Satvi Kumar, year 2, 2021

Satvi Kumar

History And Theory Studies

Second Year (2020-21)

Term 2: What is Architecture / How to Architecture

Tutor: Theodosia-Evdori Panagiotopoulou

To London,

From Mumbai.

To London,

I thought we could talk,

And you might listen?

You and I have a complicated relationship.

You and I share similarities.

We are both big fish in our own ponds.

We are both archetypal cities of commercial and financial growth.

We are dynamic, amoebic and fast-paced.

You and I share differences.

You could say I am a diminished version of you.

We contain different quantities and types of people, of cultures, of environments; different standards of living. Here is where we face disparity.

What is the starting point of our differences and what deepened the rift? We have a history, but first -

You and I share a present.

We are children of a world that is going through turmoil – a global pandemic and a shift in the equilibrium.

Although we never quite were in an equilibrium, were we?

I think this conversation I am about to begin is one that is long due. Especially, in the state that we are in. Maybe we needed this one unifying aspect of universal suffering, for cities like me to ask the questions I am about to ask, for people to bring awareness to situations that have far too long been overlooked, for a worldwide unlearning, or regeneration of ideals, principles, ‘rules’ and patterns.

You and I share a past.

On a large scale – we both know your country colonised mine.

On a smaller scale – Bombay (your name for me) took one of the worst hits. You took away all that I was proud of since I was, and still am a major trade port for India. This exploitation made for rapid industrialisation to the point that it was damaging to my people – it marginalised my original communities and deepened socio–economic disparity to an extent that is irreparable, even in today’s day and age.

On the smallest scale – I want to talk about an informal settlement that lives along my coast. One, of an innumerable number of informal settlements in this country that will continue to suffer the long-term effects of colonialism.

I want to reflect on our relationship – where it began, where it is currently, and where it can go now. The unfolding of the relationship between coloniser and colonised. Shall we?

The Permanence of Our Past.

The elephant in the room (although it does feel ridiculous to use expressions of such small scale) – let us address this past of ours.

The British East India Company was incorporated by royal charter as a monopolistic trading body for England to participate in the Indian Spice Trade in December, 1600. It entered India through the port of Surat, Gujarat.1

1 National Geographic. 2019. How the East India Company became the world’s most powerful business. [online] Available at: <https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/british-east-india-

trading-company-most-powerful-business)> [Accessed 22 March 2021].

But it was so much more than

Spices.

Silk, steel, semi-precious stones.

Muslin, chintz, onyx, rice.

Pearls, petroleum products, precious metal jewellery, opium.

More opium, organic chemicals, iron ore, gold, indigo, tobacco.

Coal and cotton.

Textile and Tea.

Opium Factory Workers

2

The company gradually seized control of my country, taking advantage of the disunity amongst Mughal Emperors, and meddling with internal affairs to deepen the rift between them. Eventually, the British raj (rule) was established in 1858 until we gained independence in 1947.3

How do I recount all the events within this time – those that sealed the permanence of our relationship? Sealed it to an extent that we feel the rippling outfall of them even today.

It is the backdrop of my life. And on days that I forget, it shows up like a bleeding wound – the kind that people notice but just cannot remember where they acquired, sometimes.

2 "How Britain's Opium Trade Impoverished Indians". 2019. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49404024.

3 Wolpert, Stanley. 2019. "British Raj | Imperialism, Impact, History, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/British-raj.

Poverty, diseases and famine.

The creation of systems that fostered disparity in socio-economic classes, races.

The dismantling and stealing of culture.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.

I cannot name everything, or we might be here a while.

4

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The moment I entered the line of fire is when the British East India Company shifted its business headquarters to Bombay in 1639. I was given to Charles II as dowry from Queen Catherine of Braganza in 1661, following which I was transferred to The East India Company for an annual rent of £10.5

Simultaneously, the rapid land reclamation during colonisation, of the seven islands that formed what I am today, led to the marginalisation of my original communities - pushing informal settlements to the edges, and suffocating them to a point that they are still struggling to breathe.

Land Reclamation

4

"100Th Anniversary Of The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre". 2019. Life Is A Random Draw. https://deeshaa.org/2019/04/12/100th-anniversary-of-the-jallianwala-bagh-massacre/.

Anderson, P., n.d. The English in Western India. [online] Google Books. Available at: <https://books.google.co.in/books?id=vXhCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&client=firefox-a&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false> [Accessed 21 March 2021].

5

Madraswadi - North Side

Take the Madraswadi Settlement in Worli. It is one of the many products of rapid urbanisation brought forth by colonisation. This particular settlement started off as huts of sticks and cow dung - that women like Rani Shetty built up from scratch in 1967. Rani Shetty migrated to me from her village much after India’s independence, as did thousands of others. But they could not afford this new standard of living that was favouring the rich, in this country that is still virtually bowing down to colonial tycoons. Hence the creation of temporary shanties, and squatter settlements.6

6

Shetty, R., 2020. Interview with Rani Shetty.

Rani Shetty in the distance

The permanence of colonialism is ingrained in our psyche - me and my people. But It is also sealed within the walls of architectural heritage. I am starting to look at the heritage buildings that dot my landscape, and what they really mean to me. But first, their origins.

Let’s look at The Gateway of India, a medal that I, for some reason, have worn with pride, post independence.

Encompassing a 26 metre high arch - it was built by the Governor of Bombay, Sir George Sydenham Clarke and Architect George Wittet to commemorate the arrival of King George V and Queen Mary in Mumbai in December, 1911. It was the gateway to Europeans entering my country in the colonial era, hence the name.7

8

The Rajabai Clocktower - Designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott, completed in 1878, and more importantly, modelled after your Big Ben. Remember when I told you that I can be seen as a diminished version of you?

The Gateway of India during colonial times

Although it is backed by a heartwarming story about a businessman named Premchand Roychand, who wanted

to fund the construction of a large clock to remind his mother, Rajabai, to eat her meals in time, there are so many questionable aspects of an extravagant affair such as this one.9 What was the need for this structure to be built in a The Rajabai Clocktower during colonial times

Venetian/Victorian Gothic Style, by an architect who never visited me or my country (simply designed it from afar, without much consideration), and why was it modelled on The Big Ben? Was it just a reminder of your country’s supremacy?

10

7 Harvard Graduate School of Design. 2017. Gateway of India: An Undesirable Fragment of Colonial Architecture - Harvard Graduate School of Design. [online] Available at: <https://www.gsd.harvard.edu/project/gateway-of-india-anundesirable-fragment-of-colonial-architecture/> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

8

ibid.

9 Snkindia.com. 2015. Rajabai Clocktower. [online] Available at: <https://www.snkindia.com/uploads/file/essays/06%20RAJABAI%20CLOCK%20TOWER.pdf> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

10 Revisited, Rajabai. 2012. "Rajabai Clock Tower Revisited". Inditerrain.Indiaartndesign.Com. http://inditerrain.indiaartndesign.com/2012/05/rajabai-clock-tower-revisited.html.

I do not know what to think of these heritage buildings anymore, the ones that my people have fought to conserve in the past. There is something about the physical presence of these structures that added to my landscape, and my personality as a city. But who am I really, without this? Why did I not question these stamps of possession?

The impact of colonialism on my built environment, my architectural heritage, my settlements, myself as a city, my country - have translated into the present. We are far too intertwined to turn back now, London.

A Moment of Transition.

I would like to think that you have understood your dependency on my country and its resources, especially in the current state of the world, but I know that you have a Eurocentric view of things, as do your people. Who doesn’t?

I know you have the power but who is the enabler of this power?

This is a moment of transition.

The recent farmers’ protests due to unfair policies within India, have brought to light how much the world’s food and resources are actually provided by my country.

Do you know about the farmers’ protests?

Do most of your people know to support the providers of their meals?

If they enjoy a bowl of Basmati Rice, they should.

If they enjoy a hot cup of chai, they should.

If they use turmeric, wheat, sugar, in their meals,

Cotton, spices, meat, castor oil.

If they simply eat fresh vegetables and fruits, they should know to support the farmers.

11

Farmers’ Protests, 2020.

11 "Indian Farmers' Protests: Why They Matter To British Indians". 2020. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-55937894.

This is a moment of transition.

We have recently witnessed the onslaught of the Coronavirus, also bringing to light the disparity in privilege. We are witnessing the emergence of the subdued. An unveiling of the ugly. A shift in the equilibrium, and a time of unlearning, as I mentioned earlier.

I am noticing a shift in the attitudes of my people - this power dynamic, this inferiority complex we are so comfortable sitting within, is not able to silence some of them anymore.

People are speaking up, raising awareness, not taking things lying down.

I am learning from my people.

I am learning to speak and to question and to unlearn.

And unlearning translates to the decolonisation of ideals, of words and of mindsets, which needs to be partnered with the decolonisation of architecture and design, which are the key elements in upholding systems of colonial control and oppression.12 These heritage sites sit around me like tattoos of imperial supremacy, but they have stopped looking that way to my people - to them, they are now home. They are now glorified icons for tourist consumption, and sites of pride.

Tourism at The Gateway of India 13

Pride! What are we even proud of?

14

A tourist enters a kaali peeli15 taxi and is first taken to The Gateway of India. They are met with hawkers on the street, selling merchandise and photographs with themed frames - they do not know what they sell, they just need to make a living.

Tour guides speak animatedly about the importance of this heritage structure. Its intricate detailing and its symbolism as the site of entrance for the Goras (the white people). It is a matter of pride that the people of the West would have even wished to step foot on my soil. No one questions anything. They simply snap pictures, feed the pigeons, buy and sell the merchandise,

12

InpaperMagazine, F., 2015. Decolonising architecture. [online] DAWN.COM. Available at: <https://www.dawn.com/news/1197315> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

13

ibid.

Pigeons at The Gateway of India

Kohli, Diya. 2020. "Did You Know: Mumbai’S Gateway Of India Was First Built From Cardboard?". Condé Nast Traveller India. https://www.cntraveller.in/story/mumbai-gateway-of-india-was-first-built-from-cardboard-historicalmonument-attraction/.

14

15

Black and Yellow Taxi

and move on.

No one questioned anything during the restoration of the Rajabai Clocktower in 2015. It was reinforced and strengthened, made more inhabitable and it maintained the same beauty that even I cannot shy away from - as with the other heritage monuments of colonial times. But no one questioned the design. There was no documentation or drawings that could be referred to during restoration, what with it being designed all the way from your end in the past. And I cannot help but think that this was the prime opportunity to separate from the Gothic style that was in some ways, imposed onto the structure by Sir George Scott.16 Why didn’t we take it?

17

Rajabai Clocktower Restoration Drawings

No one questions these British landmarks that are adaptations of Indian design mixed with British culture. These Mughal and Victorian Gothic hybrid monuments are confusing to my people. They have a distorted the idea of home. These magnificent structures blind us with their beauty so we no longer focus on their purpose. I do not enjoy these thoughts, and neither do my people, I imagine, because this is our present. How do I escape my present, and the permanence of your country’s impact on mine? Do you see how I am constantly in conflict about my truth, my origin? How my people feel obligated to preserve these markers of colonial status - somehow becoming guardians of your Empire’s legacy and their own suffering? So I ask that you forgive me if I am being repetitive, London.18

16

Snkindia.com. 2015. Rajabai Clocktower. [online] Available at: <https://www.snkindia.com/uploads/file/essays/06%20RAJABAI%20CLOCK%20TOWER.pdf> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

17

ibid.

Harvard Graduate School of Design. 2017. Gateway of India: An Undesirable Fragment of Colonial Architecture - Harvard Graduate School of Design. [online] Available at: <https://www.gsd.harvard.edu/project/gateway-of-india-anundesirable-fragment-of-colonial-architecture/> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

18

This is a moment of transition -

for my urban landscape - it could go either way. The government is proposing the Coastal Road Project, which is their attempt to reclaim and gentrify my coastline. While I do understand the human need to keep moving up and to keep expanding, I am concerned about my people. This is essentially an extravagant parkway, built with an eight-lane expressway and commercial stretches and promenades that will eat into the few living and public spaces that are still open to my working classes.19

20

The Coastal Road Proposal

19

Insight, India. 2020. "Why Mumbai’s Coastal Road Project Has Run Into A Row". India Today. https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/why-mumbai-s-coastal-road-project-has-run-into-a-row-1747825-2020-12-08.

20

The Coastal Road Proposal - Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (Drawing - Satvi Kumar). n.d. Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai.

आप लोग साथ नहीं देंगे तो हम नहीं बना पाएँ गे ।

Fish drying and water collection

आप लोग साथ नहीं देंगे तो हम नहीं बना पाएँ गे ।

समुंदर से मच्छी लेकर हम बेचते हैं ।

Daily meals; making a living; fishing -

“ समुंदर से मच्छी लेकर हम बेचते हैं । ” दिरयाँ में खेलते हैं ।

The Madraswadi settlement दिरयाँ में खेलisतेcaught हैं । in the crosshairs. People like Rani Shetty, who are essentially the caretakers and spokespersons of their settlements, are worried about the

अंदर छोटा गल्ली है ।

road cutting off their theबना water, आप लोग साथ नहीं देंaccess गे तो हमtoनहीं पाएँ गेfrom । which they get their daily meals and off which they make a living. She worries about the government asking for their cooperation, but

अंदर छोटा गल्ली है ।

offering no real compensation.21

समुंदर से मच्छी लेआने कर हम बेचपीढ़ी ते हैं -। अच्छा रहना चािहए । वाला दिरयाँ में खेलते हैं“ रोज़ी । रोटी का वांदा ।” अंदर छोटा गल्ली आम है । जनता के िलए सुिवधाएँ नहीं, बस जानें का रस्ता ।

“आप आने वालालोग पीढ़ी -अंअच्छा चािहए साथ नहीं देंरहना गे तोका हमजगह नहीं।ही बनानहीं पाएँहैंगे।।” दर िहलने रोज़ीसमु रोटी वांदसरकार ा ले । कर को ंदर का से मच्छी हम हमें बेचफ़ तेै सले हैं । बनाने का अिधकार देनीं चािहए ।

“ ” आमदिरयाँ जनतामेंकखे े िलए लते हैंसु।िवधाएँ नहीं, बस जानें का रस्ता । 21

22

Shetty, R., अंदरअंिहलने कागल्ली जगह हैहीwith हैं ।Shetty. दर 2020. Interview छोटा ।नहींRani ibid.

सरकार हमेंपीढ़ी फ़ैसले बनाने रहना का अिधकार आनेको वाला - अच्छा चािहए दे।नीं चािहए । रोज़ी रोटी का वांदा ।

आने वाला पीढ़ी - अच्छा रहना चािहए । रोज़ी रोटी का वांदा ।

आम के िलएand सुिवधाएँ नहीं, बस जानें का रस्ता । Access to जनता daily meals necessities अंदर िहलने का जगह ही नहीं हैं । Government asking for their cooperation

सरकार को हमें फ़ैसले बनाने का अिधकार देनीं चािहए । No real compensation 22

Here is where my relationship with you comes in, London.

Apart from a lot of my present suffering being an outfall of colonisation, I also reflect on our connection because I notice a resemblance between my present and your past. We have similar patterns of gentrification and its impact on our working classes.

Let’s look at you back in the 19th century - your government’s attempt to commercially and economically transform your citycentre backfired, and resulted in a strain in the social development of your population. The working classes suffered the consequences of railway and dockyard extensions, over-exploitation of vacant spaces for warehouses and workshops, and urban improvement and street clearances. The provision of cheap transport as compensation (like my coastal road facilities), was not sufficient to account for the displacing of the working classes from the centre to and beyond your edges. And attempts at displacement were not even the solution to the development of your city centre, because the working class’s need to be on call for their work, took precedence to their living conditions - to them, all that mattered was earning money for survival.23

24

I find myself and my people to be in a similar position, but two centuries hence. The Madraswadi settlement is going to be displaced, as are many others lining my coast. I look to you as my future, looking back at me with hindsight. I look at your

Working class conditions during the gentrification of central London.

successes and your mistakes, and I want to reflect on and make the most of this relationship we have now.

I think maybe you owe it to me.

23

Jones, Gareth Stedman. “Part II : Housing and the Casual Poor - The Transformation of Central London.” Essay. In Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship Between Classes in Victorian Society. London;: Penguin, 1991.

24

“'Sober but VERY Immoral': What Victorian-Era 'Poverty Maps' Tell Us about London Today,” October 30, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/oct/30/what-victorian-era-poverty-maps-tell-us-about-london-today.

There is still a strong presence of colonialism in my country, through this system of catering to the needs of the few privileged.

This VIP culture.

This shameful disparity that we are left with and the ignorance of the truth.

This fact that only a few are able to get out, to gain an education in cities like you, and to even begin to realise what is wrong.

The rest are in the dark.

The policy of divide-and-conquer worked all too well for the British Raj - adding salt to the wounds of the caste system and dividing Pakistan and India. What we are left with, is a hostile environment - full of violence and injustice. Full of internal fights rather than joining arms toward a brighter future.

And what are my people to do? They aren’t taught any different.

Now, left to their own device, the elites sanction the colonial education system that was tailored to control the masses and prepare new rulers.25

Do they even realise?

25

Raja, Irfan. “Is Colonialism Still Thriving in South Asia?: Opinion.” Daily Sabah. Daily Sabah, October 2, 2020. https://www.dailysabah.com/opinion/op-ed/is-colonialism-still-thriving-in-south-asia.

So what now?

Where do we go from here, London?

Let us look at it from the bottom up -

starting from settlements like Madraswadi.

Rani Shetty is concerned for the well-being of the future generations -

she wants them to break out of this coop that she never thought to leave.

She sees the children of Madraswadi playing amongst the sewage of the higher classes, and gathering in cramped corners.

She wants a say in the Coastal Road Proposal.26

But she is attached to this sense of community within informal settlements, born out of necessity rather than want. The blurring of domesticity and community and the pouring out of their lives from their homes onto the main street. They are limited to a minuscule room per family, you see?

26 Shetty, R., 2020. Interview with Rani Shetty.

Community, and a rich sense of collective soul within me and my people - this is one thing I still have, and I do not want to lose it. I want to carry it forward into a future where it can flourish amongst equality and a decent standard of living.

I want my people to understand the importance of catering to all classes, to move toward bridging this gap, so that interventions like the Coastal Road Project are thoroughly thought through, in the future.

The Madraswadi community

I want more decolonisation of the architectural physicality of your supremacy. More repurposing of these symbols.

Take my Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (originally Victoria Terminus).

The Gothic Victorian Landmark that bears resemblance to your St. Pancras Station.

It was the mercantile port of India, and built to export our resources to you during the British Raj. 27

My people have turned it around, making it the most important railway station in my city, transporting thousands of passengers within, rather than resources out.

It is time to think about what ornamental heritage can do for me and my people.

28

Present day Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus 27

Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (Formerly Victoria Terminus).” UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed March 24, 2021. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/945/.

“Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, February 25, 2021. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhatrapati_Shivaji_Terminus#/media/ File:CSTM_Mumbai_Panoramic_view_by_Dr._Raju_Kasambe_20190712_(4)_(cropped_and_fixed_angles).jpg.

28

We need to pause

and reconsider.

It is time for that unlearning that I talked about.

For India - the unlearning of colonial principles and policies that are ingrained within mindsets, education systems, architecture and governance.

No more glorification of your Empire, and of the Angrez.29

This is not to say that you have done nothing for me.

This is just to say that the impact of your doing has overridden that.

It is time to address my inferiority complex.

This Stockholm Syndrome.

My people feel the need to disassociate with their native heritage when they look at you

and your people

and their comfort

and their privilege

and their untainted skin.

They just want to be like your people,

to be liked by your people.

I just want to be you.

My children are the key. I need to teach them the truth.

29 Englishman/English speaking white person

As do you.

For the United Kingdom - the learning of the truth. Colonial history is not present in your education system.

Will you tell your children that the things around them, that Britain’s industrial revolution was financed by the colonised?

Will you tell them that Britain came to ‘one of the richest countries in the world, and reduced it after 200 years of plunder to one of the poorest?’30

This is not to reflect on our relations today.

Today my economy is as big as yours.

I know that we will both gain from trade relations. And I am grateful to have come to this point.

But I would ask for equal give and take - more of letting my people in, as students and workers. I provide numbers of resourceful, educated, individuals that add value to you.

I would ask for you to welcome me, welcome my people, please.

Give us some credit for the culture, the design, the flavour we give to you.

Do not patronise us. We helped create you.

30 "Shashi Tharoor Interview: How British Colonialism 'Destroyed' India". 2017. Channel 4 News. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1giYXrofZYo.

I am not sure why I write to you and what I want from you still, London.

Is it an apology?

Compensation? Reparations? Atonement?

Validation? Am I still speaking from that feeling of inferiority?

The awe,

the obsession,

the insecurity, embarrassment, helplessness?

Do I want guidance?

I brought up the idea of a collective soul of a place. I know that mine is one that is rich in community, culture and depth.

I know that you have one too.

And I know that if you have a collective soul, you have a collective responsibility.

Maybe I am hoping for you to take collective responsibility, to pay moral debt.

I do not know yet.

For now, I just want my people to know where they come from, and where they are going.

I want to tell them to forgive but not forget.

I want to be heard, so that my people know that they can be heard.

They do not even know that they actually want to be heard, yet, but I need them to know how crucial it is, that they speak.

And so i speak to you, hoping to give them the confidence to do the same.

I just want to be heard.

So, I thought we could talk.

And you might listen.

Yours sincerely,

Mumbai.

Bibliography:

1

National Geographic. 2019. How the East India Company became the world’s most powerful business. [online] Available at: <https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/british-east-india-trading-

company-most-powerful-business)> [Accessed 22 March 2021].

2

"How Britain's Opium Trade Impoverished Indians". 2019. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49404024.

3

Wolpert, Stanley. 2019. "British Raj | Imperialism, Impact, History, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/British-raj.

4

"100Th Anniversary Of The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre". 2019. Life Is A Random Draw. https://deeshaa.org/2019/04/12/100th-anniversary-of-the-jallianwala-bagh-massacre/.

5

Anderson, P., n.d. The English in Western India. [online] Google Books. Available at: <https://books.google.co.in/books?id=vXhCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&client=firefox-

a&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false> [Accessed 21 March 2021].

6

Shetty, R., 2020. Interview with Rani Shetty.

7

Harvard Graduate School of Design. 2017. Gateway of India: An Undesirable Fragment of Colonial Architecture - Harvard Graduate School of Design. [online] Available at: <https://www.gsd.harvard.edu/

project/gateway-of-india-an-undesirable-fragment-of-colonial-architecture/> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

8

ibid.

9

Snkindia.com. 2015. Rajabai Clocktower. [online] Available at: <https://www.snkindia.com/uploads/file/essays/06%20RAJABAI%20CLOCK%20TOWER.pdf> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

10

Revisited, Rajabai. 2012. "Rajabai Clock Tower Revisited". Inditerrain.Indiaartndesign.Com. http://inditerrain.indiaartndesign.com/2012/05/rajabai-clock-tower-revisited.html.

11

"Indian Farmers' Protests: Why They Matter To British Indians". 2020. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-55937894.

12

InpaperMagazine, F., 2015. Decolonising architecture. [online] DAWN.COM. Available at: <https://www.dawn.com/news/1197315> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

13

ibid.

14

Kohli, Diya. 2020. "Did You Know: Mumbai’S Gateway Of India Was First Built From Cardboard?". Condé Nast Traveller India. https://www.cntraveller.in/story/mumbai-gateway-of-india-was-first-built-

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15

Black and Yellow Taxi

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project/gateway-of-india-an-undesirable-fragment-of-colonial-architecture/> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

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row-1747825-2020-12-08.

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Shetty, R., 2020. Interview with Rani Shetty.

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ibid.

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us-about-london-today.

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Shetty, R., 2020. Interview with Rani Shetty.

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File:CSTM_Mumbai_Panoramic_view_by_Dr._Raju_Kasambe_20190712_(4)_(cropped_and_fixed_angles).jpg.

29

Englishman/English speaking white person

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