Malgorzata stanislawek

INGLORIOUS INFRASTRUCTURES

Malgorzata Stanislawek HTS Essay Submission Term 2 2017 Tutor: Zaynab Dena Ziari

“The whole point of architecture remains to suspend the sense of liquidity… a structural disavowal.”1 - Mark Wigley Architects’ discomfort around flows has resulted in the handing over of essential spatial ingredients to the realm of professional services. Arguably, mechanical services are the single most determining factor of the spatial organisation of architecture. If the reason for architecture is “to encourage, rather than satisfy, people’s appetite to behave mentally and physically in ways which they had previously thought impossible”2 then it is only by closely examining people’s current mental and physical behaviours, and precisely what it is that affects them, that the architect can begin to design and fulfil their role. The one realm that directly affects, and can be used to influence people’s behaviour is control of flows of water, air, energy and information. These terms should form part of the architect’s daily toolbox. However, it is their “liquidity” and the architect’s reluctance to engage with it that means architecture has missed many design opportunities. Through an oversight that refuses to acknowledge infrastructural flows as a valid design tool, and something that is inherently spatial, as well as social and political, today’s designs end up being subservient to the engineer, plumber and electrician, rather than the architect.

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURAL SUPERFICIALITY Servicing infrastructure forms the true external basis of an interior (Figure 1). However, architecture has become a thin interior surface covering this network. Our historical architectural inheritance is that of the moulding. The moulding formalises the artificial boundary between inside and outside (Figure 2), refusing to acknowledge the interconnectedness of the human body and bodily functions to the environment, a connection that is facilitated by the infrastructure. “Traditional mouldings are to prevent you seeing any gap between the floor and the wall - to remove any sense that the room leaks - that you are emotionally within a single contained world”3 In Figure 3, the wooden part of the moulding pretends to be continuous and connects between the wall and the ceiling, rampant with decoration. Interior mouldings attempt to create a visual effect of connectedness inside a space looking out onto the architecture that contains it. Extreme detailing creates the illusion of a continuous seamless surface, behind which today hides an enormous networking of pipes and wires (Figure 4).

INFRASTRUCTURE IS ARCHITECTURE Infrastructure is architecture. What is important is not just our day to day relationship with infrastructure, but also a re-framing of our understanding of how the city and dwelling operate.

Infrastructure is often interpreted as something extraneous to notions of architectural space. Careful examination of popular definitions of ‘infrastructure’ suggests that it is often too readily dismissed as not ‘architecture’. If architecture is defined as “the complex or carefully designed structure of something”4 then structure is a core component of this. ‘Structure’ is “the arrangement of and relations between the parts or elements of something complex”5. The prefix ‘infra’ indicates something “below” or “within”6. Taking the definition of infra + structure = infrastructure, it is “the basic physical and organisational

structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society or enterprise.”7 These are all definitions that can be found through a cursory Google search and are therefore the most widely accepted and acknowledged understandings of the concepts that each word represents. Nevertheless, this definition of ‘architecture’ is lacking in an understanding that architecture is not just structure, but it is also the thinking of how a space and structure relate to society, politics and economics. If we identify infrastructure as something key to architecture, then we add the life of a society and a recognition of the time-based importance of how this society operates in relation to architecture. Infrastructure makes architecture more than “the structure of something”8 and includes the life of the people within this architecture by acknowledging indelible ways of living.

THE INFRASTRUCTURAL CITY “Water lies at the intersection of landscape and infrastructure, crossing between visible and invisible domains of urban space. Water forms part of the material culture of modernity, ranging from the private spaces of the home to vast technological networks that have enabled the growth of cities, yet it is also powerfully inscribed in the realm of imagination.”9 – Matthew Gandy The city is an active organism, and infrastructure activates it. A city can be defined solely through its infrastructure because this is what essentially makes a city city-like. Italo Calvino imagines the city “Armilla” which is “has no walls, no ceilings, no floors: it has nothing that makes it seem a city, except the water pipes… a forest of pipes that end in taps, showers, spouts, overflows”10.

Despite it seeming that the city was “abandoned before or after it was inhabited, Armilla cannot be called deserted.” The inextricability between infrastructure and the activities that it serves immediately suggests a life of the city. Therefore “At any hour, raising your eyes among the pipes, you are likely to glimpse a young woman… luxuriating in the bathtubs or arching their backs under the showers suspended in the void, washing or drying or perfuming themselves” (emphasis my own). It is this active present participle that is always implied with infrastructure – something is always happening. Even in our imaginations we cannot divorce infrastructural networks from the life that surrounds them.

The “realm of the imagination” is counterposed to the “material culture” of the times we live in. Berlin’s pink sewer pipes that run through the whole city are reminiscent of Calvino’s city of Armilla (Figure 5). The name “Berlin” actually means “swamp city”. The root “berl-” means swamp in the extinct west-Slavic language Polabian.11 As long as you are building on a swamp, the groundwater stays just below the surface, where it needs to be pumped out of every new construction site. In Berlin the colourful pipes carry water out of the construction site to the nearest canal. Berlin sits in a water world. Several lakes surround it and the river Spree runs through it (Figure 6). The infrastructural pipes that run through the whole city connect the life of the city to the environment, both visually where the pipes are a constant physical reminder of the wet ground beneath our feet as they zig zag out to the nearest river or canal (Figure 7), and programmatically where the pipes are continuously sucking, pumping, pushing, flowing and mediating space.

The infrastructural city is one of “vast technological networks”12.

It is key that these networks are also active ones. Peter Cook’s ‘Plug-in City’ is made up of an infrastructural machine, which continuously changes due to the moveable giant cranes throughout the city13. The individual residential units then plug in to the infrastructural services of the city to create a changing, changeable, megastructure. This infrastructural architecture is therefore evident in the design at the scale of the whole city (Figure 8) to the scale of a large ‘building-sized’ structure (Figure 9) to the scale of a single dwelling (Figure 10).

THE INFRASTRUCTURAL DWELLING “The architect does all he can to make the body forget how paltry it is, and to make man ignore what happens to his intestinal wastes after the water from the tank flushes them down the drain. Even though the sewer pipelines reach far into our houses with their tentacles, they are carefully hidden from view, and we are happily ignorant of the invisible Venice of shit underlying our bathrooms, bedrooms, dance halls, and parliaments.”14 – Milan Kundera Infrastructure is the most powerful architectural mediator between the ecology of the body and the ecology of the environment. Its continuous flows add the essential fourth dimension of time to the spatial organisation that is called architecture, while also defining function and giving form. Reyner Banham recognised that architects sensed that “the mechanical invasion… is a cultural threat to their position in the world.”15 In fact, the cultural “act of creating monumental spaces”16 which is the traditional way of perceiving architecture, is a reductionist view of space-making. It places a boundary between what is ‘culture’ and what is ‘nature’. In fact, one informs the other to the extent where nature is culture and culture is nature. Infrastructure is what weaves the two together. In an infrastructural architecture, nature and culture are encompassed within one reciprocal system. This may be conceived of as the “internal life of each building… extended by ever-larger scaled networks”17 where the shell and its bundle of internal workings are connected to that which is outside the shell in a continuously expanding and interconnected system (Figure 11). In the end this interconnected system strives to be singularly contained within a portable cocoon that holds nature and culture as Reyner Banham’s Environment Bubble does (Figure 12) – a continuous line of the shell in the drawing is perched on a rock, representing the environment. However, the rock in this drawing is a complete fallacy – it has nothing to do with the Environment Bubble. If the idea of the Environment Bubble had been taken to its extreme conclusion, the rock would be completely external to the system of plumbing that holds nature and culture, and therefore irrelevant to the drawing.

The Bubble would become a planet Earth. It is uncertain whether the Environment Bubble is truly self-contained as it blows air into and out of the bubble, therefore it is still more like Doxiadis’ diagram in Figure 18. Nevertheless, it does remind us that the Earth and the environment that we live in is essentially a singular bubble which contains all of the flows that sustain life and society. It is therefore legitimate to envisage an autonomous system composed of flows of air, water and information.

Today, architects happily erase all traces of this infrastructural interconnectivity. Having relinquished the opportunity to use plumbing and its reinvention as a design tool, on the domestic scale the architect is also content to hide all plumbing, all evidence of the architect’s ineptitude for engaging with infrastructure, with mini-forms. The pipe fitting becomes a parody of architecture (Figure 13). The fitting hides the pipe, trying to turn the pipe into an ornament of the room, rather than realising that the bathroom is a piece of the pipe (Figure 14). The fitting is a mini house for a raw tentacle of the infrastructural network, pretending that this infrastructure really is considered in architectural design. Ironically, Le Corbusier’s “machine for living in”18, the Villa Savoye, turns into “a modern domestic still-life”19 by monumentalizing the sink and through this modern fixture architecture distances itself from the networked infrastructure (Figure 15). It stills the pretension of an active living.

It could be argued, however tentatively, that the decoration of the ends of pipes with fittings is a celebration of this network that the pipes belong to. Actually, it is merely a diversionary tactic that pretends that these hidden flows are of any importance.

In order to be able to design infrastructurally, the architect should conceive of a system, a cyclical network that feeds through and connects multi-directionally. In this way, as soon as there is an organization of the design that engages with continuous flows, the architecture becomes infrastructural. In Buckmister Fuller’s Dymaxion house and bathroom, “the hyperexpanded world of plumbing had to be compacted into the smallest possible self-sustaining units to free buildings and their occupants to navigate within the flows itself”20. Therefore infrastructure is evident on the scale of the single dwelling unit, as well as the building and the city.

Buckmister Fuller’s single dwelling unit was the Dymaxion bathroom (Figure 16). The Dymaxion bathroom was one continuous folded surface which could be in metal or plastic. It was the opposite of mouldings pieced together to cover an interior (Figure 6). The Dymaxion bathroom was a seamless connection of a continuous material through the whole of the unit. This sense of continuity was a vital part of the Dymaxion bathroom in two ways. Firstly, there was the cyclical nature of the materials that would be processed by the organism of the body and the organization of the bathroom – nothing would leave the room or the house, and solid waste was “valuable chemistry”21.

Secondly, the spaces that are served, namely the bath, the sink, the toilet, become extrusions from the continuous surface of the enclosure (Figure 17) and every element serves the purposes of cleanliness. The joints between each functional part are smooth so that no grime can hide in any crevice. The Dymaxion bathroom is not a room in the house adorned with fittings that mediate the flows inside a building. Its tools emerge from a single uninterrupted surface approximating to what we would normally call the floor, wall and ceiling, while at the same time acting as the conduit for solids, liquids and gases that form the bathroom’s life cycle (Figure 18). The infrastructural exterior wraps the bathroom interior, wraps the body’s exterior, wraps the body’s internal organs perfectly. The continuous enclosure serves the whole sanitary cycle.

This compact bathroom plugged into the Dymaxion House “to expand the rituals of cleaning”22. The infrastructural question of sanitation of the self-contained unit of the bathroom was the basis for the development of the Dymaxion House – the unit connects to the larger whole. The Dymaxion House has a central aluminium mast from which the many floors of the house are suspended and which is a “distributing tube” holding the house’s own independent “circulation of light, heat, cooling, water, waste, electricity, ventilation, and people”23 (Figure 19). Through its infrastructures, the building creates a world in and of itself. The house’s multiple flows define the spatial organization of the central pipe and that of the planes that hang off of it. The structure that holds these flows also forms the physical support for the whole building. The mast would be independent of the ground it would sit on in terms of cycles of flows, creating a self-sustaining internal world of the Dymaxion House. The world of the engineer is transcended to create an architecture that engages infrastructure to address a design’s spatial, social and political fields of enquiry.

In emphasizing the importance of the modulation of flows in design, Fuller went so far as to say that “an environment valve is a house”24. By this he meant that design does not start with thinking about what ‘house’ might mean, but thinking about what ‘environmental flow’ might mean. Rather than design architecture based on typology, the idea was to reformulate what architecture might be based on infrastructures. This launched Fuller’s designs into a consideration of what interconnected versus autonomous, dependent versus independent and fixed versus changing might be. As far as functionalism in the 20th century goes, Fuller was in many ways a non-modernist (rather than an anti-modernist) – his starting point was to consider flows of matter as design tools that then have a function, rather than pre-determine function and therefore form, to use only the resultant idealized form as a design tool.

THE INFRASTRUCTURAL ARCHITECT NOT ENGINEER “The Engineer’s Aesthetic, and Architecture, are two things that march together and follow one from the other”25 – Le Corbusier Ever since Le Corbusier’s assertion that the Engineer and Architect are interdependent, the profession has continually reevaluated the functionalist influence of engineering on architecture. Despite all of Le Corbusier’s emphasis on the “Engineer’s Aesthetic” and how “their work is on the direct line of good art”26, he seems to solely focus on the consequences of the engineer’s “law of Economy and… mathematical calculation”27 which is “geometrical forms”28 and “generating and accusing lines”29. Le Corbusier doesn’t engage with the design input that might eventually lead to geometrical forms – a variously defined design input may result in something other than purely geometrical forms. Le Corbusier accepted uncritically the mathematical calculations that were resulting in geometrical forms in his time, and turned the end result of the engineer’s design process into a style. In a great stroke of hypocrisy, rather than engaging with a design process that could generate a multitude of forms, he appropriated one type of form generated from one permutation of the engineer’s design process to create an iterative style based on the geometrical form. In

“Towards a New Architecture” Le Corbusier does not realise that this is in direct conflict with his assertion that “’styles’ are a lie”30.

The consequences of Le Corbusier taking the single solution of geometrical form as applied to one problem and reapplying it indiscriminately throughout his other designs is part of the larger issue where he believes that “All men have the same needs”31. This kind of linear thinking does not acknowledge the existence of a multitudinous, multi-faceted population of individuals that are different but at the same time connected, whilst continually mutable via these connections – in other words, a network. Therefore in spite of what he might aim to achieve, Le Corbusier’s architecture still satisfies what Banham terms as the “act of creating monumental spaces”32. Modernism aspires to a form of functionalism, but completely misses the point in only appropriating the resultant forms of some functions, and reusing these, preventing actual functionality from driving space making.

Infrastructure offers the opportunity to engage with a networkbased framework and with the roots of functionality. Unfortunately, the infrastructural is often relegated to the engineer’s realm, or otherwise that of the service-person: the plumber, the electrician.

Really, they are all engineers. The work they perform is prescriptive and often enchained by a great number of codes and regulations. What the engineer designs is not architecture, however it has incredibly powerful architectural consequences. It is the architect’s duty to have control over the eventual formal and experiential qualities of a space. It is only possible to aspire to this sort of complete control by designing infrastructurally. It’s not architecture unless it’s also infrastructure.

HVAC system - heating, ventilation and air conditioning.

Heating is most commonly in the form of a central heating system.

The HVAC is so dense it cocoons the space that it serves, barely opening viewpoints through the network of pipes and ducts.

Figure 1 Figure 1

The moulding formalises the artificial boundary between inside and outside.

Figure 2

The wood part of the moulding is continuous and connects between the wall and the ceiling, hiding the point where ceiling and wall meet.

Figure 3

Extreme interior detailing to create the illusion of a continuous seamless surface, behind which today hides an enormous networking of pipes and wires.

Figure 4

Berlin: swamp city. Pipes run through the city and pump water from building foundations into rivers and canals.

Figure 5 Figure 5

Berlin - surrounded by lakes and rivers.

Figure 6

Connections between the life of the city, infrastructure and the environment.

Figure 7

Plug-in city network.

Figure 8

Plug-in city component infrastructure.

Figure 9

Plug-in offices.

Figure 10

Doxiadis, diagram of basic shell, infrastructural cluster that radiates across a network.

Figure 11

Environment Bubble - Transparent plastic bubble inflated by air-conditioning input/output system.

Figure 12

U.S. Patent 4946135 Water tap for water flow control with handle, valves, pressure rod.

Figure 13

U.S. Patent 4946135 Architecture is reduced to a small fitting attached to a network of infrastructures.

Figure 14

Villa Savoye - Le Corbusier - sink at entrance.

Figure 15

Dymaxion bathroom

Figure 16

Dymaxion Bathroom inhabited by Buckmister Fuller

Figure 17

Section of “Unitary one-piece bathroom”

Figure 18

Dymaxion House Hierarchy: FIRST: system of flow management SECOND: flow-programs attach to flow system THIRD: the rest of spaces placed adjacent to flow-dependency The inhabitable pipe at the epicentre of an expanding universe “Houses that Hang from a Pole!�

Figure 19

TEXT REFERENCES (1) Wigley, Mark. Pipeless Dreams: Buckminster Fuller and the Architecture of Radio. Lecture at the Architectural Association, Tuesday 5 November 2013.

(2) Hardingham, Samantha. Cedric Price Works, 1952-2003: a forwardminded retrospective, London: Architectural Association, 2016.

Projects page 17.

(3) Wigley, Mark. Pipeless Dreams: Buckminster Fuller and the Architecture of Radio. Lecture at the Architectural Association, Tuesday 5 November 2013.

(4) https://www.google.co.uk/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF8#q=architecture+definition&*&dobs=architecture (5) https://www.google.co.uk/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF8#q=structure+definition&*&dobs=structure (6) https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/infra (7) https://www.google.co.uk/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=infrastructure&*&dobs=infrastructure (8) https://www.google.co.uk/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF8#q=structure+definition&*&dobs=structure (9) Gandy, Matthew. The fabric of space: water, modernity, and the urban imagination, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2014. Pages 1 to 2.

(10) Calvino, Italo. Invisible Cities, translated from the Italian

by William Weaver, London: Vintage, 2002. Page 42.

(11) https://janeyager.com/2012/10/19/swamp-city/ (12) Gandy, Matthew. The fabric of space: water, modernity, and the urban imagination, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2014. Page 2.

(13) http://www.archdaily.com/399329/ad-classics-the-plug-in-citypeter-cook-archigram (14) Kundera, Milan. The Unbearable Lightness of Being, translated from the Czech by Michael Henry Heim, London: Faber & Faber, 1995.

Page 151.

(15) Banham, Reyner. “A Home is not a House”. Art in America 2, April, Pages 109 – 118, 1965. Page 110.

(16) Banham, Reyner. “A Home is not a House”. Art in America 2, April, Pages 109 – 118, 1965. Page 111.

(17) Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015. Page 287.

(18) D. S. Friedman and Lahiji, Nadir. Plumbing: sounding modern architecture, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1997. Essay “At the Sink Architecture in Abjection” – Nadir Lahiji and D. S. Friedman. Page 36.

(19) D. S. Friedman and Lahiji, Nadir. Plumbing: sounding modern architecture, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1997. Essay “At the Sink Architecture in Abjection” – Nadir Lahiji and D. S. Friedman. Page 37.

(20) Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015. Page 84.

(21) Wigley, Mark. Pipeless Dreams: Buckminster Fuller and the Architecture of Radio. Lecture at the Architectural Association, Tuesday 5 November 2013.

(22) Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015. Page 97.

(23) Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015. Page 81.

(24) Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015. Page 88.

(25) Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture, translated from the French by Frederick Etchells, London: Architectural Press, 1946.

Page 17.

(26) Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture, translated from the French by Frederick Etchells, London: Architectural Press, 1946.

Page 8.

(27) Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture, translated from the French by Frederick Etchells, London: Architectural Press, 1946.

Page 7.

(28) Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture, translated from the French by Frederick Etchells, London: Architectural Press, 1946.

Page 8.

(29) Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture, translated from the French by Frederick Etchells, London: Architectural Press, 1946.

Page 8.

(30) Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture, translated from the French by Frederick Etchells, London: Architectural Press, 1946.

Page 9.

(31) Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture, translated from the French by Frederick Etchells, London: Architectural Press, 1946.

Page 126.

(32) Banham, Reyner. “A Home is not a House”. Art in America 2, April, Pages 109 – 118, 1965. Page 111.

FIGURE REFERENCES (Figure 1) http://www.premier-mechanical-inc.com/images/navis/navis2.jpg (Figure 2) https://www.hardwood-lumber.com/mouldingsone/images/Book%20of%20Styles%20and%20Historic%20Millwork.pdf (Figure 3) https://www.hardwood-lumber.com/mouldingsone/images/Book%20of%20Styles%20and%20Historic%20Millwork.pdf (Figure 4) https://www.hardwood-lumber.com/mouldingsone/images/Book%20of%20Styles%20and%20Historic%20Millwork.pdf (Figure 5) https://kyleinkorea.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/dsc03686.jpg (Figure 6) https://www.ecosia.org/maps?addon=chrome&q=berlin (Figure 7) https://viveberlin.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/031.jpg (Figure 8) http://www.archdaily.com/399329/ad-classics-the-plug-in-city-petercook-archigram (Figure 9) http://www.archdaily.com/399329/ad-classics-the-plug-in-city-petercook-archigram (Figure 10) http://www.archdaily.com/399329/ad-classics-the-plug-in-city-petercook-archigram (Figure 11) Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015. Page 288.

(Figure 12) Banham, Reyner. “A Home is not a House”. Art in America 2, April, Pages 109 – 118, 1965. Page 117.

(Figure 13) US Patent 4946135

www.google.co.uk/patents/US4946135 (Figure 14) US Patent 4946135 www.google.co.uk/patents/US4946135 (Figure 15) US Patent 2220482 www.google.co.uk/patents/US2220482 (Figure 16) http://2.bp.blogspot.com/LncN8AqhLQg/TeyN9Qmie1I/AAAAAAAAB3o/f4VeENUMf9o/s1600/Villa-SavoyeFrench-Villa-Architectural-by-Le-Corbusier-Design.jpg (Figure 17) Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015. Page 129.

(Figure 18) Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015. Page 87, Figure 5.

(Figure 19) Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015. Page 86.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Banham, Reyner. “A Home is not a House”. Art in America 2, April, Pages 109 – 118, 1965.

Calvino, Italo. Invisible Cities, translated from the Italian by William Weaver, London: Vintage, 2002.

D. S. Friedman and Lahiji, Nadir. Plumbing: sounding modern architecture, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1997.

Gandy, Matthew. The fabric of space: water, modernity, and the urban imagination, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2014.

Hardingham, Samantha. Cedric Price Works, 1952-2003: a forwardminded retrospective, London: Architectural Association, 2016. http://2.bp.blogspot.com/LncN8AqhLQg/TeyN9Qmie1I/AAAAAAAAB3o/f4VeENUMf9o/s1600/Villa-SavoyeFrench-Villa-Architectural-by-Le-Corbusier-Design.jpg http://www.archdaily.com/399329/ad-classics-the-plug-in-city-petercook-archigram https://janeyager.com/2012/10/19/swamp-city/ https://kyleinkorea.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/dsc03686.jpg https://viveberlin.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/031.jpg http://www.archdaily.com/399329/ad-classics-the-plug-in-city-petercook-archigram https://www.ecosia.org/maps?addon=chrome&q=berlin www.google.co.uk/patents/US4946135 www.google.co.uk/patents/US2220482 https://www.google.co.uk/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF8#q=architecture+definition&*&dobs=architecture https://www.google.co.uk/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=infrastructure&*&dobs=infrastructure https://www.google.co.uk/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF8#q=structure+definition&*&dobs=structure https://www.hardwood-lumber.com/mouldingsone/images/Book%20of%20Styles%20and%20Historic%20Millwork.pdf https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/infra http://www.premier-mechanical-inc.com/images/navis/navis2.jpg Kundera, Milan. The Unbearable Lightness of Being, translated from the Czech by Michael Henry Heim, London: Faber & Faber, 1995.

Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture, translated from the French

by Frederick Etchells, London: Architectural Press, 1946.

Walker, Charles Howard. Theory of Mouldings, New York: W. W. Norton, 2007.

Wigley, Mark. Buckminster Fuller Inc.: architecture in the age of radio, Zurich: Lars MĂźller Publishers, 2015.

Wigley, Mark. Pipeless Dreams: Buckminster Fuller and the Architecture of Radio. Lecture at the Architectural Association, Tuesday 5 November 2013.