Alley
In 1990, Wayne Boardman and Megan Clemance proposed that the Society distribute information on native fauna. In 1993, Wayne Boardman, Megan Clemance and Paul Prosée proposed that the Society publish a regular Bulletin. Publication of the Bulletin, titled Kokako, began in 1994, with Paul Prosée as producer. 1993-1994
Peter Stockdale
1994-1995
Peter Stockdale
Ted Kirk
John Baragwanath Megan Clemance Marion Cunningham Paul Prosée Ros Rothschild Ted Kirk John Baragwanath Wayne Boardman Megan Clemance Marion Cunningham Paul Prosée Ros Rothschild (Continued as Table 1B)
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Auditor: Maurice Alley
Auditor: Maurice Alley
Page 15
Memberships of Society’s Committees, and Some Major Events (Excludes details of Society’s Seminars/Conferences) Table 1B: 1996 - 2015 († = was Committee member at time of death) President Secretary Treasurer Committee Helper(s) A.G.M. on 26 November 1995, at Waiwera, accepted Committee’s proposal that the Society should have a separate Treasurer. 1995-1996 Peter Ted Kirk John Megan Clemance Stockdale Baragwanath Marion Cunningham Roger Marshall Auditor: Jerry Pauli Maurice Alley Paul Prosée Bronwyn Smits 1996-1997 Jerry Pauli Ted Kirk John Megan Clemance Baragwanath Marion Cunningham† Auditor: Roger Marshall Maurice Alley Paul Prosée Bronwyn Smits Marion Cunningham died on 18 June 1997 [Kokako, 4 (2) 22, Issue No. 8] 1997-1998 Jerry Pauli Ted Kirk John Megan Clemance Baragwanath Alison Cullum Roger Marshall Auditor: Paul Prosée Maurice Alley Bronwyn Smits 1998-1999 Jerry Pauli Ted Kirk John Alison Cullum DoC Liaison: Baragwanath Stephanie Kelly Christine Reed Roger Marshall Marjorie Orr Auditor: Paul Prosée Maurice Alley Bronwyn Smits Clair Stafford Lab Wilson A.G.M. on 05 December, 1999 agreed that Christine Reed (an Associate Member since 05 December, 1993) continue to provide liaison with the Department of Conservation (DoC). 1999-2000 Jerry Pauli Ted Kirk John Alison Cullum DoC Liaison: Baragwanath Stephanie Kelly Christine Reed Roger Marshall Lindsay McKnight Auditor: Marjorie Orr Maurice Alley Paul Prosée Clair Stafford Lab Wilson 2000-2001 Jerry Pauli Ted Kirk John Alison Cullum DoC Liaison: Baragwanath Stephanie Kelly Christine Reed Roger Marshall† Lindsay McKnight Auditor: Marjorie Orr Maurice Alley Paul Prosée Clair Stafford Lab Wilson Roger Marshall died on 24 October, 2001 [Kokako, 9 (1) 22, Issue No. 19] 2001-2002
Jerry Pauli
Ted Kirk
Mike Goold
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John Baragwanath Megan Clemance Philippa Hodges Lindsay McKnight Paul Prosée Clair Stafford Lab Wilson
DoC Liaison: Christine Reed Auditor: Maurice Alley
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
2002-2003
2003-2004
2004-2005
2005-2006
2006-2007
2007-2008
2008-2009
2009-2010
2010-2011
Philippa Hodges
Lindsay McKnight
Lindsay McKnight
Lindsay McKnight
Lindsay McKnight
Lindsay McKnight
Lindsay McKnight
Ted Kirk
Ted Kirk
Ted Kirk
Ted Kirk
Ted Kirk
Ted Kirk
Ted Kirk
Lindsay McKnight
Ted Kirk
Lindsay McKnight
Ted Kirk
Mike Goold
Mike Goold
Mike Goold
Mike Goold
Mike Goold
Mike Goold
Gary Chisholm
Gary Chisholm
Gary Chisholm
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Megan Clemance Lindsay McKnight Kerri Morgan Jerry Pauli Paul Prosée Stephanie Shaw Megan Clemance Philippa Hodges Kerri Morgan Jerry Pauli Paul Prosée Stephanie Shaw Megan Clemance Philippa Hodges Kerri Morgan Jerry Pauli Paul Prosée Stephanie Shaw Megan Clemance Philippa Hodges Kerri Morgan Jerry Pauli Paul Prosée Stephanie Shaw Megan Clemance Philippa Hodges Kerri Morgan Jerry Pauli Paul Prosée Stephanie Shaw Philippa Hodges Baukje Lenting Kerri Morgan Jerry Pauli Paul Prosée Stephanie Shaw Mike Goold Philippa Hodges Baukje Lenting Kerri Morgan Jerry Pauli Paul Prosée Stephanie Shaw Mike Goold Philippa Hodges Baukje Lenting Kate McInnes Kerri Morgan Jerry Pauli Paul Prosée Stephanie Shaw Mike Goold Philippa Hodges Baukje Lenting Kate McInnes Kerri Morgan Jerry Pauli Craig Pritchard Paul Prosée
DoC Liaison: Kate McInnes Auditor: Maurice Alley DoC Liaison: Kate McInnes Auditor: Maurice Alley DoC Liaison: Kate McInnes Auditor: Maurice Alley DoC Liaison: Kate McInnes Auditor: Maurice Alley DoC Liaison: Kate McInnes Auditor: Maurice Alley DoC Liaison: Kate McInnes Auditor: Maurice Alley DoC Liaison: Kate McInnes Auditor: Maurice Alley
Auditor: Maurice Alley
Auditor: Maurice Alley
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2011-2012
Mike Goold Accounts Sam Lee audited by Melanie Leech N.Z.V.A. Baukje Lenting Lindsay McKnight Jerry Pauli Paul Prosée 2012-2013 Kerri Morgan Kate McInnes Craig Pritchard Lisa Argilla Accounts Nigel Dougherty audited by Jamie Foxley N.Z.V.A. Sam Lee Melanie Leech Baukje Lenting Following N.Z.V.A.’s revision of its constitution, Committee members (still elected by Society’s membership) decide yearly who holds each Executive position, and now retire by rotation. 2013-2014 Kerri Morgan Kate McInnes Craig Lisa Argilla Accounts Pritchard Nigel Dougherty audited by Jamie Foxley N.Z.V.A. Sam Lee Baukje Lenting 2014-2015 Lisa Argilla Kate McInnes Danielle Nigel Dougherty Accounts Sijbranda Jamie Foxley audited by Melanie Leech N.Z.V.A. Baukje Lenting Kerri Morgan Craig Pritchard
Kerri Morgan
Kate McInnes Craig Pritchard
Kokako 22 (1) 18-19, 2015
Laboratory Report
Squamous Cell Carcinoma with Lung Metastases in a Captive Kea, Nestor notabilis S.A. (Stuart) Hunter Wildbase Pathology, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442. The kea, Nestor notabilis, is a large alpine parrot endemic to New Zealand that became notorious among settler farmers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for attacks on their sheep. It is estimated that around 150,000 kea were shot between 1860 and 1970 (Heather and Robertson, 2015). Such shooting was outlawed in 1971. Full protection was granted in 1986 and from 2013 this species has been listed as nationally endangered (Robertson and others, 2013). Threats to the kea include introduced mammalian predators, ingestion of environmental lead, and because of their curious nature, conflict and accidents with humans such as intentional shootings and accidental ingestion of ground baits such as 1080. A captive kea, estimated to be at least 25 years of age, was euthanised because of a chronic, non-healing wing injury and progressive weight loss. This kea was initially brought into captivity many years earlier following a severe leg injury which necessitated surgical amputation and rendered the bird unsuitable for release back into the wild. At necropsy, the bird was found to be in poor body condition. It had a 40 x 20 x 10 mm deep, ulcerative wound over the medial aspect of the metacarpal region of the left wing Page 18
(Figure 1). A radiograph of the wing showed extensive osteolysis of both the 3rd and 4th metacarpal bones, with associated soft tissue swelling. The lungs contained at least six, poorly circumscribed, dull white, slightly raised foci of up to approximately 5 mm in diameter. Macroscopically, the remaining internal organs appeared to be normal. Histological examinations revealed extensive destruction and replacement of the dermis and underlying metacarpal bones of the left wing by a poorly circumscribed mass composed of nests and anastomosing cords of neoplastic squamous epithelial cells separated by abundant reactive fibrous tissue. Many of the larger nests of neoplastic cells contained central cores of laminated keratin (Figure 2). There was a pathological fracture of the 3rd metacarpal bone due to both tumour invasion and necrosis resulting in destruction of cortical and trabecular bone. Within the lung were multiple, poorly circumscribed foci of neoplastic squamous epithelial cells admixed with reactive fibrous tissue effacing extensive areas of the pulmonary parenchyma (Figure 3). Examination of tissues from other internal organs did not reveal any more neoplastic foci. A diagnosis of squamous cell carcinoma of the left wing Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Figure 2. Anastomosing cords and nests of neoplastic epithelial cells within the dermis of the metacarpal region of the kea’s wing. The two black asterisks denote central cores of laminated keratin. H & E. Scale bar = 200 µm.
Figure 1. The medial aspect of the left metacarpal region of the affected kea showing a large, ulcerative and non-healing wound (arrow).
with pulmonary metastasis was made. The lesion on the left wing was deemed the primary tumour, probably the result of neoplastic transformation of a previous, chronic skin wound/injury (or possibly an intraosseous epidermal cyst), with subsequent spread to the lungs via the lymphatic system. A primary lung neoplasm was deemed less likely as there were multiple, fairly small lung masses of uniform size, and although pulmonary neoplasia with spread to the pneumatic bones via direct extension from the air-sacs has been described (Garner, 2006), the metacarpal bones (of kea) are not pneumatic. A search of our records has shown 5 cases of neoplasia (including the present case) out of 126 kea necropsied between 2001 and the present, all in adult, captive birds. The 5 cases included two cases of intestinal adenocarcinoma (Alley and others, 2004; Alley and Hill, 2007) and a case of bilateral seminomas (germ cell neoplasm of the testes, Hunter and others, 2011). References Alley, M.R., Gartell, B.D. and Morgan, K.J. (2004). Carcinoma of the large intestine in a captive kea, Nestor notabilis. Kokako, 11 (2) 29, Issue No. 24. Alley, M.R. and Hill, A.G. (2007). Intestinal adenocarcinoma and other age-related diseases in a captive kea, Nestor notabilis. Kokako, 14 (2) 42, Issue No.30.
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Figure 3. A photomicrograph of the lung of the affected kea; the left half of the field is composed of neoplastic epithelial cells and fibrous tissue, while the right half of the field is normal lung parenchyma. H & E. Scale Bar = 200 µm.
Garner, M.M. (2006). Overview of tumors, section 2: a retrospective study of case submissions to a specialty diagnostic service. In: Harrison, G.J. and Lightfoot, T.L., Clinical Avian Medicine, Volume 2, Spix Publishing Inc., Palm Beach, Florida, pp 569. Heather, B.D. and Robertson, H.A. (2015). The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand Penguin Random House New Zealand, page 376. Hunter, S.A., Lenting, B.M. and Alley, M.R. (2011). Bilateral seminomas in a kea, Nestor notabilis. Kokako, 18 (1) 18, Issue No. 37. Robertson, H.A., Dowding, J.E., Elliott, G.P., Hitchmough, R.A., Miskelly, C.M., O’Donnell, C.F.J., Powlesland, R. G., Sagar, P.M., Scofield, R.P. and Taylor, G.A. (2013). Conservation status of New Zealand birds, 2012, New Zealand Threat Classification Series 4, Department of Conservation, Wellington.
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Kokako 22 (1) 20, 2015
Laboratory Report
Predation of North Island Brown Kiwi Chicks, Apteryx mantelli, by Cats, Felis catus M.R. (Maurice) Alley1, A. (Alex) Wilson2 and I.C. (Isabel) Castro2 1
Wildbase Pathology, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442. 2 Ecology Group, Institute of Agriculture and the Environment, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442.
Throughout most regions of New Zealand that still have remnants of kiwi, Apteryx spp., populations, stoats, Mustela erminea, are widely recognised as the main predator of kiwi chicks and older juveniles (McLennan and others, 1996). Recently, the ability of cats, Felis catus, both feral and domestic, to destroy endemic species of New Zealand wildlife in both urban and rural environments has received considerable media attention, but the birds mentioned have been mainly passerines (van Heezik and others, 2010). In a study of fledgling North Island brown kiwi (NIBK) chicks, Apteryx mantelli, monitored during 1995, McLennan and others (1996) identified feral cats as predators of 2 of 49 NIBK found dead. There have been few further reports of cat predation of kiwi. An opportunity for further study of cat predation has been provided fortuitously by a population of NIBK chicks resident on Ponui Island (36o 52’ S, 175o 11’ E) in the Hauraki Gulf. The island presents forest/grassland habitats in which the only mammalian predators are cats and ship rats, Rattus rattus. Massey University’s wildlife mortality records reveal predation by cats as the cause of death of at least 15 kiwi over the past 10 years. Eight of these were chicks from Ponui Island, and only one of the remainder was an adult bird.
Island were closely similar, suggesting that all 3 had been killed by the same individual cat.
The use of infrared cameras (Castro, 2015) has recently provided good evidence of the vulnerability of NIBK checks to attacks by cats. The affected chicks show little or no awareness of approaching cats, and make no attempt to escape or resist capture. Video records and postmortem evidence show that a cat will usually grasp a chick across its thorax, and that the chick then dies quickly from asphyxiation or pneumothorax. A hungry cat will then consume most of the carcass, leaving only the feathers, legs, bill and skull available for post-mortem examination (Figure 1). In contrast, our experience elsewhere indicates that dogs seldom eat a kiwi which they have killed, but they may sometimes bury the carcass. The carcass remnants from 3 of the 8 chicks found dead on Ponui
van Heezik, Y., Smyth, A., Adams, A. and Gordon, J. (2010). Do domestic cats impose an unsustainable harvest on urban bird populations? Biological Conservation, 143 (1) 121-130.
Despite the presence of cats, the NIBK population on Ponui Island appears to be sustainable, and it seems that ship rats and mice, Mus musculus, are the cats’ preferred prey. If this is correct, then the possibility of a “prey switch” to birds would be a major risk to consider in any programmes to reduce or eradicate rodents and/or mustelids on Ponui Island. Further work on the complex interactions between the various predators and their prey is clearly needed if we are to better protect our threathened native species. References Castro, I.C. (2015). Personal communication, by third author of present paper. McLennan, J.A., Potter, M.A., Robertson, H.A., Wake, G.C., Colbourne, R., Dew, L,, Joyce, L., McCann, A.J., Miles, J., Miller, P.J., and Reid, J. (1996). Role of predation in the decline of kiwi, Apteryx spp. in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 20 (1) 27-35.
Figure 1. Remains of a kiwi chick predated by a feral cat on Ponui Island. The cat has consumed most of the muscle and other tissues of its prey, leaving only feathers, skull, bill, distal portions of the legs, and feet. Scale: small graduations = 1 mm. Page 20
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Kokako 22 (1) 21-22, 2015
Laboratory Report
Avian Malaria Caused by Plasmodium elongatum in a Fiordland Crested Penguin, Eudyptes pachyrhynchus S.A. (Stuart) Hunter Wildbase Pathology, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442. Avian malaria is a vector-borne disease caused by intracellular protozoal organisms that invade red blood cells of birds. The term has been used narrowly to include only disease produced by organisms of the genus Plasmodium (Ladds, 2009; Howe and others, 2011), and two species (Plasmodium elongatum and Plasmodium relictum) have been implicated in deaths in many threatened and protected species of endemic New Zealand birds (Howe and others, 2011). The term malaria has also been used more broadly to cover protozoa of the closely related genera; Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, Parahaemoproteus and Hepatocystis (Harvey and Alley, 2008; Martinsen and others, 2008; SchĂśner and others, 2011). In New Zealand, introduced birds, such as the blackbird, Turdus merula, are thought to be asymptomatic carriers of avian malaria, showing a low mortality and mainly a chronic parasitaemia (Tompkins and Gleeson, 2006).
numbers of heterophils and scattered deposits of fibrin throughout the interstitium. This inflammatory infiltrate was due to the presence of small numbers of protozoal shizonts, resembling Plasmodium, within macrophages and endothelial cells of the lung (Figure 2). A similar pattern of inflammation along with small numbers of protozoal organisms was present in the liver and spleen and would account for the relative hepatosplenomegaly noted grossly. Thus, a diagnosis of emaciation with a secondary Plasmodium infection was made and a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test of the lung tissue showed the strain of malaria to be Plasmodium elongatum. The lung was negative for both Toxoplasma and Leucocytozoon on PCR testing. To the author’s knowledge this is the first report of avian malaria due to Plasmodium elongatum in a Fiordland crested penguin.
Protozoans in another genus, Leucocytozoon, can also infect the blood of birds. These organisms have long been known to invade both red blood cells and white blood cells (Fallis and Desser, 1974). Leucocytozoon tawaki infection in Fiordland crested penguins, Eudyptes pachyrhynchus, was first described nearly 40 years ago (Fallis and others, 1976; Allison and others, 1978). In the summer of 2015, a male juvenile Fiordland crested penguin was found alive on a beach on the West Coast of the South Island. The bird was extremely weak and in pronounced respiratory distress and, unfortunately, it died several hours after being discovered. Post-mortem examination showed the bird to be in poor body condition, with reduced pectoral muscle mass and minimal body fat reserves. Interestingly, both the liver and spleen, although somewhat shrunken, were not as atrophied as expected given the degree of emaciation. There was a large volume of clear, straw-coloured fluid within the pericardial sac (Figure 1). There was a small degree of ascites and marked pulmonary congestion and oedema, but this was not unexpected as emaciated birds will often experience a shift of fluid into the body cavities and small airways, due to a reduction in oncotic pressure as a result of hypoproteinaemia. The proventriculus contained no ingesta and a moderate amount of dark, extravasated blood, while the gall bladder was distended; all of which are common findings in emaciated birds. Histopathology showed that, as well as having pronounced pulmonary congestion and oedema, there was an interstitial pneumonia, with large numbers of mononuclear cells (predominantly monocytes/macrophages) and smaller Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45
Figure 1. Large amounts of straw-coloured fluid within the pericardium (horizontal white arrow) obscure the view of the heart. Both the liver (white asterisk) and spleen (vertical white arrow) are not as atrophied as expected given the degree of the bird’s emaciation. Page 21
Emaciation was considered the proximate cause of death (i.e., the primary/initial problem that led to the sequence of events causing death) and avian malaria was considered the immediate cause of death (i.e., the disease that finally resulted in death), most likely the result of severe respiratory compromise due to the interstitial pneumonia (compounded by the pre-existing pulmonary oedema). Birds may carry Plasmodium and be asymptomatic; reactivation of a latent infection may occur if the bird experiences some kind of stressor (such as emaciation or concurrent disease) that results in suppression of the immune system. It is difficult to know whether this was the case in this penguin or if this was a recently acquired Plasmodium infection, but regardless, the bird’s emaciated state will have limited its ability to respond adequately to the protozoal infection. No underlying disease which would explain the emaciated state of this bird was found, but this is often the case in juvenile birds, when unfortunately a certain percentage of youngsters, whether it be due to inexperience in foraging or a reduction in food supply, succumb to progressive emaciation. References Allison, F.R., Desser, S.S. and Whitten, L.K. (1978). Further observations on the life cycle and vectors of the haemosporodian, Leucocytozoon tawaki, and its transmission in the Fiordland crested penguin. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 5 (2) 371-374. Fallis, A.M., Bisset, S.A. and Allison, F.R. (1976). Leucocytozoon tawaki n. sp. (Eucoccidia: leucocytozooidae) from the penguin, Eudyptes pachyrhynchus, and preliminary observations on its development in Austrosimulium spp. (Diptera: Simuliidae). New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 3 (1) 11-16. Fallis, A.M. and Desser, S.S. (1974). On species of Leucocytozoon. In: Advances in Parasitology Volume 12, Dawes, B. (Editor), Academic Press, London, pages 1-2. Harvey, C. and Alley, M.R. (2008). Current veterinary laboratory surveillance of avian haemoparasitic diseases in New Zealand. Kokako, 15 (1) 15-19, Issue No. 31.
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Figure 2. A photomicrograph of the lung of the penguin showing Plasmodium sp. schizonts within the cytoplasm of a macrophage (arrow). There are also markedly increased numbers of inflammatory cells within the interstitium. H&E stain. Scale bar = 20 mm.
Howe, L., Castro, I., Schoener, E., Hunter, S.H., Barraclough, R.K. and Alley, M.R. (2011). Malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) infecting introduced, native and endemic New Zealand birds. Parasitological Research, 110 (2) 913–923. Ladds, P. (2009). Avian malaria (Plasmodium spp. infection). In: Pathology of Australian Native Wildlife CSIRO Publishing, Australia, page 245. Martinsen, E.S., Perkins, S.L. and Schall, J.J. (2008). A three-genome phylogeny of malaria parasites (Plasmodium and closely related genera): evolution of life-history traits and host switches. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 47 (1) 261-273. Schöner, E.R., Alley, M.R. and Castro, I. (2011). Coccidian parasites in native passerine birds in New Zealand. Kokako, 18 (1) 1-13, Issue No. 37. Tompkins, D.M. and Gleeson, D.M. (2006). Relationship between avian malaria distribution and an exotic invasive mosquito in New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 36 (2) 51–62.
Kokako 22 (1) 2015, Issue 45