How does open space design of university campuses impact the health and well-being of students?

How does open green space design of university campuses impact the health and wellbeing of students?

Amy Mulhall a.mulhall@edu.salford.ac.uk Student Number: 00484835

Design Research Project Proposal University of Salford Term One

Module Coordinator: Dr Tanja Poppelreuter Supervisor: Dr. Claudia Trillo

December 2019 School of Science, Engineering and Environment

Abstract Research problem:

Research methodology:

A

T

2018 survey by Forth With Life (2018) reported that 37% of British people find themselves to be stressed one day a week. A another set of statistics suggests university members aged between 18-24 are amongst the most stressed in society, equating to 12 days per month on average; from the pressure to succeed. In addition, stress can result to other extreme physiological symptoms such as anxiety, depression, exhaustion and schizophrenia (Grahn, P., and U.K. Stigsdotter, 2010). Over 100 studies have proven that people can significantly benefit from stress reduction and relaxation by spending time within green areas (Davis, J., 2004). Several studies (Berman, M. G., Jonides, J., and Kaplan, S., 2008; Bratman, G. N., Daily, G. C., Levy, B. J., and Gross, J. J., 2015a; DeVault, J. R., 2015; Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E., 2004; Speake, J., Edmondson, S., & Nawaz, H., 2013; Twedt, E., Rainey, R. M., & Proffitt, D. R., 2016; Wilkie, S., and Stavridou, A., 2013) confirm that green spaces play a crucial role in reducing stress levels and contribute to improving mental health. This study will focus on the role played by green open spaces on university campuses to improve students’ wellbeing and mental health.

For this purpose, it will examine the factors of green space design, investigating strategies which accommodate for stress reduction within the university age bracket by focusing on the campus landscape design. 

he research methodology in this study is qualitative. A systematic literature review of academic and non-academic documents will discuss the factors that are effective for stress reduction. For example, psycho-physiological stress reduction theory suggests that contact with nature produces an emotional state reducing stress levels (Ulrich, 1983; Ulrich, et al., 1991). Furthermore, by linking a path between nature and physical health, the immune system can be enhanced (Kou, M., 2015). Therefore, in order to contribute to reducing stress levels in students, the provision of green space on campuses design is paramount. This study draws from the literature and creates a check list of factors for successful green spaces design on campuses. A framework which can be used by designers to make sure that such a requirement is satisfied. To test the applicability of the check list, it has been applied in two chosen case studies (University of Salford, Peel Campus and University of Liverpool), identifying the neglect or consideration of the design factors within campuses green space design.

One campus is within a small compact urban city to limits the availability of green space, the other campus has an available reasonably sized green space to allow easy contact with the natural surroundings.

The check list allowed the researcher to easily identify gaps and possible improvements to the green open spaces in the two campuses. It can therefore be a useful tool in support of successful campus design.

1

Contents List of tables ............................................................................................................................................

3

Figures list ...............................................................................................................................................

3

Chapter 1: Introduction .........................................................................................................................

5

Chapter 2: Literature reviews .................................................................................................................

7

2.1 The need for restorative garden space to relieve stress ..........................................................

8

2.2 The impact of dedicated social interaction spaces ..................................................................

8

2.3 How campus landscape can improve stress with physical health ...........................................

9

Chapter 3: Design responses ..................................................................................................................

11

3.1 Green landscape .......................................................................................................................

12

3.2 Social interaction ......................................................................................................................

12

3.3 Activating spaces .......................................................................................................................

14

Chapter 4: Setting the context for understanding the development of green space on Plate-glass and red brick campuses ..........................................................................................................................

18

Chapter 5: Creating and applying a check list of factors for successful green spaces on campuses ....

23

Table 1. Check-list of design factors for a successful green space on university campuses ..........

24

Table 2. Check list applied to the case studies ...............................................................................

27

Chapter 6: Conclusion ............................................................................................................................

32

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................

34

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................

35

2

Figures list

List of tables

Figure 1. Nevada Today. (2016). The Georginia Trexler Memorial Garden at the University of Nevada [Photograph]. Retrieved from: https://www.unr.edu/ nevada-today/news/2016/grounds-services-grandaward

Table 1. Check-list of design factors for a successful green space on university campuses.

Table 2. Check list applied to the case studies.

3

Figure 2. Communication Theory. (2013). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs [Image diagram]. Retrieved from: https://www.communicationtheory.org/ maslow%E2%80%99s-hierarchy-of-needs/

sity of Stanford Fitness court [Image]. Retrieved from: https://nationalfitnesscampaign.com/colleges Figure 11. University of Liverpool. (n.d.). University College, Liverpool [Image. Retrieved from: http:// vgm.liverpool.ac.uk/about-us/building-history/

Figure 3. University City District. (2016). Lopped In social seating at University City Distric [Image]. Retrieved from: https://www.universitycity.org/blog/ looped-lands-42nd-and-woodland

Figure 12. University of Salford. (2016). Maxwell Building and Maxwell Hall [Image] Retrieved from: http://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/10669/?template=archives

Figure 4. Architizer. (2012). Kyushu Sangyo University landscape design [Image]. Retrieve from: https:// architizer.com/projects/kyushu-sangyo-university-landscape/

Figure 13. University of Salford. (2016). Peel Building viewed from Maxwell [Image]. Retrieved from: http://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/10838/?template=archives

Figure 5. Independent. (2017.) Uinversity of Exeter campus landscape [Image]. Retrieved from: https:// www.independent.co.uk/student/news/nazi-swastika-exeter-university-door-rights-for-whites-sign-investigation-racism-students-a7579311.html

Figure 14. University of Salford. (n.d.). The New Adelphi [Image]. Retrieved from: http://www.salford.ac.uk/__data/assets/image/0003/435225/varieties/lightbox.jpg

Figure 6. area, (n.d.). University of Ewha campus landscape during the day [Image]. Retrieved from: https://www.area-arch.it/en/ewha-womans-university/

Figure 15. University of Salford Twitter. (2016).

Ariel shot of Peel Park [Image]. Retrieved from: https://twitter.com/salforduni/status/763019585075503110?lang=gu

Figure 7. area, (n.d.). University of Ewha campus landscape during the night [Image]. Retrieved from: https://www.area-arch.it/en/ewha-womans-university/

Figure 16. Edited Digi map of where the University of Salford is located against the Salford and Manchester city boundary [Map].

Figure 8. Behance. (n.d.). University of Cincinnati, Campus Green [Image]. Retrieved from: https:// www.behance.net/gallery/36001571/University-of-Cincinnati-Ohio-Campus-Green

Figure 17. Edited Digi map of where the University of Liverpool is located against the Liverpool city boundary [Map].

Figure 18. Edited Digi map showing the distanced between Salford university and the student living quarters [Map].

Figure 9. Stanford News. (2019). University of Stanford outdoor gym [Image]. Retrieved from: https://news.stanford.edu/2019/05/23/stanford-students-military-affiliations-remember-fallen-memorial-day/

Figure 19. Edited Digi map showing the distanced between Liverpool university and the student living quarters [Map]

Figure 10. National Fitness Campaign. (n.d.). Univer

4

‘university members aged between 18-24 are amongst the most stressed in society. Equating to 12 days per month on average; from the pressure to succeed.’ (Forth With Life, 2018)

‘lack of physical activity such as low walkability and little access to recreational green space areas can contribute towards 3.3% of deaths worldwide’ (World Health Organisation, 2019)

Chapter 1: Introduction

Ulrich, Simons, Losito, Fiorito, Miles & Zelson, 1991), it is without a doubt that people have expressed their emotion towards the natural environment. This can date back to ancient Rome as the citizen documented that they valued the surrounding of nature in comparison to the noise pollution, public and traffic congestion within the city (Glacken, 1967). Natural scenery provides a calm and relaxed atmosphere in open spaces which can influence outdoor activity, providing fresh air for those who are stressed (Payne, 2009).

Universities should utilise green spaces within their campus to promote restoration and use them strategically to reduce the implications of stress (Speake, Edmondson, & Nawaz, 2013). In order to understand the impacts of open green spaces for a person’s wellbeing and apply it to university campus designs, I will conduct a literature review to see how open green spaces can influence the reduction of human stress.

Then I will create a list of design factors for green spatial design to be examined with a case study, further comparing two case studies reflecting two different contexts, so that I can identify the neglect or consideration of the design approach within campuses. One campus is within a small compact urban city to limit the availability of green space, whilst another campus has an available reasonably sized green space to allow easy contact with the natural environment. The literature suggests that campuses should accommodate the need for stress reduction and provision of green spaces should be included in all design strategies for campuses. However, there is a gap within the design of campuses which is not seen as a requirement to consider students mental health within the design. This study will acknowledge the design factors that improves stress reduction, from which creates a check list of those factors to produce a successful open green space design for university campuses.

This check list can then be applied to future developments and designers to make sure that the factors are included, and therefore they can identify design gaps, becoming a useful tool to support campus design.

G

reen space design is beginning to be incoporated into university campuses. With the knowledge that it supports student’s health, and as an asset for the university in improving their campus’s appearance. Green space is important for students considering university, and the appearance of a campus can be influencial in their choice (Harrington, 2014; Speake, Edmondson, & Nawaz, 2013).

The availability of green space makes students feel more comfortable within their surroundings, due to its stress relieving properties (Speake, Edmondson & Nawaz, 2013). Stress refers to the imbalance between the demands for an environmental surrounding and the human response, this has then proven to link with physical ill health and mental health (Chida & Hamer, 2008; Cohen, Kessler & Gordon, 1995; Sagerstrom & Miller, 2004). A 2018 survey by Forth With Life (2018) reported that 37% of British peoplefind themselves to be stressed one day a week. Another set of statistics suggests university members aged between 18-24 are amongst the most stressed in society, equating to 12 days per month on average; from the pressure to succeed. Stress can result to extreme physiological symptoms such as anxiety, depression, exhaustion and schizophrenia (Grahn & U.K. Stigsdotter, 2010). Over 100 studies have proven that people can significantly benefit from stress reduction and relaxation by spending time within green areas (Davis, J, 2004). The World Health Organisation estimates that a lack of physical activity such as low walkability and little access to recreational green space areas can contribute towards 3.3% of deaths worldwide (World Health Organisation, 2019). In agreement to psycho-physiological stress reduction, which is the theory suggesting contact with nature uses andemotional state to reduce stress levels (Ulrich, 1983;

6

‘Many literature on restorative environments emphasise the mental and emotional health benefits of the natural elements.’

(Berman, Jonides & Kaplan 2008; Bratman, Daily, Levy & Gross 2015a,b)

‘the physical environment isn’t the only aspect affecting health and wellbeing, but social and personal factors are also responsible.’

(Landscape Institute, 2013)

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1

The need for restorative garden space to relieve stress

us with the subtle need for contact with nature, but studies on students throughout their developing stages prove humans react calmly to green spaces. Campuses are designed so that builds are within walking distance, so why should we walk through a concrete campus but rather create dedicated garden spots or pathways on campus. Therefore, the idea of incorporating stress reduction and providing access to restoration gardens for university students on campus, is a more important feature than we initially thought.

Our reactions prove that we want to be surrounded by nature and that we do subconsciously want access, but as populations grows the need for more housings creates a larger urban environment. Further research could examine if urban environments are providing us with the restoration we need, and how to accommodate the insufficient access. The proven need for restorative gardens should be implemented into all forms of lifestyle, to ensure that the populations mental health is considered and through restorative gardens their mental health is treated equally.

P

eople have been known to respond positively to calm green environmental settings, which allow for relaxation in both physical and psychological aspects (Van den Bogerd, Dijkstra, Seidell & Maas 2018). Humans have evolved in a natural environment, people are naturally adapted to natural settings psychologically. Further findings indicate that different outdoor environments cause different stress recovery influences (Ulrich, Simons, Losito, Fiorito, Miles & Zelson 1991). Multiple studies have found that people react differently to the types of gardens. Informal and formal gardens cause people to have sensitive responses in restorative perspectives. Informal natural elements are perceived more appealing to participants, than organized and structured built elements of a formal garden (Twedt, Rainey, & Proffitt 2016).

Many literature on restorative environments emphasise the mental and emotional health benefits of the natural elements. When walking it can provide us with relief, walking in the natural and urban environments have proved to increase performances and decrease negative emotions (Berman, Jonides & Kaplan 2008; Bratman, Daily, Levy & Gross 2015a,b). A study conducted showed that those who walked in natural and urban environments created equal restorative qualities (Wilkie & Stavridou, 2013) . The benefits of natural environments to supports mental health is a desirable aspect to have access to, especially since the need for restoration is more common and an aspect to incorporate into landscape (Twedt et al., 2016).

The findings of Roe and Aspinall showed that primary school students have positive moods for green views and that reduced the stress (Roe & Aspinall, 2011). A further study was conducted on high school students where they referred to gardens as peaceful and relaxing (Chawla, Keena, Pevec & Stanley, 2014). The evidence shows that not only has evolution provided

2.2

P

The impact of dedicated social interaction spaces

ersonal social support and milieu, have been considered greatly to contribute to positive mental health results and reducing stressful situations. The landscape Institute (2013) released a position statement for creating healthy places that contributes to people’s health and wellbeing, stating that the physical environment isn’t the only aspect affecting health and wellbeing, but social and personal factors are also responsible. Creating a healthy place allows for comfort and ease, by improving social interaction and reducing isolation and stress.

Interaction is a dominant factor of social environment, where social interaction refers to the activity that involves other individuals to participate with

8

in a social network (Cleveland-Innes, & Emes, 2005).

Frequent interaction amongst university peers produces positive results for social integration and health, the importance of social interaction was emphasized by Reifman and Dunkel-Schetter (1990) in their research as their results showed a positive increase when students socially interacted with more quality and frequency. There are positive and negative social interactions in which the negatives had more effects on health, the absence of negative social interaction had reduced stress more than the addition of new positive interactions. Therefore, it would be more beneficial to primarily focus on reducing negative interactions. (Edwards, Hershberger, Russell, & Markert, 2001). As a result of social interaction, a person’s critical thinking and skill to problem solve can be enhanced, however little social interaction is associated within classrooms throughout a student’s education. Therefore, students can maximise their chance for learning and social interaction is considered to take place outside of learning times. However, it is perceived that interacting with peers contributed to learning in class (Hurst, Wallace, & Nixon, 2013).

Ketch (2005) states that conversation allows for a person to understand the impact of social interaction, building empathy and respect for other opinions. This is a learning process that cannot be taught but only learnt through experience. University is a time where critical thinking and problem solving is crucial in completing assignments, allowing students to develop this skill will prepare them for their future. Social support has been studied to see the positive effects it has on stress by buffering the negatives of them, but also social support can improve health. A form of social support involves social activities, which means spending time in groups or with friends. Unfortunately, isolation can occur where university students can find challenging when transitioning (Giddan, 1988), and therefore connects more to people through social media (Scott, 2019). Social interaction is a part of our daily lifestyle, the restriction of interaction within the classroom is only promoting the importance for social interaction outside of classroom hours. However, interaction is

unavoidable and to maximise educational time people need a recreational area to interact with friends and peers. It allows them to converse during informal times rather than being distracted by talking inside the classroom. By dedicating a place to interact they can support and relax in a more comforting place. However, there are limitations such as the climate which can influence a person’s choice to congregate outside, the design must provide shelter to create a comfortable open space environment.

2.3

I

How campus landscape can improve stress with physical health

t is recommended that adults between 18-24 (prime time for attending university) should do physical activity for around 150 minutes of moderate or 75 minutes of vigorous intense physical activity per week (World Health Organization, 2010).

Physical activity was described as any form of muscle movement which produces energy expenditure.

(Sallis, Frank, Saelens & Kraft, 2004). Physical exercise has been recognised, if done regularly, to have positive effects on mental health and wellbeing (DeVault, 2015). Physical activity can be incorporated into the journey to the destination, it has been reviewed that active travel like walking or cycling has high amounts of benefits and is a massive sustainable form of transport (Landscape institute, 2013). Moderate activity is associated with stress reduction which includes that ability to cycle and walk to work (Norris, Carroll, & Cochrane, 1992), this becomes a benefit to workers who approach and leaves stressful working days.

A study published on those who commuted along a heavy business corridor, preferred a natural landscape and said that it would encourage them to walk more if the surrounding was more naturalistic, promoting physically active journeys (Landscape institute, 2013).

Physical activity can be conducted within 10 minutes periods of activity in the day, and the activity relevant

9

to students is the opportunity to walk between their homes and campus (Haskell, Lee, Pate, Powell, Blair, Franklin, & Bauman, 2007). A student schedule is an adaptation of their social life, the less active social lifestyle a student has, the less opportunity for physical activity. It is a risk factor that without social interaction the inactivity can lead to obesity, stress, isolation and depression (Sallis et al., 2004). A report

by UK Active (2018) conducted a survey called ‘British Active Students Survey’, which discovered that activities like social sport societies and gym memberships improves wellbeing, but also increases academic attendance and employability. The survey also indicated the barriers that students struggled with when attending activities, 76% said that their studies took up too much time, 23% were too busy socialising and 23% found it expensive. A solution to engaging nature with physical activity is longitudinal parks or garden paths, which allow for both activities to walk and cycle. (Tzoulas et al, 2007). University life can be extremely demanding and busy, it’s not surprising that students struggle to perform physical activity. Therefore, by integrating physical activity into campus design will create a subtle positive impact.

and further studies could be made to the surrounding urban environment of universities, to understand that our city commutes have a lot more impact on people’s mental wellbeing then we think.

To summarise there is a strong amount of evidence to support the many factors of open green space design of a campus to contribute to restorative stress release, as naturalistic spaces is a driven need to feel calm, social interaction provides us with security and support and physical activity is a human requirement that helps us live the best quality of life. However, there is no specifics on how to design a healthy impacting landscape. The next chapter examines the potential design factors through case studies, and potentially provide a solution for a new healthy design landscape concept.

A side note to the campus design is the surrounding environment which is also a stressful environment where students identified streets and parking stressful (DeVault, 2015). Therefore, the stress and anxiety can expand slightly further out of campus,

10

‘Physical exercise has been recognised if done regally the activity can have positive effects on mental health and wellbeing’ (DeVault, 2015)

Figure 1. The Georginia Trexler Memorial Garden at the University of Nevada (Sourced from: Nevada Today, 2016)

Chapter 3: Design responses

3.1

3.1.4 Colour

Green landscape

T

he availability of a green landscape can have the same principles as a zen garden; simplicity, organisation and naturalness. Zen gardens don’t just refer to raked sand, it’s the stress relief a zen garden provides. Like a woodland or garden, but zen gardens emphasise its principles like colour or vegetation (Leonard, n.d).

3.1.1 Gardens and walkways A garden is known for promoting stress reduction as Ulrich (1983) explains in his book, however a garden walkway can be an alternative route to a university building, it might be out the way or does not circulate to a building, but the availability of one could provide someone to take a few minutes out of their day to reflect and relax by walking through the garden.

Primary colours are divided into warm and cool; green, blue and violet allow for a soothing affect and red, orange and yellow act as warm focal points. Whilst mixing tints between the colours for more lighter combinations but avoid white as the powerful shade can distract from other calming tones. Combining colours adjacent to them creates interest and a serene environment (Leonard, n.d). The University of Nevada (Figure 1) provides its students with a garden campus with feathers of circular form, colourful vegetation and paths leading to different ends of the university.

Many universities cannot accommodate for a garden however, it is more likely their campus landscape is greener then it was a decade ago, still a restorative garden should be a key feature that is included on campus. The size does not need to be great, if it provides the principles to relieve stress.

3.2

Social interaction

3.1.2 Vegetation Trees not only reduce stress but also lower blood pressure and improve one’s mood. Furthermore, stress affects the immune system which further emphasises the need for natural surroundings. As students focus on multiple activities in their life this can mentally drain them causing major fatigue.

Time with nature gives students a break and allows for more focus time once their energy is renewed (Department of Environmental Conservation, n.d).

M

aslow’s pyramid shows where the need for social interaction stands within our society is positioned at the third level of our basic needs.

The factors of this tier include continuity of accessible spaces, the type of activity taken in that space and the comforts and attraction it creates to allow for

3.1.3 Form The form of a garden should be smoothed with soothing curves rather than sharp geometric shapes, and flower beds should be curved as well.

This creates a less harsh visual atmosphere creating a more welcoming environment (Leonard, n.d).

12

Figure 2 . Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Sourced from: Communications Theory, 2013)

Figure 3. Lopped In social seating at University City Distric (Sourced from: University City District, 2016)

13

interaction (Hu et al, 2014).

Architectural spaces can either attract or detract people, there are two types of conversational spaces; non-supportive socio-fugal which appearances discourage social interaction, it’s not the dedicated spaces like seating areas that appear to be the most social but it’s the transitioning spaces like walkways and connecting paths. However, the interaction was preformed side by side and not face to face may have not been the most social, but people moved socially in-between destinations. People spend more time socialising on the circulation routes as there is move available chance of comfortable climate (Akan, Ünlü, & Edgü). Circulation areas are where people see each other more than other areas, therefore the space can be designed to further social interaction. A study by Sıramkaya, & Aydın (2014) found that students spend more time on stairs than designated social areas, the issue of social interaction in circulating spaces is that it is performed in a short time. Designing an area just off the circulating space gives the opportunity for students to interact properly.

3.2.2 Social seating Outdoor seating is being developed further today to provide for more social interaction, the design and maintenance are important factors as people interact with the facilities daily. A well-designed and planned public furniture can increase the possibilities of social interaction. However, the environment such as the climate, view and noise level can help create a decision for the person to choose to sit or not. The social comfort remains the choice of the position the person wants to sit in such as, sitting up right, in the shade or in groups. These small factors should be designed into the seating to allow a person a choice on how they sit in a space, this could mean a ledge is created to sit or a flat surface that doubles as a table to converse. Seating that responds to different needs provides a variety of options such as sitting in groups or alone and providing social

and climate comfort. This can promote the quality of the public space and develop sociability (Mumcu, & Yilmaz, 2016). Giving a variety of seating positions to a space provides multiple seating positions that accommodates for people need to interact. Figure 3 shows the different positions that students can sit in the University District in Philadelphia, the seating idea “looped-in” creates a good sense of social interaction, due to the form and shelter it provides. Here you can choose from various seating positions creating physical comfort and the position chosen allows you to decide on creating social interaction, the looping structure creates shade in sunny conditions for climate comfort.

3.2

Activating spaces

A

person’s quality of life can be influenced by the quality of the space around them, the outdoor space is compiled of the architecture, equipment, level of accessibility and the openness to attend to the public’s needs. Attending to these factors means a space can be designed to impact greatly on a person’s health (Kostrzewska, 2017). Activating a space allows for a multi-impact result where it creates a better use of communal space driving for more physical activity, as well for more communal interaction (Activating space).

3.3.1 Active commuting Whilst considering an active commute to a desired location, the walk or cycle can be decided by the attractiveness of the distance, environment and quality of the route to the location. Active travel should be considered as a priority for a person’s commute over vehicle transportation, this can provide an opportunity for people to include physical activity within their day (Sport England, 2015). In some way most

14

university students are lucky to be within a walking or cycling distance from campus, to promote an active travel, the university should incorporate cycle paths and dedicated routes to and on campus.

3.3.2 Cycling A walking and cycling route should connect by a direct and legible network of routes, leading to a viable source, in this case, the university (Sport England, 2015). The routes need to be safeguarded, appealing, well lit, maintained frequently and provide plenty of signage. Cycling and walking can offer a more sustainable and affordable commute for students who worry over financial management.

3.3.3 Topography The topography of a landscape can integrate physical activity through inclines and steps, a prominent stair case can increase activity levels and become a centre point of the campus and grand feature (Sport England, 2015). Stairs like in Figure 4 can also pro-

vide a good social and recreational space, the multifunctional design should always be accompanied by step-free access, an incline of topographic landscape is a subtle design feature that has not been developed much on university campuses, it is more frequent in parks or children’s playgrounds however the playground design can be more extreme with inclines. But the subtleness of a playful incline could possibly be a more attractive route for students, such as the landscape of Exeter university campus which uses both inclines and a variety of stairs (Figure 5).

A good example that features different topography and long active path ways is the Ewha Woman’s University in Seoul, South Korea (Figure 6 and Figure 7).

The design features an organized long inclined path with a gentle topographic rise, and a stair case in the centre of the two buildings.

3.3.4 Longitudinal paths Creating a longitudinal path way can be a direct and dominate route on a campus, widening a path to allow

Figure 4. Kyushu Sangyo University landscape design (Sourced from: Architizer, 2012)

15

Figure 5. University of Exeter campus landscape (Sourced from: Independent, 2017)

Figure 6. University of Ewha campus landscape during the day (Sourced from: area, n.d.)

Figure 7. University of Ewha campus landscape during the night (Sourced from: area, n.d.)

16

for both pedestrians and cyclists providing the leisure for active travel and social interaction (Sport England, 2015). The design of a landscape can be paved so that it has a direct formal route and a relaxed informal route, the pedestrian can then decide their path.

If the landscape is well designed, then the path will guide the person through the area, and they will feel an obligation to go down that route. In Figure 8 the University of Cincinnati, Ohio’s landscape is designed by series of intertwined paths, stretching a person’s time spent walking from each side of the campus.

a feature that is not well associated with university campuses and physical activity is normally designated just for indoor sports centres or playing fields. There are two forms of adapted spaces that are divided into formal and informal spaces, formal spaces which include facilities designed for recreational and physical activities such as active parks and skateparks. Informal spaces are where physical activity is undertaken in a non-designated space like streets or formal gardens and parks, making use of architectural elements (Kostrzewska, 2017). Stanford University, California (Figure 9 and Figure 10) has adapted their campus green to place an outdoor body weight gym, as physical activity can be restricted in informal spaces like on campus Stanford was able to push back limitations with the gym.

Figure 9. University of Stanford outdoor gym (Sourced from: Stanford News, 2019)

Figure 8. University of Cincinnati Ohio, Campus Green (Sourced from: Behance, n.d.)

3.3.5 Adapted sport space Adapting a space for physical activity to take place is

Figure 10. University of Stanford Fitness court (Sourced from: National Fitness Campaign, n.d.)

17

Chapter 4: Setting the context for understanding the development of green space on Plate-glass and Red Brick campuses

Figure 11. University College, Liverpool (Sourced from: University of Liverpool, n.d.)

19

I

n the research methodology, I will be aiming at testing the applicability of my check list in two different case studies, i.e. Peel Park Campus (University of Salford) and the University of Liverpool Main Campus. The former being “Plate-Glass” type, the latter a Red Brick type campus. This would allow a better understanding of the wider applicability of my checklist to different contexts. Indeed, the two types of campuses do differ in terms of open spaces design. 19th century Britain underwent drastic changes due to the Industrial Revolution, therefore the need for more workforce within the scientific and engineering industry was urgent.

Leading to the creation of private educational institutes specialising in these areas and becoming successful in research. These civic universities features Gothic styles with Red Brick – a popular Victorian trend (Figure 11), hence the name ‘Red Brick’ Universities (Homden, 2018). The 6 original Red Brick universities were in the industrial cities like the University of Liverpool, University of Manchester and University of Birmingham (UKuni, n.d.).

The 6 originals were granted university status just before First World War but were seen as inferior to ancient universities like Oxbridge. Later the introduction of Plate-glass universities gave the red brick universities more prestige, as they specialise in subjects in high demand (Academic Venue Solutions, n.d.). New universities founded in the 1960’s in the UK are known as Plate-glass Universities, they are known for their distance from industrial and commercial centres and for using green spaces on campus. These universities were created for the arts and social studies, as the Robbins Report committee wanted an expansion of higher education (Williams, 1986). Plate-glass universities accommodated for the rapid growth of students as higher education was made more affordable, and efforts are made to increase degrees through new campuses situated in the countryside (Hibbes, 1971). The name reflects the modern materials used for the construction of the universities, using

plate glass in concrete or steel frames (Beloff, 1968).

Plate-glass Universities included the University of Salford (Figure 12), Lancaster University, Keele University and University of York (Fell & Lukianova, 2015). The new universities were characteristic of the modern changes in British education, these were also awarded university status by Royal Charter. Plate-glass universities broke the ideology that higher education was only for the wealthy, normalising the idea of students attending university (Sandalls, 2016). The availability of new universities and their appearance would draw the working class in, therefore, more students attending university, the average British students stress level would increase. There is a struggle to find literature on the discussion of how a university is designed physically to support mental health, the good thing about Plate-glass universities is that they had natural elements on campus such as Figure 13 where The University of Salford has a green space adjacent to the old Peel building in 1966. However, modern development of campuses does show the increase amount of greenery, where it is used to attract students away from the concrete urban busy landscape of the city. The University of Salford is shown in Figure 14 and the New Adelphi building is created using a glass exterior relating to its Plateglass category, and Figure 15 shows the increased greenery on the campus compared to Figure 13.

20

Figure 12. Maxwell Building and Maxwell Hall (Sourced form: University of Salford, 2016)

Figure 13. Peel Building viewed from Maxwell (Sourced from: University of Salford, 2016)

21

Figure 14. The New Adelphi Building (Sourced from: University of Salford, n.d.)

Figure 15. Ariel shot of Peel Park (Sourced from: University of Salford Twitter, 2016)

22

Chapter 5: Creating and applying a check list of factors for successful green spaces on campuses

D

rawing from the literature, a check list of factors for successful green spaces has been first created, then tested in two extant cases to confirm its applicability. Table 1 provides a check list and breaks down the design factors into the roles affecting

student’s wellbeing, which could then be applied to real life projects. The factors can also be crossed over into other roles that affect a student’s wellbeing, therefore, these design factors create more importance as they are not restricted to one role.

Table 1. Check list of design factors for a successful green space on university campuses

List of beneficial factors

Gardens & walkways

Vegetation

Form

Colour

Circulation

Role played by the factors on students’ wellbeing Green landscape – visual and aesthetical pleasant

x

Social interaction – enabling social networking

Activating space – supporting physical exercise

x

Benefits

References

Produces a positive emotional state and reduces stress.

(Ulrich, 1983)

Can reduce stress and lower blood levels.

x

Reduces fatigue and improves a person’s mood.

The form can provide soothing visuals creating a relaxed environment.

x

x

Form can also be designed to promote physical activity with the shape of the landscape.

(Department of Environmental Conservation, n.d).

(Leonard, n.d).

x

Can help to determine our moods as warm colours can inflict a calm atmosphere.

(Leonard, n.d).

x

Circulation deign can be integrated anywhere as contact with friends can reduce stress and isolation.

(Akan, Ünlü, & Edgü) (Sıramkaya, & Aydın, 2014)

x

x 24

Social seating

Active commuting

Cycling

Longitudinal paths

x

x

x

x

Allows students to do their weekly goal of physical activity.

(Sport England, 2015)

x

Daily bike rides can reduce obesity, stress, isolation and depression.

(Sport England, 2015)

x

x

Topography

x

Adaptive sports space

x

T

x

The design can provide time for (Mumcu, & social support and Yilmaz, 2016) create a comfortable environment.

x

x

x

x

x

he design factors provide an ideal of a good campus design, however not all design factors were able to be paired with a case study as the design factor is not yet a consideration for university design. In this section the accessibility of open space between my two chosen case studies are assessed with the abovementioned design factors, the first case study is the previously mentioned Plate-glass University of Salford that will be compared with the Red Brick University of Liverpool. The reason for choosing the Red Brick university was that it was also char

Allows both pedestrians and cyclists providing the leisure for active travel and promoting social interaction and circulation.

Integrates physical activity through inclines and steps, also contributing to social interaction and seating.

The chance to rehabilitate student’s health.

Reduces stress and increases positive moods, decreasing depression.

(Sport England, 2015)

(Sport England, 2015)

(Kostrzewska, 2017)

tered in the 20th century (Fell & Lukianova, 2015), however the materials are mostly Red Brick and located in the middle of a busy city therefore completely opposite to a Plate-glass university. Figure 16 shows the location of UoS (The University of Salford), on the east boundary of Salford outside of Manchester city centre and Figure 17 shows where UoL (University of Liverpool) is positioned within the City of Liverpool.

25

Key for Figure 16. and Figure 17.

University

City centre

Salford central

Figure 16. My elaboration of a Digi map of where the University of Salford is located against the Salford and Manchester city boundary

Figure 17. My elaboration of a Digi map of where the University of Liverpool is located against the Liverpool city boundary

26

T

able 2 is my own elaboration based on maps sourced from the University of Salford and the University of Liverpool, analysing the spatial and qualitative areas of the case studies where the abovementioned design factors are within the campuses.

The application of the check list has been used as a guide to perform the analysis of the case studies.

The analysis has been performed by first using google maps to identify all relevant green spaces and then complemented by direct observation conducted by walking in the two campuses during the week and during term dates.

Table 2. Check list applied to the case studies Factors

Case studies Peel Park Campus

Liverpool Campus

Notes UoS has a small garden feature in the middle of its campus used as a main passage to cross the area.

Gardens & walkways

UoS has Peel Park connected to itself, the park is not a garden, however, it was designed to resemble a Victorian garden park.

UoL features a small square on its North campus and a large garden square on the South.

Vegetation

UoS has large vegetation areas across its campus, containing mostly trees and lawns.

UoL has a enough vegetation scattered across its campus, however, the ratio of greenery to the structures is very small.

27

Case studies Peel Park Campus

Liverpool Campus

Notes

Both campuses lack soft form, the gardens and squares are the only areas which have soft forms inside them.

Form

Factors

Colour

Each campus has a good amount of greenery; however, the colours remain limited to mostly green lawns and trees.

Peel park and the squares both feature flower beds and different species of vegetations providing a vibrant scenery.

Both campuses provide good circulation for both pedestrians and traffic.

Circulation

UoS provides a lot of seating alongside its pathways creating social scenes.

UoL’s paths mainly just focus on getting from each side of its campus, lacking rest spots like UoS.

28

Case studies Peel Park Campus

Liverpool Campus

Notes UoS provides a good use of seating located in the main circulation areas. Large steps allow for plenty of seating, and the small raised grass lawns are used as seating and in the summer to relax and lie on.

Social seating

Factors

UoL only provides enough seating in its garden squares, which can be out of the way for some areas of the campus.

Active commuting

UoS student halls are located on site or within a 15 minute walk and student housing are also within a 15 minute walk alongside a park. Therefore, the accommodations are within range.

UoL student halls are also on site but housing is over 15 minutes away and located in a busy urban congested area. Therefore, walking is questioned by students as public transport is widely available.

Cycling

UoS has a cycle route located on The Crescent road leading into Manchester, however the cycle route ends outside of this area.

UoL has a city bike drop off and pick up point, these are pay by hour bikes provided by the council. This allows students to bike around the city whenever they like.

29

Case studies Peel Park Campus

Liverpool Campus

Notes

Both campuses have long paths used as major links to each end of the campus, the length can contribute to physical health.

Longitudinal paths

Factors

Topography

However, the immediate routes don’t separate the pedestrians from the cyclists or are alternative routs for strolls. Therefore, these routes can be stressful.

N/A

UoS has 3 areas of inclines, one across the campus, a large set of steps and a long ramp from Peel park.

Students use these every day as they are access points to the campus, contributing to physical activity.

UoL is located on a levelled area, and there is no inclines designed into the campus.

Adaptive sports space

Adaptive sport space is a relatively new feature, most universities will not have this.

N/A

UoS has greenery that people play batting or ball sports on but it is not a dedicated sporting area.

UoL does not have a big enough green space to provide students the opportunity to adapt the space.

30

O

verall you can see the Plate-glass University of Salford has used more design factors than the Red Brick University of Liverpool, the comparison found that the recent University of Salford provided more green open space as it was founded on a large green area, therefore allowing the university to develop more modern design features and create accessible green spaces. Whereas the compact Liverpool campus was restricted to green space because of the high urban density that grew around it. However, a small space can be developed into an exquisite landscape and provide intimate comfort for students if designed carefully, therefore a campus should consider a diverse scale of landscapes to accommodate for different purposes, rather than placing a basic green lawn to satisfy the need for a green space.

There are some factors that do influence the outcome of a successful campus design such as active commuting, for instance UoS (Figure 18) have their student housing quarter located within walking and cycling distances, whereas other universities like UoL (Figure 19) may not have that luxury. This is determined by the availablity of affordable housing, if a campus is within a city centre it is more likely students will move further out of the city for appropriate living costs.

Therefore, a university cannot control this factor as it is a decision only influenced by what a student can afford, and city prices are usually over budget, the university can only help promote active commuting by providing bike sheds. However, a university can acknowledge where they locate their student halls, which are within active commuting distances.

Figure 18. My elaboration of Digi map showing the distanced between Salford university and the student living quarters

Key for Figure 18. and Figure 19.

University

Figure 19. My elaboration of a Digi map showing the distanced between Liverpool university and the student living quarters

Students residential area

31

Chapter 6: Conclusion

C

onsidering that university students are amongst the most stressed in Britain the concept of designing a healthy campus has been applied to open green spaces, in which the natural environment is used to promote stress reduction. This is combined with the design factors of restorative garden space, social interaction and physical activity, (according to the literature reviews) these are the key factors for relieving stress, therefore theses designs should be mandatory. This is supported by the check list of successful factors created to support planners and designers, the project studies the cases of a Plate-glass and Red brick campus design, producing a guideline to open campus green space design, which can then be integrated into green landscape design, social design & interaction and designing activating spaces. Green landscape design looks at providing natural environments to create restoration by connecting with nature; social interaction is looking at how interaction can increase social networking and provide social support to reduce isolation and stress; and activating spaces looks at how a space can be adapted to promote physical activity reducing stress and other health issues. Combining these design factor’s, we realise how an open green space can provide restorative effects, creating comfort for its users and increasing the student’s wellbeing. The check list can be used in current or future masterplans, projects, and developments, it can be used by planners or designers to help identify the gaps in their designs. The design checklist and guidelines applied to the case studies show how design has evolved to aid people’s wellbeing, through the estimated methods of landscape design in open green spaces. Further research in this paper investigates the design factors in producing a more successful use of open green space, to create a healthier learning environment.

M

ore research could allow developing this study further by collecting primary data from students asking them how they emotionally respond to campus design factors or compare the statistics of students suffering with mental health that have contacted the university for support; to the amount of available open green space. Therefore, creating a more impacting green space from the student’s responses, and designing towards their needs of mental health support. For the two case studies this study could be used to improve the current masterplans both universities have created and due to start in the next few years, to help universities understand the correlation between the ratio of green spaces on campuses and percentage of mental health issues in students living or not living on campuses.

33

I

Acknowledgements

would like to acknowledge my design research project supervisor for advising me on this project and would like to thank all the University of Salford Architectural staff, course peers and my boyfriend for supporting me greatly throughout this project.

34

Academic Venue Solutions. (n.d.). What are red brick universities? Retrieved from: https:// academicvenuesolutions.co.uk/blog/what-are-redbrick-universities Activating space. (n.d) Activating space. Retrieved from: https://activating.space/ Akan, E., Ünlü, A., & Edgü, E. (n.d) Social interaction in circulation spaces of elderly care institutions.

Retrieved from: http://11ssslisbon.pt/docs/proceedings/papers/125.pdf Beloff, M. (1970). The plateglass universities. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.

Berman, M. G., Jonides, J., and Kaplan, S. (2008).

The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature.

Psychol. Sci. 19, 1207–1212. doi: 10.1111/j.14679280.2008.02225.x Bratman, G. N., Daily, G. C., Levy, B. J., and Gross, J. J. (2015a). The benefits of nature experience: improved affect and cognition. Landsc. Urban Plan.

138, 41–50. doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.02.005 Bratman, G. N., Hamilton, J. P., Hahn, K. S., Daily, G. C., and Gross, J. J. (2015b). Nature experience reduces rumination and subgenual prefrontal cortex activation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112, 8567–8572. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1510459112

Bibliography

Bull, G., Evans, S., Knight, J., Shackell, A., Tisdall, R., & Westley, M. (2013). Landscape Institue. Public Health and Landscape: Creating healthy places, Position statement. London, UK. Retrieved from: https://landscapewpstorage01.blob.core.windows. net/www-landscapeinstitute-org/migrated-legacy/ PublicHealthandLandscape_CreatingHealthyPlaces_FINAL.pdf Chawla, L., Keena, K., Pevec, I., & Stanley, E. (2014).

Green schoolyards as havens from stress and re

35

sources for resilience in childhood and adolescence.

Health & place, 28, 1-13.

Chida, y., Hamer, M. (2008) Chronic psychological factors and cute physiological responses to laboratory-induced stress in healthy populations: a quantitative review of 30 years of investigations. Psychological bulletin, 134 pp. 829-885 Cleveland-Innes, M. F., & Emes, C. (2005). Social and academic interaction in higher education contexts and the effect on deep learning. NASPA Journal, 42(2), 241-262.

Cohen, S., Kessler, R. C., & Gordon, L. U. (1995).

Strategies for Measuring Stress in Psychiatric and Physical Disorders. In S. Cohen, R. C. Kessler, & L. U. Gordon (Eds.), Measuring Stress (pp. 3-28). New York: Oxford University Press.

Department of Environmental Conservation. (n.d) Immerse Yourself in a Forest for Better Health. Retrieved from: https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/90720. html DeVault, J. R. (2015). Active and restorative campus: designing a garden street for student’s mental and physical well-being. Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas. Retrieved from: https://krex.k-state. edu/dspace/handle/2097/19238 Fell, E. V., & Lukianova, N. A. (2015). UK universities: choosing the right partner. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 215, 19-25.

Forth With Life. (2018). Great Britain and Stress – How bad is it and why is it happening? Retrieved from https://www.forthwithlife.co.uk/blog/greatbritain-and-stress/ Giddan, N. S. (1988). Community and social support for college students. Charles C Thomas, Publisher.

Springfield, Illinois, U.S.A.

Grahn, P., & Stigsdotter, U. K. (2010). The relation between perceived sensory dimensions of urban green space and stress restoration. Landscape and urban planning, 94(3-4), 264-275.

Harrington, K. D. (2014). Community on campus: The role of physical space.

Haskell, W. L., Lee, I.-M., Pate, R. R., Powell, K. E., Blair, S. N., Franklin, B. A., … Bauman, A. (2007).

Physical Activity and Public Health: Updated Recommendation for Adults from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(8), 1423–1434. http://doi.org/10.1249/ mss.0b013e3180616b27 Hibbes, J. E. (1971). The Plateglass Universities (Book Review).

Holt, E. W., Lombard, Q. K., Best, N., Smiley-Smith, S., & Quinn, J. E. (2019). Active and Passive Use of Green Space, Health, and Well-Being amongst University Students. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(3), 424.

Homden, B. (2018). What is red brick universities?

Retrieved from: https://www.kaplanpathways.com/ about/news/red-brick-university/ Hu, J., Frens, J., Funk, M., Wang, F., & Zhang, Y. (2014). Design for social interaction in public spaces.

An International Conference on Cross-Cultural Design (pp. 287-298). Springer, Cham, Switzerland.

Ketch, A. (2005). Conversation: The comprehension connection. The Reading Teacher, 59(1), Kostrzewska, M. (2017, October). Activating Public Space: How to Promote Physical Activity in Urban Environment. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 245, No. 5, p. 052074).

IOP Publishing.

36

Kuo, M. (2015). How might contact with nature promote human health? Promising mechanisms and a possible central pathway. Frontiers in psychology, 6, 1093. 8-12.

Kuo, M. (2015). How might contact with nature promote human health? Promising mechanisms and a possible central pathway. Frontiers in psychology, 6, 1093. 8-12.

Leonard, P. P. (n.d). Garden Design to Reduce Stress.

Retrieved from: https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/pubs/ oh82stress.htm Mumcu, S., & Yilmaz, S. (2016). Seating Furniture in Open Spaces and Their Contribution to the Social Life. Environmental Sustainability and Landscape Management, 169.

Leonard, P. P. (n.d). Garden Design to Reduce Stress.

Retrieved from: https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/pubs/ oh82stress.htm Mumcu, S., & Yilmaz, S. (2016). Seating Furniture in Open Spaces and Their Contribution to the Social Life. Environmental Sustainability and Landscape Management, 169.

Norris, R., Carroll, D., & Cochrane, R. (1992). The Effects of Physical Activity and Exercise Training on Psychological Stress and Well-Being in an Adolescent Population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36(1), 55–65. http://doi.org/10.1016/00223999(92)90114-H

Norris, R., Carroll, D., & Cochrane, R. (1992). The Effects of Physical Activity and Exercise Training on Psychological Stress and Well-Being in an Adolescent Population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36(1), 55–65. http://doi.org/10.1016/00223999(92)90114-H

Osmond, H. (1959). The relationship between Architect and Psychiatrist. Psychiatric Architecture; a review of contemporary developments in the architecture of mental hospitals, schools for the mentally retared, and related facilities. Edited by C. E. Goshen. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

Osmond, H. (1959). The relationship between Architect and Psychiatrist. Psychiatric Architecture; a review of contemporary developments in the architecture of mental hospitals, schools for the mentally retared, and related facilities. Edited by C. E. Goshen. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

Payne, S. (2009). Open space: People space. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29 (2009) 529– 537532, 29(4) (2009), pp. 532-533. doi:10.1016/j. jenvp.2009.10.007

Payne, S. (2009). Open space: People space. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29 (2009) 529– 537532, 29(4) (2009), pp. 532-533. doi:10.1016/j. jenvp.2009.10.007

Reifman, A., & Dunkel-Schetter, C. (1990). Stress, structural social support, and well-being in university students. Journal of American College Health, 38(6), 271-277.

Reifman, A., & Dunkel-Schetter, C. (1990). Stress, structural social support, and well-being in university students. Journal of American College Health, 38(6), 271-277.

Roe, J., & Aspinall, P. (2011). The restorative outcomes of forest school and conventional school in young people with good and poor behaviour. Urban forestry & urban greening, 10(3), 205-212.

Roe, J., & Aspinall, P. (2011). The restorative outcomes of forest school and conventional school in young people with good and poor behaviour. Urban forestry & urban greening, 10(3), 205-212.

37

Sallis, J. F., Frank, L. D., Saelens, B. E., & Kraft, M. K. (2004). Active transportation and physical activity: opportunities for collaboration on transportation and public health research. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 38(4), 249-268.

Sandalls, K. (2016). Made in the 1960’s: What does it mean to be a plate glass university? Retrieved from: https://yumagazine.co.uk/made-in-the-1960s/

Ulrich, R. S. (1983). Aesthetic and affective response to natural environment. In Behaviour and the natural environment (pp. 85-125). Springer, Boston, MA.

Scott, E. (2019). Social support for stress relief.

Retrieved from: https://www.verywellmind.com/ stress-and-social-support-research-3144460 Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological bulletin, 130(4), 601.

Sıramkaya, S. B., & Aydın, D. (2014). “Social Space” Concept In The Psycho–Social Development Of University Youth And Its Exemplification In Faculty Buildings. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 140, 246-254.

Speake, J., Edmondson, S., & Nawaz, H. (2013).

Everyday encounters with nature: students’ perceptions and use of university campus green spaces.

Human Geographies--Journal of Studies & Research in Human Geography, 7(1).

Sport England. (2015). Active Design: Planning for health and wellbeing through sport and physical activity. Retrieved From: https://www.sportengland. org/media/3964/spe003-active-design-publishedoctober-2015-high-quality-for-web-2.pdf Twedt, E., Rainey, R. M., & Proffitt, D. R. (2016).

Designed natural spaces: informal gardens are perceived to be more restorative than formal gardens.

Frontiers in psychology, 7, 88.

Kaźmierczak, A., Niemela, J., & James, P. (2007). Promoting Ecosystem and Human Health in Urban Areas Using Green Infrastructure: A Literature Review.

Landscape and Urban Planning, 81(3), 167–178. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. landurbplan.2007.02.001 UKuni. (nd.) Types of UK universities. Retrieved from: https://www.ukuni.net/articles/types-uk-universities

Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A., & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments.

Journal of environmental psychology, 11(3), 201230.

Van den Bogerd, N., Dijkstra, S. C., Seidell, J. C., & Maas, J. (2018). Greenery in the university environment: Students’ preferences and perceived restoration likelihood. PloS one, 13(2), e0192429.q Wilkie, S., and Stavridou, A. (2013). Influence of environmental preference and environment type congruence on judgments of restoration potential. Urban For. Urban Green. 12, 163–170. doi: 10.1016/j.ufug.2013.01.004 Williams, M. (1986). Universities. In Society Today (pp. 224-227). Palgrave, London.

World Health Organization. (2010). Global recommendations on physical activity for health. World Health Organization WHO Press: Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ books/NBK305057 World Health Organization. (2019) Urban green spaces. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/sustainable-development/cities/health-risks/urbangreen-space/en/

Tzoulas, K., Korpela, K., Venn, S., Yli-Pelkonen, V.,

38