Kelly Van Homrigh - The High Street Model

THE HIGH STREET MODEL Kelly Van Homrigh

The Rebuilding of London Act 1666 (18 & 19 C. II. c.7.)

An Act for the Rebuilding of the City of London

VI. Lord Mayor, &c. to declare the Streets and Lanes

[1. ‌be it further enacted, That the Lord Mayor, Aldermen and Common Council of the said City shall declare which and how many shall hereafter be accounted and taken to be By-lanes, which and how many shall

hereafter be deemed Streets or Lanes of Note, and high and principal Streets, by Act of Common Council to be passed for that Purpose: to the End the Breadth, Length and Extent thereof may be the better known and observed.]

And through the fine art of regulation, the Chief Baron of the Exchequer so birthed the High Street. It was a model of extreme sensibility, yet still idealistic enough in its ambition to excite the Lord Mayor and his Alderman. For the act, it must be noted, proves that the High Street was not a model that manifested merely from the back and forth of the market place as the story so often told, but that it was invented, planned and even regulated all before the first stone laid. But let me not mislead you, for the High Street is still a place of commerce, and commerce does not do static. Thus it would be naive for us to assume that the Common Council of 1667 wrote the whole story of the High Street just as Thomas More did Utopia, when rather they laid the foundation for the 400 year long battle of wit between regulation (RE) and the free

market (FM). A game of which we have so obsessed over the apparent roles of protagonist and antagonist that marked changes on the board have been lost to us. Let this essay examine the rules, analysis the strategy and determine the winner.

1. Mercantile (1667) ~ Service ~

(RE)

Passed five months after the great fire, the Act for the Rebuilding of London was uniquely future focused, entirely unconcerned with settling the losses of the disaster. Though suffering from the usual flowered language of Early Modern legal doctrine the report remains didactic, having determined the exact perfect number of street and housing typologies to be acceptable in a civilised city (it is of course 3 and 4 respectively). The High Street falls into the 1st class of road, positioning its self above that of the By-Streets and even too the Lanes of Note. But let us not be deluded that such determinations come purely from the street’s dimension or even expected traffic demand, when rather the greater concern was the housing class designated to it.

So in effect the streets would more precisely range from those of “first and least sort of building”1 to “the greatest Bigness… for Citizens, or other Persons of extraordinary Quality”2. It is for such that the High

Divison of labour according to metal Pin

Street took its name, from the old English term to denote the elevated status3 of its tenants and further classing such thoroughfares as of aspirational quality in the minds of 17th century Londoners. ~ Return ~

(FM)

The British population of 1667 truly despised the shop keeping profession. It was emblematic of the greedy retailer, attempting to swindle the common man by appreciating cheap foreign goods. It was at such a time that national wealth was emerging as a shared ideal, and as such importers were considered to contribute to the “beggary of the nation”4 doing naught but sending British wealth to the continent. The shop itself was a stronghold, hidden from the purview of law enforcement thanks to the protections of private property, it allowed such deals as would not be tolerated in the open market place, where “the watchful eye of the public could protect the purchaser from the sharp dealings of the seller”5. It was for such that only those “sternes of pride and ensigns of vanity”6 would find themselves in such dishonest locations, “newly set up… in Back lanes, Corners and suspicious places”7. It was with the Churches advocacy that such matters came to the courts, forcing an address from government.

1 19 CAR. II. c.18, The Rebuilding of London Act 1666 2 Ibid 3 First the “King’s High Street” later “High Street”, the truly first roads to carry the moniker were a series of direct routes between major cities around 1000AD. These were called so as they were built to provide safe passage for the King, and thus remained at all times protected by the King’s army 4 William Jewell, The Golden Cabinet of True Treasure (London: John Crosley, 1612; Ann Arbor: Text Creation Partnership, 2011), chap. 8, p. 167, http://name.umdl.umich.edu/A04486.0001.001.

5 Nancy Cox, “Beggary of the Nation: Moral, Economic and Political Attitudes to the Retail Sector in the Early Modern Period,” in A Nation of Shopkeepers: Five Centuries of British Retailing (I.B.Tauris, 2003), pp. 26-48, p.38) 6 Philip Stubbs, The Anatomy of Abuses, 1583) 7 7 EDW6 c.5 Limitation of Actions 1553

~ Return ~

(RE)

The ultimate Foreign Wares Act 15628, which prohibited the sales of “any foreign wares… appertaining to the apparelling… or the adorning of the body” was having diminished practical effect. The luxurious goods not available from the typical English Manufactures becoming emblematic of power, the retailers who sold them wealthier and the accompanying AntiSemitic imagery more exaggerated9. Yet with Christopher Wrens plan for a more contemporary London no accommodation was made to better situate what the upper-class considered to be the increasingly archaic market model. With such the Common court limited the site of commerce to the High Street10, condemning any by-lane trade to be of the blackmarket. As such, trade did not come to occupy the most accessible roads as means to accommodate the transport of goods, for even the smallest of such allowed for horse and carriage11.

Point ~

8 5 ELIZ c.6 Foreign Wares 1562 9 Early shops relied upon the use of credit as payment, and as such the biblical prohibition of Usury saw a greater prevalence of Jewish shop retailers 10 There are 5400 number streets named “High Street in the U.K. and Ireland. Initially done so designate similar trade zones as London.

11 19 CAR. II. c.18, The Rebuilding of London Act 1666

2. The Golden Age (1851) ~ Serve ~

“[It] ennobled the act of buying and selling by removing it from the muddy, windswept open market to its realm of the beautiful, the orderly and the respectable”12

(RE)

Though government control over citizens was much greater in Early Modern England, as a mercantile state its the primary regulatory concern was manufacture and protection rather than that of capital or ownership.

For imagine you believed wealth to be finite, something that could be extracted or exchanged, but never created.13 You would be care little about the meaningless movement of goods between citizens for such did nothing for the nations overall wealth. You might even assume that with no overt financial benefit, such citizens would only wish to engage in trade when absolutely necessary. For in fact the more readily available or prevalent a good was the less valuable. Thus, though it was far from the modern conception of small government, the Kingdom of England had so little policy in such commercial way that it acted essentially as such14. ~ Return ~

Divison of labour according to metal Pin

(FM)

Thus industrialisation was an affair of the private sector, emerging from favourably low taxation and timely technological advance. It was now possible for an individual to produce goods many fold his needs, creating a surplus of supply. But such is only a surplus if there be no one to buy them. With the dramatic increase in leisure time that came with these efficiencies, the new and recreational middle class were poised and ready to meet such demand required of a nation in transition to laissez-faire capitalism. However, this would need a shift in the prevailing attitude the a pious society that viewed luxury as vice.

Over production of goods for conspicuous consumption

In his poem, “Knaves turn’d Honest” (1714) Bernard Mandeville ascribes “The evils of unemployment to… the insufficiency of the propensity to consume”15 in a publication that incited instant scandal.

12 James A. Schmiechen and Kenneth Carls, The British Market Hall: a Social and Architectural History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), p.224) 13 Rolando, “Capitalism vs Mercantilism,” Difference Between Similar Terms and Objects, May 19, 2011, http://www.differencebetween.net/business/difference-between-capitalism-and-mercantilism/) 14 It should be noted that such a situation was rather unique to Great Britain. A series of wars and revolution had lead to the slow dismantling of excessive and greedy taxation along with the state ownership of property.

15 John Maynard Keynes

The root of evil, avarice,

That damned ill-natured baneful vice, Was slave to prodigality,

That noble sin; while luxury

Employed a million of the poor,

And odious pride a million more:

Envy itself, and vanity, were ministers of industry; Their darling folly, fickleness, In diet, furniture and dress,

That strange ridiculous vice, was made The very wheel that turned the trade. 16

In other terms, the rhyme suggests that self-interest could actually lead to the generation of public wealth rather than draining it, a very founding principal of the consumerist mindset that was to come in the Victorian period.

This allowed for a transition in mindset pertaining

to goods such clothing, evolving from a necessity to an “arbiter of purchase”. This created a spacial model that was in constant reaction to the desires of the individual. Supposedly though continued interaction, “The Vein Man” Dressed in “arrogant frill” of the continent

back and forth of trade the High Street would only better come to reflect such desires. ~ Return ~

(RE)

Many have argued this evolution as a testament to the free market, yet certain parliamentary decisions pre-conditioned the market accept this model17. Of particular note is the deregulation of transport. In order to maintain a specialised economy goods and services must be able to travel freely through it lest the whole system collapse. What should ensue if I, a Regional Stationer was unable to reliably receive an order of fountain pens for my store as they were now manufactured cross country?

Realising that urbanisation had taken it by surprise parliament coopted a series of statutes that allow for private/public collaboration.

The turnpike trust empowered private business’ with 20 year property rights over the King’s Highways. For this they funded the required renovations but were able to benefit from its earnings. ~ Return ~

(FM)

The Victorian High Street had thus come to attain the aspirational stature in the minds of the many as

originally envisaged by those who

planned it. Though it came to fruition though means by which they would have found entirely contradictory. The aesthetic draw of High Streets 16 ernard Mandeville, 1729. The fable of the bees, or Private vices, publick benefits: (London: Printed and sold by J. Tonson), p.3) 17 Ron Harris, “University of Chicago,” University of Chicago (University of Chicago, n.d.), accessed December 4, 2019)

now being relegated as pleasant backdrop rather than fuelling the desire18. The grandiose imagery coming from London spread to regional areas of Great Britain. The Golden age of the High Street. Four story brick buildings adorned with all the latest fashions. Symmetrical wrought iron balconies, curlicues galore, sash windows of stained glass would adorn the buildings above shop fronts of common retailers like greengrocers and butchers, shoemakers and stationers together incited “The English Spy” magazine depicting the who’s who of London High Streets

the Rural Exodus of the late 18th century. Existing major industrial cities saw a population increase of 235%, coupled with a net migration of 85% from rural to urban areas19 in effort to adopt a middle class lifestyle of professional leisure that modern transport enabled. The resulting effect was mimicry in the extreme, the number of streets styled “High Street” across the U.K. and Ireland reached its peak in the 19th century at an estimated 5,400. Our dynamic model now a nation wide phenomena.

Point ~

18 Nicholas Barbon and Lionel Cranfield are government economists particularly known to promote the use of luxury buildings within the city 19 Dudley Baines, “The Economics of Migration in Nineteenth Century Britain,” ReFRESH, n.d, p.1)

3. Clone Town (2006) ~ Serve ~

(RE)

Prior to the 1990s, “investors… looked to real estate for office space rather than for investment”20, but 1996 can be marked as the beginning an unprecedented British property boom. The likes of which saw prices rise 501% in London and 281% in nation-wide over the ensuing 20 years as property transformed “from cottage industry to bona fide asset class”21, of which the High Street retail sector was a key proprietor. Such caught the attention of big money, really big money, and was solidified in 1986 when Sainsbury’s and Marks and Spencer received AAA credit ratings.

However, this rapid growth one notes, was not necessarily positive for all involved. The balance of power had been shifted, the real estate now worth more than the store that sat upon it. This was coupled with tax bills that surged disproportionately to earnings, for business rates are calculated as a percentage of the commercial property value. For those however, looking to capitalise on the newest asset class, the wake of Black Monday22 proved the perfect opportunity. Many household names that for nye on a century had been synonymous with the High Street had entered administration and were on the market for less than the value of their floorspace. ~ Return ~

(FM)

Big money is a numbers game. It was the Bank of England who first profited through extreme monopoly, taking a small interest off of nearly an entire nation, rather than a more significant sum of money from the select few.23 Hence, when retail chose to take advantage economies of scale it needed to cater to the lowest common denominator of consumer in order to win market share.24 As such, companies became rather concerned with the act of buying and selling one another. Broadly mergers saw a reduction in the number of companies but an increase in size. In 1961, 207 retailers collected 25% of sales but by 1982

only

144 collected 37%. In order to manage these large disjointed chains, their head-offices developed “total design packages” that encompassed the aesthetic, store layout and employee-training scheme of the brand.

These were then easily reproducible for their multiple locations and multiple subsidiaries25. Such an aesthetic is familiar to us now. A Common chain brands

memorable logo, of specific colouring or material that will be used 20 Property mogul Roy H March, “The Making of an Asset Class,” Wharton Real Estate Review, 2012, pp. 1-4) 21 Roy H March, “The Making of an Asset Class,” Wharton Real Estate Review, 2012, pp. 1-4) 22 Largest single day drop on the dow jones USA of 22.6% , 19 Oct 1987 23 In England all cash is derived from an initial exchange of £1.2million between the Bank of England and 1694 King William III for which the resulting IOUs were issued in the form of banknotes assured with the monarchies likeness.

24 Evolved from Modern Portfolio Theory 25 John A Dawson, “Futures for the High Street,” The Geographical Journal, March 1988, pp.

1-12)

throughout the store so that we remember where we are. A shelving typology easily recognisable, even employee perhaps of/trying to appeal to a specific demographic. Such was a model that could be adjusted for each of the colours of the rainbow and projected around the country. No matter which city I will always know a Sainsbury’s from a Tesco. ~ Return ~

(RE)

The term Clone Town was coined in a 2006 report by economic think-tank NEF. It was a critique of specific High Streets which which bore little to no individual characteristic and thus were indicative of the “bland state of the nation”26. The term pertains specifically to the prevalence of large scale chains and corporation-designed retail, over independent shopkeeping. Effectively inferring that I could walk down any clone town High Street and it would, for all intents and purposes, be no difference to another on the far side of the country. The Victorian model for a reactive site had been frozen. Something which operates over such a broad consumer could never be incentivised by individual desire.

Greggs has 1650 stores, the Shoe zone 500 branches and the Card Factory 900 outlets. Only mass group sentiment could overcome such figures.

The architecture in evolution seems to have paused as the economic condition finds stability.

Point ~

26 Andrew Simms, Petra Kjell, and Ruth Potts, “Clone Towns Britain,” Clone Towns Britain (London: NEF, n.d.))

4. the Saviour (now) ~ Serve ~

“This is perhaps a rather emotive concern with a desire to retain something we feel has not served as badly over the years” 27

(RE)

The concern associated with the Clone Town has the current High Street apparently calling for saviours.

In 2010, as Lord Mayor of London,

Boris Johnson committed £175 million to the revitalisation of London High Streets so that they be “buzzing with economic activity and cultural life from morning till night”28. ~ Return ~

(FM)

For every seven shops that front a High Street in the U.K., one is now empty. In 2018 alone the retail sector saw a loss of 70’000 High Street jobs. For in truth there is a finite supply of High Streets in needsof a Paddy Power. At a certain point, growth becomes “frustrated by the limits of construction”29. ~ Return ~

(RE)

Although framed as a long term investment in “local skills and knowledge”30, the commitment was more a part of London’s 2012 Olympic preparations. As such, most of the funds were to revitalise the facade, clean the bricks and filler the cracks of the High Streets, perhaps improve some transport links that would ensure a shinny monument be there to meet the expectations of the tourists that would soon flood the city. Its true that the model was originally designed through the attraction luxury, but its intention was never to be relegated as

Boarded High Street Stores

solely such. Since 2010, three separate government pledges have made a combined commitment of £1.1billion to “save our High Streets”31. But it is not our High Street that they are saving, its their architecture.

Blinded by Victorian aesthetic and scornful of the modern commercial chain the government is nostalgic for a model which by its very nature can not remain in perpetuity. The genius of the High Street was its dynamism. A formal space whose defining character was not of the mind of an the architectural elite and for but a brief moment, instead derived from its most regular occupants.

27 John A. Dawson, “Futures for the High Street.” The Geographical Journal 154, no. 1 (1988): 28 2010 Commitment from Boris Johnson included £120 million from the Mayor’s Regeneration Fund and £56 million from public and private sector partners. Quote from “Learning from London’s High Streets,” Learning from London’s High Streets (London, 2014)) 29 Craig Hodgetts, 2018. Swimming To Suburbia And Other Essays. 1st ed. Los Angeles: ORO Editions.

30 This referred to old style construction techniques that were to be taught to craftsmen in order to complete the renovations in an authentic manor.

31 2018 saw £675 million from the Future Housing Fund, then an additional £325 million the following year. £95 million in September 2019 from the Culture Secretary

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Schmiechen, James A., and Kenneth Carls. The British Market Hall: a Social and Architectural History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.

Simms, Andrew, Petra Kjell, and Ruth Potts. “Clone Towns Britain.” Clone Towns Britain. London: NEF, n.d.

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William Jewell, The Golden Cabinet of True Treasure (London: John Crosley, 1612; Ann Arbor: Text Creation Partnership, 2011), chap. 8, p. 167, http://name.umdl. umich.edu/A04486.0001.001.