Book I, Chapter 4, no.12 A Temple is not a Temple, but a Passage to the New
Second Year History & Theory Studies Essay 2 student Tutored by
Mu Zhang
Francesca Romana DellAglio
CONTENTS. Intro.
...1,2
Foreground the Plan
...3,...,16
In Between ...17
the Men
A Walk into the Drawing the Site, the City
To Conclude
...18,...,27
...28
Afterwords
...29,30
Bibliography
...31,32
Intro.
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (1484–1546), illustration to Vitruvius Book III, Chapter II, c. 1530 - 1545. 150mm x 250mm.
Introduction
1.
Ironically, if not mistakenly titled as ‘illustra-
tion to Vitruvius Book III, Chapter II’; the ‘simple’ ink drawing on laid paper by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger(1) depicts neither an orthodox plan of a Temple (the main theme of Book III), nor that belongs to any of the specified Genera (Types) of Temples discussed in its relevant Chapter. 2.
Born into a family of notable Florentine Architects
Sangallo the Younger was a prominent Architect in his own right. Following uncles Giuliano and Antonios’(2) footsteps, he left for Rome at an early age to pursue a career in Architecture, where he soon apprenticed under the High Renaissance master Donato Bramante. It would seem to make sense, then, had this drawing been a mere assignment during this period of apprenticeship. If one, however, becomes contended with this obvious assumption of the drawing, then he is sure to be misled by its undying deceptions. To begin with, for what would a prolific church and palace builder such as Bramente, who, with numerous important commissions at the time including St. Peter’s Basilica, divert the energy of a talented pupil for a ‘textbook’ illustration,
(1) (2)
1484-1546 also known as Antonio da Sangallo the Elder
1
Introduction
a task that is perhaps more suitable for an apprentice of an Architectural Educator of John Soane’s kind? The fact that this drawing was produced sometime between year 1530 and 1545 further, if not completely, rejected this very possibility. For the time is near the end of Antonio da Sangallo the Younger’s life, as well as his involvement in the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica; a mission that had been passed on to him upon his master- Donato Bramante’s death in 1514. 3.
Very little information is left concerning the
origin, and the purpose of this drawing; which, in turn, allows plenty of room for one to imagine. This essay, indeed, takes such granted liberty of stepping into the drawing, unveiling layer after layer of obscurities. Structured in a way that follows the composition of the drawing by carefully reading from its foreground through mid-ground to background, the essay aims to propose a new, self-explanatory title faithful to the drawing’s true intentions.
2
Foreground
Foreground: the plan
Foreground: The Plan
1.
Vitruvius’ third of the Ten Books on Architecture(1)
is dedicated to the most meticulous prescriptions for Temple designs; from a comprehensive description of the basic types (Chapter II) and species (Chapter III) of which, to the very details of Architectural Orders (Chapter V)- their appropriate symmetries, proportions, ornaments, i.e. Styles. 2.
The Genus (Type) of a Temple corresponds to the
general appearance of which pre-determined by elements of the Plan, i.e. number of columns, location of the Cella (naos) and the walls that enclose which. Despite their many variations, the following six Temple Types form the basis of Book III, Chapter II. PROSTYLE “A prostyle Temple has two corner columns in front of Antae(2), and two single columns on the sides to the right and left.” (3.2.3)
a
(1) (2) (3)
in antis;
b
in antis and prostyle(3)
De architectura, c. 30 - 20 BC the ends of the walls that enclose its Cella (naos) Hamlin, A. (1915). A Text-Book of the History of Architecture, ‘College Histories of Art’ Series. NY: Longmans, Green & Co. 3
Foreground: The Plan
AMPHIPROSTYLE “An amphiprostyle Temple has all features of a prostyle Temple; in addition it has the same columns and gable at the back.” (3.2.4)
b
c
prostyle;
amphiprostyle(3)
PERIPTERAL “An peripteral Temple will have six columns in the front, and six at rear; and, together with the corner columns, eleven down each side.”* (3.2.5)
peripteral(4) *
It is, however, disputable whether the number of columns on the sides
shall include, or exclude the corner columns. The confusion arises from the lack of agreement on Latin manuscripts, where a single word could possess various meanings. Shown above is likely another variation.
(4)
Greek & Roman Mythology - Temples. [online] [Accessed 17 March 2018] (see Bibliography for full reference)
4
Foreground: The Plan
PSEUDODIPTEROS “A pseudodipteros is so designed that there are eight columns each in front and rear; counting the corner columns(5), fifteen on each side.”(3.2.6)
d
pseudodipteros(3) N S O
Naos
Statue
opisthodomos(6)
DIPTEROS “The dipteros has eight columns front and back, and two rows of columns around the Cella.” (3.2.7)
dipteros or dipteral(4)(7)
(5) (6) (7)
as with Peripteral,it is debatable whether to include the corner columns Οπισθόδομος, ‘back room’, also known as Άδυτον, ‘not to be entered’ more details on this Temple Type will be discussed later in this chapter 5
Foreground: The Plan
HYPAETHRAL “A hypaethral temple has ten columns across front and rear... The central part, open to the Heavens(8), is roofless... Folding doorways give access to both the front and the back porch of these Temples.” (3.2.8)
hypaethral(9)
If one follows Vitruvius’ account in a very strict manner a plan as illustrated above would be constructed. Very few Temple, however, affords such open porches (or vestibules) at either ends. Most commonly, a Temple was made single-entranced (as shown below) so that its most sacred part, i.e. the Cella, receives light through a door alone.
Temple of Apollo Didymeus near Miletus, a Hypaethral Temple(9)
(8)
(9)
hence the name ‘hypaethral’, from Ancient Greek ύπαιθρος; ύπό(hupo)- ‘under’, αiθήρ(aether)- ‘sky, air’ Vitruvius. and Newton, W. (1771). The architecture of M. Vitruvius Polio: Translated from Latin. London: J. Dodsley. 6
Foreground: The Plan
3.
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger’s plan, however,
belongs to none of the aforementioned six(10) types of Temple at first glance. Upon closer scrutiny, however, its characteristics fit that of an ‘amphiprostyle’ Temple only very awkwardly. 4.
[Assumption 1] An Amphiprostyle Temple
Despite the similar presence of four columns in the front and at the rear, Sangallo the Younger’s plan differs largely from that of a typical amphiprostyle Temple. First and foremost, the absence of Crepidoma(11) or even the mere suggestion of it. As a general rule, Temples are rarely built directly on unraised ground. For it is considered a good omen to set one’s right foot on the first and last step prior to entering a Temple. If, say, that it is for the sake of simplification that stylobate and stereobates were omitted in Sangallo the Younger’s version, then the apparent access from both the front and the back of the ‘Temple’ raise the more thought-provoking question of: Where is the Cella? Although, as previously discussed, with certain types of Temple come the open porches in the front and at the
(10) (11)
seven, if include ‘in Antis’ i.e. sub-structure; consists of ‘stylobate’ and ‘stereobate(s)’steps that lead to the entrance, or often, that surround all four sides of a Temple 7
Foreground: The Plan
rear, allowing entry from both sides; only the grand dipteral or hypaethral Temples could afford to do so, given that the middle and the innermost chamber could be reasonably separated by rows of columns or folding doors due to the ample space in between. This vital condition, unfortunately, does not seem to apply to Sangallo’s ‘Temple’ judging by the number of columns and its simplicity in form. Unless, in the extreme case, what he aimed to depict is precisely the Cella itself.
above left above right
5.
plan of a typical amphiprostyle Temple; Sangallo the Younger’s Plan
[Assumption 2] Part of A Wider Context
Noticing its minimal form and small scale, it is not without any grounds to assume, what Antonio da Sangallo the Younger intended was in fact the very central partthe Cella- of a much grander Temple. Although it is then unknown, for what reasons were the rest of the details excluded to form this over-simplified plan.
8
Foreground: The Plan
Continuing with this logic, and to reconsider the first assumption, Sangallo the Younger’s plan does draw a certain degree of similarity with that of Temple of Athena Nike and that of Temple of Athena Lindia. Both of which are amphiprostyle Temples located within a broader complex- Acropolis of Athens and Acropolis of Lindos respectively.
Temple of Athena Nike, Acropolis, Athens(12)
(12)
Temple of Athena Nike shown as framed AD Classics: Acropolis of Athens / Ictinus, Callicrates, Mnesikles and Phidias. [online] [Accessed 15 Mar. 2018] (see Bibliography for full reference) 9
Foreground: The Plan
plan, Acropolis of Athens(13)
(13)
plan of Temple of Athena Nike shown as framed AD Classics: Acropolis of Athens / Ictinus, Callicrates, Mnesikles and Phidias. [online] [Accessed 15 Mar. 2018] (see Bibliography for full reference) 10
Foreground: The Plan
plan, Acropolis of Lindos(14)
(14)
plan of Temple of Athena Lindia shown as framed Martin, R. (1972). Greek architecture. Milan: Electa Architecture.
11
Foreground: The Plan
Temple of Athena, Acropolis, Lindos
(15)
(15)
Martin, R. (1972). Greek architecture. Milan: Electa Architecture.
12
Foreground: The Plan
6.
Again, there is this subtle yet crucial difference
as addressed previously. Reading from their plans, both Cellars of the two Temples must have been fully enclosed by walls on all four sides, except a single doorway that allows entrance only through the front. Could Sangallo the Younger’s plan be, afterall, an accidental mistake? A recent discovery(16) of a series of drawings, however, suggests otherwise. 7.
[Assumption 3] A Possible Disagreement
Attributed to the work of Bastiano da Sangallo(17), a cousin of Antonio da Sangallo the Younger’s and an assistant of Michelangelo’s; the drawing on the next page(18) was familiarly titled ‘Temple Types: Amphiprostyle (Vitruvius, Book 3, Chapter 2, no. 4)’. This drawing, along with seven others composed a series of manuscripts and illustrations meant for an Italian edition of Vitruvius’ Ten Books on Architecture. It appears that the cousins of the Sangallo familyAntonio, Bastiano, and a Giovanni Battista- had been collaborating in the 1530s to re-work on an earlier edition of Vitruvius’ book printed in 1486(19).
(16) (17) (19)
made in year 2008 1481-1551 see Bibliography for full reference 13
Foreground: The Plan
(18)
Bastiano da Sangallo (1481-1551), ‘Temple Types: Amphiprostyle, (Vitruvius, Book 3, Chpater 2, no.4), c. 1530 - 1545. 150mm x 265mm. courtesy: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Online Archive 14
Foreground: The Plan
This discovery, to a large degree, explains the time as well as the purpose for which the two illustrations were produced. The similar drawing style and use of dark brown ink are further proofs of the cousins’ close collaboration. However, having understood this, what is even more puzzling is the reason for such ‘repeat works’- two drawings on the same topic, for the same ‘project’. One possible explanation is the likely disagreement on Vitruvius’ writings, which was not uncommon back then.* As a result, each produced an individual illustration of the Amphiprostyle based on his own understanding. Although in the cousin’s version the Temple was properly enclosed at the back, it is hard to decide upon a more ‘correct’ interpretation; there are several mistakes. To begin with, the absence of the four columns at the back, which makes the cousin’s illustration a Prostyle instead(20). However, it is not the aim of this essay to criticise or to make corrections. At this point, what is more certain is that the family seems to be firm believer of Temples built directly on unelevated grounds.
(*) (20)
see page 4 nevertheless the drawing was marked ‘Amphiprostilos’(page 14) see highlighted (framed) part of the inscription at the bottom 15
Foreground: The Plan
8.
Having being preoccupied by its title, ‘Illustra-
tion to Vitruvius Book III, Part II’,
all assumptions
so far circle around a single hypothesis that Sangallo the Younger’s plan is that of a Temple. The most crucial element has been neglected thus far- a carefully drawn cross in the middle.
What could a cross possibly signify in the Architectural language of a plan? The void; a roofless space. The Cella of a hypaethral Temple, for instance, is a great example. However, arguments so far have deemed this possibility extremely unlikely. 9.
[Assumption 4] Ruins Stand Still
Most often, a Temple exists no longer, it is the ruins that stand still- broken walls, remaining columns, absent roof... very much fit the description of the plan. Or, is it so?
16
In Between
In Between: the men
In-Between: The Men
10.
Right next to the plan, stand three men; appearing
to be a king speaking to two soldiers behind him, with his forefinger pointing towards the plan. To a large extent, to point is to notify; to indicate; and perhaps, for a king, to instruct; to command. His face is unseeable, deliberately shaded by hatchings; the soldiers’ reaction is unclear, for their faces are covered by armours. However, there is a certain excitement in the air, the kind that is more likely to be sparked by an animated conversation than by the mere act of strolling around an archaeological site; hence diminishing the likelihood of the plan simply being that of a ruin. Who are they? Why them? Where are they from? What was the purpose of their conversation? The drawing freezes a specific moment in the event of a dynamic discussion; a resolute pointing hand directs the viewers back to the plan, as if hinting from where a scheme is emerging. Coincidentally, the word ‘plan’ originated from the Greek σχήμα ‘schema’, a plan is a scheme. There clearly is a figurative element to this drawing.
17
A Walk into the Drawing
A Walk into the Drawing
11.
Referring back to the plan, however, taking into
account of its site this time; various clues begin to surface. A multi-point perspective, one set of perspective lines draws attention to a town (or city) built upon cliffs on the top left(21), another vanishes into a heath, overlooking the city(22); A ship drifts in waves near the shore of a harbour(23), whereas the plan itself is situated on a ‘U-shaped’ land that folds around the harbour, which then extends into the sea.
(21)
18
A Walk into the Drawing
(22)
(23)
19
A Walk into the Drawing
12.
[Assumption 5] A Two-faced Temple is a Propylaia
Having analysed all background information, what now seems most important is the very location of the planright at the crossroads with the town on the left side and the heath on the right, making it a ‘bridge’ between the two. Looking back at the plan, only a Temple with two façades could facilitate as a bridge! On its one end bears the entrance for citizens of the town, while the other leads to a path into a forest which leads to the heath(24); the plan very likely represents a propylaia,(25) gateway to main Temple grounds.
(24)
20
A Walk into the Drawing
What, however, does this finding justify? What is more, apart from the fact that a propylaia stands on top of a grand staircase and is rarely roofless, how does one relate to Vitruvius’ Book III, Chapter II in particular, which speaks not a word of it? All evidences so far seem to point toward a single direction- the wrong title. That this illustration of Antonio da Sangallo the Younger’s could not have belonged to either this book or this specific chapter. Which else, then?
Propylaia, Acropolis, Athens(25)
(25)
Propylaia of Parthenon shown as framed AD Classics: Acropolis of Athens / Ictinus, Callicrates, Mnesikles and Phidias. [online] [Accessed 15 Mar. 2018] (see Bibliography for full reference) 21
A Walk into the Drawing
Comparing Antonio da Sangallo the Younger’s drawing with that of cousin Bastiano’s- both titled ‘Illustration to Vitruvius Book III, Chapter II; what constitutes the key difference?
22
A Walk into the Drawing
Truly drawn as an accompaniment to Book III, Chapter IITemple types, the cousin’s drawing was mostly occupied by a plan and a perspective view of a certain type of Temple; details of the background were kept plain and brief. Sangallo the Younger’s version, by contrast, gave much information to the site itself; treating it as a setting of a story. In essence, one is descriptive while the other, figurative. Book III however, does not concern the sites, i.e. the whole; but the parts. Book I does. 13.
[Assumption 6] Illustration to Book III I
Comprised of seven chapters, Vitruvius’ Book I, ‘First Principles and Layout of Cities’, covers the following: (26)
BOOK I I.
On the Training of Architects
II. On what things Architecture consists III.On the Parts of Architecture IV. On the Salubrity of Sites V.
On the Foundations of Walls and the Establishment of Towns
VI. On the Directions of the Streets; with Remarks on the Winds VII.On the Sites of Public Buildings
(26)
(translation based on the 1567 Latin edition) Vitruvius Pollio and Barbaro, D. (1567). M. Vitruvii Pollionis De architectura libri decem. Venetiis: apud Franciscum Franciscium Senensem, & Ioan. Crugher Germanum. 23
A Walk into the Drawing
Of Chapter IV, On the Salubrity of Sites, a particularly intriguing paragraph 12 reads: ‘But swamps that are stagnant and have no flowing outlets, whether by river or through ditches, ... grow rotten from stagnation and send out grim, pestilent vapours into surrounding areas. As another example, in Apulia the town of Old Salpia, ... was sited in such a region as I have described, for which reason the inhabitants, suffering every year from various diseases. At length they came to M. Hostilius with a public petition... requested that he seek out and select for them a suitable place where they might relocate their walls. Then he made no delay, after fully ascertaining all the conditions, purchased a healthy site along the seashore and asked...for permission to relocate the town. He established the city wall, divided the city into lots ... Once these works were complete, he opened a lake into the sea, and made a port of the lake for the municipality. So the Salpini now dwell on a healthy site, four miles from the old town.’
The chapter evaluates geographical conditions native to sites that attribute to good or bad healths, hence the title, ‘On Salubrity’. Earlier paragraphs have already laid out a solid argument regards that of swamplands, near where constructions of cities must be carried out
24
A Walk into the Drawing
with great caution. For its extreme humidity (moisture) and the ‘poisonous breath’ of swamp animals that inhabit which, makes a place ‘pestilent’. (1.4.1) Paragraph twelve, in turn, narrates a story of a town which used to locate upon just such a noxious swampan old town named Salpia (Salapia). Hardly mentioned in any ancient manuscripts, Vitruvius was one of the few, if not the only author to have had spoken of it. Ruins of the ancient settlement are found near the Adriatic coast north of Trinitapoli in the region of Apulia, south Italy.(27) Discovery of antiquities suggests a strong Greek influence, hence the likelihood of it once being a Greek colony.(28)
obverse
(27)
(28)
Laureate Head of Apollo;
reverse
prancing horse(28)
source: The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (1976) (see Bibliography for full reference) ancient coinage of Salapia, Apulia, c. 275-250 BC. 25
A Walk into the Drawing
Based on Vitruvius’ account, citizens of Salapia abandoned their plagued old town, turning to a certain ‘M. Hostilius’(29) for the relocation of their city. This M. Hostilius was no one other than consul Marcus Hostilius(30), member of the ancient gens Hostilia. Tullus Hostilius, the most famous family member, served as the third king of Rome. Following the story of paragraph twelve, Hostilius purchased a healthy site near the seashore, at a short distance - four files- from the old town.(29) How does one define a ‘healthy site’ located still within proximity of a toxic swamp? ‘If walls are constructed in swamplands that are near the sea, and they face northward or northeast, and the swamplands themselves are higher than the seashore, these walls will prove to have been constructed on sound principles... for putting drainage ditches will create an outlet for water along the seashore...’ (1.4.11) In paragraph twelve, Hostilius indeed so opened the local lake Lago di Salpi(30) by means of an artificial cut along the shore, transforming the lake into a port- a fresh channel to the sea.
(29) (30)
see page 24, underlined texts of Paragraph 12 source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) (see Bibliography for full reference) 26
A Walk into the Drawing
The new Salapia was mentioned by later authors of land survey, who believed that it was upon a precinct called Monte di Salpi where the new city rose.(27) Returning to Antonio da Sangallo the Younger’s drawing, not only does it involve all ‘ingredients’ essential to Vitruivius’ story; by judging from the light and shade, and the direction of the waves and winds, it would also seem that the heath was oriented towards the north (or north-west)(31), while the town faces east.(32) If, say, that the town is located near plagued swamps, then the walls built upon the heath will surely weaken the blowing wind which carries with it the ‘poisonous exhalations’ of swamp beasts. (1.4.1)
The Sun Path
Waves and Winds
N
(32)
(31)
see page 26, underlined texts of Paragraph 11
27
To Conclude
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (1484–1546), illustration to Vitruvius Book I, Chapter IV, no.12, c. 1530 - 1545. 150mm x 250mm.
To Conclude
14.
At last, the missing puzzles of the drawing fall
into their places: the Town was the old Salapia, made unhealthy due to its site brought various deceases; the Heath was Monte di Salpi, above the seashore, looking north upon which a new life will begin; the Harbour was the Port, or the old Lago di Salpi owing to which, mud, filth and dirt were washed out to sea; the Men were Marcus Hostilius, and his two soldiers from Rome A benevolent consul he was, planning a new home for the poor, unwell folk; far back was the great Sun, Winds and Waves and a drifting ship to take Marcus home. With this, comes the seventh and last assumption: [Assumption 7] Illustration to Book I, Chapter 4, no.12, A Temple is not a Temple, but a Passage from the Old to the New.
FINIS.
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Afterwords
Afterwords
Browsing aimlessly, page after page of Drawing Matter’s vast online archive(*), the encounter with Antonio da Sangallo the Younger was a pure surprise. Amidst hundreds of thousands of graphically rich diagrams, punchy photographs, erotic collages... this ‘quiet’ brown-ink drawing does not care to stand out- it has no crowd to impress, or client to please. A great ‘second-eye’ drawing, it is simple, yet not; meant to be illustrative, yet obscure. Over the cold computer screen, it speaks. Mistitled as an illustration to Vitruvius’ Book III, and Chapter II particularly, assumptions that follow this lead all end in nothing but a labyrinth. A plan occupies the foreground and most part of the drawing, which belongs to neither a Temple (focus of Book III), nor any type of which (theme of Chapter II). Quite the contrary, in a carefully laid background unfolds the setting of a story: a town upon cliffs, a lone ship in harbour, winds send waves ashore, striking the bottom of a north-facing hill... Almost dramatic.
(*)
see Bibliography for full reference
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Afterwords
What if the reverse is true? That the background is the main act while the foreground, merely a setup? The reverse of Book III- On Temples, i.e. the ‘parts’, is Book I- on Sites, i.e. the ‘whole’. In particular, the fourth Chapter ‘On the Salubrity of Sites’ sheds further light on the puzzle; Of Paragraph twelve, at last, lies the true intention of Antonio da Sangallo the Younger’s drawing. Easily taken as a mistake; it is, in fact, the drawing that is mistaken. A carefully articulated, immensely detailed narrative, it tells the tale of a long lost ancient Greek colony; and the heroic act of Marcus Hostilius that leads to the relocation of which. The essay concludes with verses, recalling the storytelling nature of a narrative poetry. Although, even at the very end, the mystery of the plan still remains unsolved; what else then, if it is not that of a Temple? A gateway, a courtyard, a corridor? It matters no more. For the real answer rests in its symbolic meaning, hence the new title for the drawing:
Book I, Chapter 4, no.12, A Temple is not a Temple, but a Passage to the New.
30
Bibliography
Bibliography
AD Classics: Acropolis of Athens, Ictinus, Callicrates, Mnesikles and Phidias. (2017) [online] Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/804921/adclassics-acropolis-athens-ictinus-callicrates-mnesikles-phidias [Accessed 15 Mar. 2018].
Classics.upenn.edu. (2018). Greek & Roman Mythology [online] Available at: http://www.classics.upenn.edu/myth/php/tools /dictionary.php?method=did&regexp=2193&setcard=0&link=0&media=1 [Accessed 18 Mar. 2018].
Drawingmatter.org. (2018). Drawing Matter → Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, attr. Illustration to Vitruvius Book III, Chapter 2, 1530–45,. DM 2939 R. [online] Available at: https://www.drawingmatter.org/index/antonio-da-sangallo-younger-attr-illustration-vitruvius-book-iii-chapter-2-153045-dm-2939-r/ [Accessed 8 Mar. 2018].
Hamlin, A. (1915). A Text-Book of the History of Architecture, ‘College Histories of Art’ Series. New York: Longmans, Green & Co.
Hamlin, A. (1916). A syllabus of lectures on ancient ornament. New York.
Hugh, C. (1911). ‘Bramante’, Encyclopædia Britannica. 11th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.418. Martin, R. (1972). Greek architecture. Milan: Electa Architecture.
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Bibliography
Smith, W. (1854). Dictionary of Greek and Roman geography. London: Walton and Maberly. Stillwell, R. (1976). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. The Metropolitan Museum of Art (The Met Museum) (2018). Attributed to a member of the Sangallo family | Temple Types: Amphiprostyle (Vitruvius, Book 3, Chapter 2, no.4 |The Met. [online] Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/383100 [Accessed 18 Mar. 2018].
Vitruvius Pollio and Barbaro, D. (1567). M. Vitruvii Pollionis De architectura libri decem. Venetiis: apud Franciscum Franciscium Senensem, & Ioan. Crugher Germanum. Vitruvius Pollio., Rowland, F. and Howe, T. (2001). Vitruvius. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vitruvius. and Newton, W. (1771). The architecture of M. Vitruvius Polio: translated from the ... Latin, by W. Newton ... London: Printed by William Griffin, and John Clark, and published by J. Dodsley. Vitruvius.be. (2018). VITRUVIUS De architectura Libri X. [online] Available at: http://www.vitruvius.be [Accessed 18 Mar. 2018]. Wood, J. (1877). Discoveries at Ephesus inclunding the site and remains of the great temple of Diana. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
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