The Long Game by AA School

THE LONG GAME

Lucy Styles Atishay Agrawal Jingyan Kang -

Chun Liu Maohang Lin

Dilara Kuran Sami Yucel -

Haotian Fang Sarah Cope

HO USING AND URBANISM A R CHI T E CT UR A L A S S O CIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

THE LONG GAME

ii i

Cover page, Figure. (Above), Figure

Lucy Styles Atishay Agrawal Jingyan Kang -

Chun Liu Maohang Lin

Dilara Kuran Sami Yucel -

Haotian Fang Sarah Cope

HO USING AND URBANISM A R CHI T E CT UR A L A S S O CIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

P R EFACE

In the words of historian Fernand Braudel, the urban and rural are never separate like oil and water. They are at the same time distinct yet drawn together, divided yet combined. Although most of the discourse and practice of architecture and urbanism in the last century had been directed towards the urban, the urgency to rethink the discipline’s relationship to ecological processes in the 21st century has placed a rejuvenated interest in the rural. This context of recalibration is marked by two intertwined drivers of change, the global climate crisis and the increased urban migration to rural areas. The Long Game is a design workshop that situates itself within this potential space of action through a reconciliation of alternative notions of domesticity with environmental stewardship in rural Britain. The group work presented in this document is the synthesis of a range of research and design-based investigations responding to a variety of ecological conditions. Culminating in three main outputs, a text-based manifesto, a diagrambased pattern study and comparitive individual proposals, this document explores the possibility of an adaptive and multi-scalar design process that generates socio-economic and environmental transformations.

IN D EX

PART ONE

1A THE RURAL CONDITION 1B HOUSING TYPOLOGY AND SETTLEMENT 1C ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP 1D ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT 1D ECONOMIC VIABILITY 1E IMPLEMENTATION THEORY

11 19 27 37 39 45

MANIFESTO

PART TWO 2A PATTERN STUDY 2B COMPARITIVE INVESTIGATIONS ON SETTLEMENT 2C COMPARITIVE INVESTIGATIONS ON HOME

51 57 83

PART THREE 3A CONFIGURATION OF PROCESS

113

Bibliography

127

Table of References

129

PA RT O N E C O N TE XT

CH A P T ER S

The Rural Condition What is the rural and how is it shaped by the urban? How has it been defined historically, both globally and within Britain? Why is it important to reconsider its role today and how have the drivers of change already been addressed in policy and architectural discourse?

Housing Typology and Settlement Why and at which scale can a contemporary conception of rural domesticity sit within this context? What kind of spatial components and organizational principles can we derive from vernacular rural housing typologies in Britain?

Environmental Stewardship What is environmental stewardship and how can it be envisioned through a lens of socio-economic viability? Do existing policies provide a potential framework in which our investigations can sit? How can environmental stewardship be activated across a range of ecological conditions?

Ecosystem Management What are the primary ecosystems in Britain that most require management? What are their qualities and what kind of challenges are they facing? What are potential strategies of restoration?

Economic Viability How can we sustain our goal of ecological restoration having economy generation as a parallel driver? What are the on ground cases that have tested methods of different scales of management? What strategies do we need to adopt to achieve the most efficient balance of both these drivers?

Implementation How can existing frameworks of policy and stakeholder partnerships serve as a basis to implement our framework? What are the key principles we can derive from case studies? The following section of the document will elaborate on the outlined channels of inquiry in detail.

iii

UK Countryside View; Painting by John Constable; 1818

1A T H E RUR A L CO N D IT IO N

As the rural geographer and historian Michael Woods extensively illustrates in his work, rural is a messy and slippery idea that eludes easy definition and demarcation.1 Over the course of history, it has been endowed with symbolic importance, disparaged as a counterpoint to modernity, celebrated as a bucolic idyll and more. But most commonly, the rural has been defined through what it is not or its so-called opposite, the urban. In the words of Fernand Braudel, the town and country are never separate like oil and water.2They are at the same time distinct yet drawn together, divided yet combined. The dependencies between rural and urban areas have changed over the course of time, redefining boundaries. The binary distinction between the urban and the rural is deeply ingrained in our society and woven into our economy. It has been manufactured through an evolutionary change in agriculture and food consumption. Prior to the active land management we see today, early settler communities would live in the fields to catch the exact moment that wild grains would start ripening. Over time, this symbiotic way of living was replaced with agricultural technology, developed to manage our lands. Populations thrived and grew due to this vast access to natural resources. Settlements evolved into towns, and towns evolved into cities until an immense physical and perceptive gap started appearing between the city and the land.

1 Woods, Michael. Rural Geography. London, UK: Sage Publications Ltd, 2005. 2 Steel, Carolyn. The Hungry City, 2013.

PART ONE

Aerial view of a village and its surrounding area, UK

THE RURAL CONDITION

Zooming into the experience of the rural-urban distinction in the case of the United Kingdom, we see that the British countryside is a working landscape which has been constantly altered by various agricultural models and economies adopted from various parts of the world. Taken over by monotype agricultural models, the British countryside is now a constellation of fragmented ecosystems. In recent history, this dilemma has been addressed by modes of preservation devised independently of production. The 2001 Curry Report3, for example, started subsidizing Britain’s farmers to manage their land rather than producing food. But as Carolyn Steel points out in her seminal book Hungry Cities, a landscape teeming with wildlife but no food production would be either fake or unsustainable.4 There has been a heightened interest in the state of the rural areas on a local and global scale both within emerging policymaking and architectural discourse in the last years. The two main drivers of this change in focus are the global climate crisis and the increased urban migration to rural areas. As the United Nation’s most recent IPCC report outlines, the decline in global biodiversity must be mitigated for climate change adaptation, pointing towards potential strategies of rural biodiversification.5 Simultaneously, as outlined by the Office for National Statistics in 2021, urban population growth has slowed by up to 36% in UK’s major cities amid a growth in rural populations.6 Highly interrelated, these two conditions indicate a significant opportunity for a new design agenda in the rural.

3 ‘Farmer’s Diary: Curry Report Verdict’, 29 January 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1789209.stm. 4 ‘Farmer’s Diary: Curry Report Verdict’, 29 January 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1789209.stm. 5 Nations, United. ‘ClimateChange’. United Nations. United Nations. Accessed 22 February 2022. https://www.un.org/en/ climatechange. 6 GOV.UK. ‘Rural Population and Migration’. Accessed 25 February 2022. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/rural-population-and-migration/rural-population-and-migration.

PART ONE

Photograph of Barn-Mereworth Estate, Maidstone, UK

THE RURAL CONDITION

Within the scope of our investigation, we identified two extensive research projects within contemporary architectural discourse that deal with such a reconsideration of the rural; Countryside, A Report by AMO and Taking the Country’s Side by Sebastien Marot.

Countryside, A Report by AMO and Rem Koolhaas primarily concentrates on how networks of late capitalism have transformed the urban, the rural and their relationship of dependency. Building on examples such as the server farms placed in the fields of Nevada to support the tech industry in Silicon Valley and the growing digitization of farming, Countryside argues that currently, the rural is going through urbanization without people. In the light of AMO’s past research in metropolitanism, it could be argued that Koolhaas embraces the unification of rural and urban through an agenda of total urbanization, calling for a new rural imagination stripped of nostalgia and geared towards emerging technologies as well as migration patterns.7 Taking the Country’s Side, an exhibition and publication led by Sebastien Marot on the other hand, explores the interdependencies between architecture and agriculture, highlighting how they have always produced and designed each other. Contesting metropolitanism and the notion of never-ending growth that is currently leading the material progression of the city and the country, the investigation explores potential alternative routes to a reconciliation between architecture and agriculture. 8

7 TASCHEN. ‘Koolhaas. Countryside, A Report - TASCHEN Books’. Accessed 19 March 2022. https://www.taschen.com/ pages/en/catalogue/architecture/all/08008/facts.koolhaas_countryside_a_report.htm. 8 Sebastian Marot. Taking the Country’s Side: Agriculture and Architecture. Barcelona: Poligrafa, 2019

PART ONE

Farmhouse in Preston Wynne, Herefordshire, UK

THE RURAL CONDITION

Bridging existing drivers of change and the widening space of invention within the discourse, our design workshop aims to pinpoint the potential for a new typology in rural Britain which can synthesize processes of preservation, restoration and production. In responding to a relatively unprecedented design agenda, we place equal importance on the intangible guidelines of a viable brief as well as tangible proposals. Initiating a multifaceted design process, the following section explores the role housing can play in generating an alternative way of living with the land. Resonating with the recognition of the networks of knowledge embedded in past forms of rural life as exhibited by Taking the Country’s Side, the rural home will be investigated through its past manifestations in rural Britain.

vii Distant view of a Farmhouse, UK

1B H OU S I N G T YP O LO GY A N D SET T LEM EN T

Increased urban migration to rural areas and the recent promotion of rural biodiversification schemes suggest an opportunity to generate a new housing typology that can bridge patterns of domesticity with environmental stewardship. To find the most appropriate scale of investigation both at the home and the settlement level, we consulted the UK urban-rural classification scheme, concluding that the category of hamlets and isolated dwellings would be most appropriate to this endeavour. 9 Through its sparsity and relative independence from existing built environment, this category enables us to imagine new typologies which are determined more by their relationship to land than to pre-established patterns of settlement.

9 GOV.UK. ‘Rural Urban Classification’. Accessed 22 February 2022. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/rural-urban-classification.

PART ONE

Hut

Long House

Laithe House

Long House

Courtyard House

Bastle House

HOUSING T YPOLOGY AND SET TLEMENT

To explore spatial principles that are integral to different lifestyles and logistics of living on land, we studied various vernacular home and housing typologies that have emerged in rural Britain: the hut, the long house, the laithe house, the bastle house and the courtyard house. Analysing them both individually and comparatively through the organization of the home, settlement patterns and boundary characteristics, we extracted spatial principles geared towards reconciling environmental stewardship with domesticity.

viii

Page 20, Figure.

PART ONE

Hut

Long House

long house long house

laithe house laithe house

bastlebastle househouse

Laithe House laithe house laithe house

bastle house bastle house

laithe house laithe house

bastle house bastle house

Bastle House

bastle bastle househouse

bastle house bastle house

bastle house Courtyard House bastle house

Walled Garden House

HOUSING T YPOLOGY AND SET TLEMENT

Through Investigations in Collective Form published in 196410, Fumihiko Maki had questioned how individual buildings and parts of cities could work together to create wholes in a rapidly changing urban context where master plans are no longer sufficient. Investigating this notion through three paradigms, compositional form, group form and megaform, derived from built examples such as Chandigarh, traditional Japanese villages and Metabolist proposals, Maki’s research had culminated in a theory of linkage, principles of which could guide more resilient forms of urban development. Similarly, our research into past typologies’ reconciliation of home, settlement and land as the foundation of a rural collective form, guided us towards a theory of process.

10 Fumihiko Maki. Nurting Dreams: Collected Essays on Architecture and the City. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press 2008, n.d. ix

Page 22, Figure.

PART ONE

Huts Shaugh Moor, Devon

Laithe House Dean Stones, Northowram, West Yorkshire

Sparsholt Roman Villa Sparsholt, Hampshire, England

Long Houses Houndtor, Devon

Bastle House Glengeith Hamlet, Scotland

HOUSING T YPOLOGY AND SET TLEMENT

To further link this theory to contemporary context, the following chapter will elaborate on the notion of environmental stewardship. By investigating its formal principles of application, we will be able to find a suitable territory of action.

Page 24, Figure.

Home acts as a foci for initiation

A ripple effect is created through daily domesticity

With home comes land management and stewardship

1C E N V I RON M EN TA L ST EWA R D SH IP

Environmental stewardship refers to the responsible use and protection of the natural environment through active participation in conservation efforts and sustainable practices by actors ranging from individuals, small groups, non-profit organisations, federal agencies and other collective networks.

Page 26, Figure.

PART ONE

Actions of environmental stewardship can be divided into three categories:

Individual Fuelled by personal incentive, individual stewardship is usually realised through a landowner’s small-scale interventions to integrate care and restoration to practices of farming and land management.

Mesoscale Fuelled by formal or informal collective incentives, mesoscale stewardship is usually realised through local communities’ involvement in policy and placemaking .

Megascale Fuelled by formal statuary incentives, megascale stewardship is usually realised through public private partnerships and policy, aiming to have an impact at a national, eco-regional, transboundary or regional level.

ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP

Before moving onto details and examples of environmental stewardship, it is important to familiarise ourselves with the following terms11: •

Stewardship Actions: Ways to protect, restore or sustainably use the environment.

•

Actors (or stewards): Those who are driving stewardship initiatives (with different rights, roles, and responsibilities)

•

Motivations for Stewardship: A) Intrinsic motivations which bring spiritual satisfaction to people B) Extrinsic motivations which bring a material benefit or reward.

•

Capacity for Stewardship: The ability to take action to care for the environment. This capacity can be complemented or limited by local factors.

•

Context of Stewardship: Social, cultural, economic, political, and biophysical factors.

•

Outcomes of Stewardship: The ecological and socio-economic impacts of actions of stewardship

•

Stewardship Interventions: Projects promoted or implemented by various stakeholders to promote or develop environmental stewardship

•

Leverage Points for Stewardship: Investment of social, monetary or legal capital which acts as a leverage point to incentivize environmental stewardship.

11 Bennett, Nathan J., Tara S. Whitty, Elena Finkbeiner, Jeremy Pittman, Hannah Bassett, Stefan Gelcich, and Edward H. Allison. 2018. “Environmental Stewardship: A Conceptual Review And Analytical Framework”. Environmental Management 61 (4): 597-614. doi:10.1007/s00267-017-0993-2. xii

Page 28, Figure.

PART ONE

Farmlands

Forests

Freshwater

Peatlands

Grasslands +Shrublands

Freshwater

Sheep

Various of flowers

Trees

Wolf

Hedge

Grass, Shrub, Hedgerow

Water bird

Various of crops

Soil

Cow

Shrubs

Short plants

Fish

Grass

Stag

Invertebrates

Sapling

Doe

Water plants

Trees

ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP

We recognize that in some cases, inactivity might be more suitable to generate resilience rather than activity. Our stance to environmental stewardship, while endorsing activity, does not promote any specific behaviours or strategies but rather promotes a context-specific approach that can have a multi-scalar impact, activating local and global processes. Within this framework, we aim to find potential channels through which community-led incentives can be reconciled with state-led incentives. In promoting actions of stewardship, we can talk about two types of incentives. The first one is promoted by governance and regulated through law while the second is promoted by wider socio-economic frameworks and regulated through externally provided rewards or punishments, which can be economic, social, physical or legal, and the perceived balance of the costs and benefits of stewarding natural resources’12

12 Bennett, Nathan J., Tara S. Whitty, Elena Finkbeiner, Jeremy Pittman, Hannah Bassett, Stefan Gelcich, and Edward H. Allison. 2018. “Environmental Stewardship: A Conceptual Review And Analytical Framework”. Environmental Management 61 (4): 597-614. doi:10.1007/s00267-017-0993-2. xiii

Page 30, Figure.

PART ONE

xiv

Barnham, West Sussex tithe map, c1846

ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP

We investigated factors that can complement or hinder effective applications of environmental stewardship while balancing these incentives. The following points outline our stance as we look forward: Although treated as one uniform territory, rural areas are diverse. The focus of rural policymaking and planning must shift away from a limited set of considerations primarily based on farming and integrate a more holistic agenda that can be relevant to a range of different conditions. In the light of the recent policy-driven commitment to restore ecosystems, there is an opportunity to live with the land differently in modern society. As positive as it is, this commitment is insufficient on its own and needs to be complemented by alternative socioeconomic and existential motivators to promote more resilient forms of environmental stewardship.

PART ONE

Farmstead in North Devon, UK

ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP

Our design investigations strive to deepen this commitment by integrating stewardship into patterns of domesticity both programmatically and architecturally. Whereas the former consideration enables the economic viability of environmental stewardship through an alternative notion of work, the latter reconciles reproduction and production through the physical space of the home. The following chapter will evaluate ecosystem management as a potential venue to promote environmental stewardship both locally and globally.

Farmlands Forests Freshwater Grasslands + Shrublands Peatlands

1D E COS YS TEM M A N AGEM EN T

An ecosystem is a geographical region in which plants, animals and other species, as well as weather and topography, interact to generate a living bubble. Comprising both biotic and abiotic elements, or living and non-living components, an ecosystems’ members depend on one another. In the light of the global climate crisis, the United Nations General Assembly put forward seven ecosystems for global protection and restoration through their resolution 73 on 1 March 2019. Of these, we picked five that are most applicable to the context of Britain. We studied their inherent qualities, such as succession patterns, as well as the reasons why they are threatened, to inform our design investigations.

xvi

Page 36, Figure.

1E E CONO M IC VIA B ILIT Y

To incorporate more resilience to ecosystem management as a form of environmental stewardship, we investigated various ways through which it can be based on a notion of economic viability. By examining key parameters from case studies, we started laying the groundwork for an implementation strategy. Case studies were chosen because of their multi-scalar and diverse ambitions. Either adopted or planning to adopt a landscape-scale rewilding strategy, each responds to a different ecosystem: uplands, fenlands and lowland agricultural landscapes spread over various locations in Britain.

xvii

Page 38, Figure.

xviii

Page 40, Figure.

Figure

xix

Figure

xxvi

Figure

xxviii

Figure

xxx

Figure

xxvii

Figure

xxix

Figure

xxxi

xxi

xxii

xxiii

xxiv

xxv

Figure

xxxii

Figure

xxxiv

Figure

xxxvi

Figure

xxxiii

Figure

xxxv

Figure

xxxvii

Figure

PART ONE

xxxviii

The Great Fen Project, UK

ECONOMIC VIABILIT Y

Each case study displayed a thread that connected economic viability to ecological processes. To attain financial sustainability, each case outlines a program the program that benefits the local economy via productive and recreational activities.13 To balance the market forces with the primary goal of restoring ecosystems, each case recognizes and utilizes the critical role of agri-environment programs in the implementation of large-scale development. If properly targeted, the available resources have an immense potential to enable a holistic restoration of fragmented ecosystems. The AES, for example, pays roughly £400 million to England’s land managers each year. 14 Landscape-scale ecosystem management typically counters economic intensification. This need not be the case as displayed by our case studies where processes of restoration result in an increased value of agricultural produce. In the Great Fen project where fenland restoration is provided through wet farming for example, the monetary loss from arable crops was vastly offset by additional services such as eco-tourism and research.

13 Hodder, KH, S Douglas, AC Newton, JM Bullock, P Scholefield, R Vaughan, E Canterello, S Beer, and J Birch. 2010. “ANALYSIS OF THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR RESTORING BIODIVERSITY”. Defra Compeon. Bournemouth: Bournemouth University. 14 Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs. 2022. “Countryside Stewardship”. London

1F I M P LEM EN TAT IO N

As we investigate housing as an emerging typology that can complement the drivers of change in rural Britain by bridging domesticity and environmental stewardship, we recognize the potential of ecosystem management as an overarching ambition. To be implemented successfully, this potential should be imbued with a strong sense of economic viability. Landscape scale management is a distinctive type of management marked by a regional system of interconnected properties, organization of efforts that can achieve specific conservation objectives and the collaboration and cooperation of various landowners and managers. As our case studies demonstrate, it provides opportunities for emerging economic models. We believe that novel economic agendas derived from this type of management can influence the programmatic dimension of the new rural typology we are investigating. Following the primary trajectories outlined above that compose our research and strategy, our manifesto sets the stage for part 2, where we will start elaborating on our design investigations.

MA N IFESTO

1 RESTORE ECOSYSTEMS AND FORM AN ALTERNATIVE RELATIONSHIP TO LAND THROUGH ACTIVE STEWARDSHIP. 2 REDEFINE HOUSING AS A PIVOTAL TYPOLOGY IN THE RESTORATION OF ECOSYSTEMS BY INTEGRATING STEWARDSHIP INTO PATTERNS OF DOMESTICITY. 3 GENERATE THE SPATIAL COMPOSITION AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY OF THE SETTLEMENT THROUGH PATTERNS OF LAND MANAGEMENT. 4 ACHIEVE SELF-SUFFICIENCY THROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A VIABLE SOCIO-ECONOMIC FRAMEWORK. 5 ACHIEVE CARBON NEUTRALITY BY NEGOTIATING A DIVERSE ECOLOGICAL STRATEGY. 6 ENABLE AND INTENSIFY ENGAGEMENT WITH LAND THROUGH DELIBERATE AND CONTINGENT PEDAGOGIES. 7 INTEGRATE ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION WITHIN PATTERNS TO FACILITATE A RESILIENT MODEL.

SETTLEMENT

8 DEVELOP AN ADAPTABLE SYSTEM OF STEWARDSHIP FOR EXTENSION AND IMPLEMENTATION.

PA RT T WO PAT TE R N STUDY

2A PAT T ER N ST UD Y

The overarching aim of our design workshop, to develop new rural housing typologies driven by the ethos of ecological stewardship, is multifaceted. In the light of our research and manifesto, we reflected upon our own individual design interventions, each responding to a ruptured ecological corridor by principles of restoration and environmental stewardship. Our proposals were informed by an interconnected set of briefs that gave us the opportunity to engage with a range of tools, scales and perspectives. Brief 1 “Dirty” examined the threshold between dirty and clean as a study of boundaries. Brief 2 “Very Big and Very Small” reconciled the process of land management with housing across a range of scales. Brief 3 “Succession” outlined a strategy for succession that integrated an economic process into ecological restoration to achieve self-sufficiency. Brief 4 “Ground Up, Ground Down” investigated the use of material to structure the morphology and density of settlements through the design of the individual home. Brief 5 “The Anemone and The Clownfish” aimed to synthesize each brief into a singular approach that can serve as a prototype for collective living. Key patterns emerged within our own design interventions as a result of these briefs relating to the importance of thermal boundaries and thresholds, the careful integration of land management into domesticity, economic sustainability as an evolutionary driver of land, the potential of the home and settlement to have a multi-scalar impact. These patterns of behaviours shaped a generative tool we refer to as The Pattern Study.

PAT TERN STUDY

Our study was informed by the seminal “A Pattern Language” by Christopher Alexander. Here, the author had aimed to guide architects as well as non-architects through key considerations in urban place-making, walking the reader through a multi-scalar method of spatial problem solving from the layout of the kitchen to the composition of a neighbourhood. Pattern Study builds on this methodology to become a distilled spatial toolkit organised into two key scales of the home and the settlement which can be used to generate new rural typologies reconciling domesticity, stewardship and economy.

“The elements of this language are entities called patterns. Each pattern describes a problem which occurs over and over again in our environment, and then describes the core of the solution to that problem, in such a way that you can use this solution a million times over, without ever doing it the same way twice.” 15 As a generative tool, the pattern study does not outline a detailed design but rather a potential set of approaches that, coupled with the manifesto, can facilitate ecological restoration spatially. It opens a range of different possibilities as the patterns can be mixed and reconfigured to form alternative approaches.

15 Alexander, Christopher, Sara Isikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King, and Schlomo Angel. Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.

xxxix

Page 52, Figure.

PART T WO

PAT TERN STUDY

Each pattern, categorized into two scales of the home and the settlement, is presented through the same format. First, there is a title, the essence of the concern that the pattern aims to tackle. Second, there is a description, which clarifies the concern further by relating it to other concerns. Then, there is a diagram of the pattern/s, abstractly outlining the essence of the solution. The pattern diagram is accompanied by a title, pinpointing the spatial behaviour embedded in the pattern, and a matter-of-fact description of this behaviour. We chose the pattern language as a generative method that can act as a tool to shape future domestic environments in the rural. As a strategy it does not determine a design, but a set of conditions that alongside the manifesto can be implemented in response to the process of ecological restoration. It invites a diverse set of opportunities as patterns can be intermixed to form new responses.

2B C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

To illustrate how the pattern study can be applied, this section will explore 4 of our projects comparatively. First, we will introduce each project through an analysis of their context and ecosystem. Then we will zoom in to the scales of settlement and home, showing how the different patterns have been employed or how the same pattern has been applied differently.

PART T WO

Peatlands - Lowlands Cambridgeshire

Illustrated plan.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

Peatlands

Lowlands Cambridgeshire Set in the lowlands of Cambridgeshire, Project A aims to restore the drained fenlands and establish a network of wet farming. At the scale of the settlement, this project is situated within the field as a contained strip building, activating and managing the restored fields remotely.

PART T WO

Peatlands - Highlands Sharneyford, Lancashire

xli

Illustrated plan.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

Peatlands

Highlands Lancashire Set in the highlands of Sharneyford, Lancashire, Project B aims to restore the overgrazed peatlands and revitalize the post-industrial periphery. At the scale of the settlement, this project is distributed throughout the field as a series of individual and collective dwellings, it activates and manages the restored fields by operating as a collective circuit.

PART T WO

Peatlands - Highlands Sharneyford, Lancashire

Rivers Cilgerran, Wales

xlii

Illustrated plan.

Site Plan

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

Rivers

Pembrokeshire Set on the banks of Afon Tiefi river in Cilgerran, Wales, Project C aims to implement mutualism through ecology and economy of moss farming using the home as a tool. At scale of settlement, this project uses the spatial arrangement principles of a walled kitchen garden typology to create ecological restoration corridors on the outside and moss farming on the inside.

xliii

Page 60, Plan.

PART T WO

Grasslands Calstock, Devon

xliv

Illustrated plan.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

Grasslands Devon

Set in the grasslands located on the periphery of Plymouth, Project D aims to establish wildlife corridors and clean rivers through hedgerow management and farming. At the scale of the settlement, this project encompasses the field, it creates a continuous network of restored hedges.

xlv

Page 62, Plan.

PART T WO

Pattern 1 Remote The settlement is placed separate from ecological process to not inhibit the restorative process taking place.

Pattern 2 Embedded & Contained The settlement is surrounded by ecological process and acts as a keystone facilitating restoration.

Pattern 3 Embedded & Structured The settlement is surrounded by ecological process but also frames its restoration.

Pattern 4 Embedded & Scattered The settlement is surrounded by ecological process, but the placement of settlement is reactive to the landscape itself.

Pattern 5 Centralized Ecological process is surrounded by settlement in a localized condition, but integrated into the settlement in moments of domesticity.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

E C O LO G I C A L P RO C E S S

The first cluster of patterns is called Ecological Management, exploring how the positioning of the settlement in the field can establish its role as a catalyst in ecological restoration. Domestic Ecological Process

xlvi

Page 64, Figures.

xlvii

Page 66, Figures.

xlviii

Page 67, Figures.

PART T WO

The settlement is positioned away from the wetlands in order to not interfere with the wetland restoration process. The settlement is still actively engaged but not completely embedded within the landscape.

The settlement plan is dispersed unevenly throughout the field in response to the peatland ecological restoration process. The home acts as a series of nodes within the landscape that act as localized catalysts.

The settlement creates controlled moss growing corridors which can directly be influenced through daily domestic patterns.

The settlement creates a structured and controlled environment whilst facilitating extension of existing ecological corridors.

E C O LO G I C A L P RO C E S S

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

Pattern 1 Remote

Pattern 4 Embedded & Scattered

Pattern 3 Embedded & Structured

E C O LO G I C A L P RO C E S S

PART T WO

Pattern 1 Distrubuted & Even Each home in the settlement plays an equal role in the economic process, there is no hierarchy to the structure of placement.

Pattern 2 Distrubuted & Uneven Each home in the settlement plays an unequal role in the economic process, there is a variation in level of activity due to process.

Pattern 3 Separated The home and economic process are completely detached within the settlement.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

E C O N O M I C P RO C E S S

The second cluster of patterns is called Economic Management, exploring how the positioning of economic processes at settlement scale can strategically complement strategies of ecosystem management. Domestic Economic Process

xlix

Page 68, Figures.

Page 70, Figures.

Page 71, Figures.

PART T WO

The economic process is detached from the dwelling itself.

Each building in its circuit formation utilizes a different step in the production of materials.

The settlement doesnt move around with time once built which enables flexibility of having uneven ditributed economic process.

The economic process (animal grazing) is facilitated by the delineation of land into one-acre paddocks.

E C O N O M I C P RO C E S S

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

Pattern 3 Separated

Pattern 2 Distrubuted & Uneven

Pattern 1 Distrubuted & Even

E C O N O M I C P RO C E S S

PART T WO

Pattern 1 Unified The collective nature of process the settlement acts as a singular entity.

Pattern 2 Separated & Even The collective nature of process is distributed amongst the field driven by structured boundaries.

Pattern 3 Separated & Uneven The collective nature of process drives the structured nature of the field.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

COLLECTIVITY

The third cluster of patterns is called collectivity, exploring how the settlement’s positioning can reinforce characteristics of land division and management. Home Field

lii

Page 72, Figures.

liii

Page 74, Figures.

liv

Page 75, Figures.

PART T WO

The settlement enables the collective management of various parts of the land through seasonal shifts.

The site division and separation are degined by the varied moments within the ecological process. Their collective nature is distributed within the field.

The settlement enables smaller responsibilities for managing the land and more flexibility for various kinds of groupings. The site division and separation are not strictly defined.

The existing field boundaries/land ownerships play a defining role in the ways in which economic and ecologic processes are distributed. The site division and separation are strictly defined.

COLLECTIVITY

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

Pattern 1 Unified

Pattern 3 Separated & Uneven

Pattern 2 Separated & Even

COLLECTIVITY

PART T WO

Pattern 1 Additive The settlement can grow its participation in response to the succession of ecological and economic process.

Pattern 2 Substractive The settlement can reduce its participation in response to the succession of ecological and economic processes.

Pattern 3 Mobile The settlement can move and transform in a reactionary response to the succession of ecological and economic processes.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

E VO LU T I O N

The fourth cluster of patterns is called evolution, exploring how the settlement can operate over time as ecological and economic needs change. Current Situation Future Situation Previous Situation

Page 76, Figures.

lvi

Page 78, Figures.

lvii

Page 79, Figures.

PART T WO

The intervention uses the new harvest each year to extend the structure and expand the storage capacity incrementally.

As the restorative process evolves, the infrastructure on the site expands to allow for material production

To reach optimum efficiency over time for production and restoration, the project expands in relation to the cyclical growth of moss patterns.

The settlement expands in relation to the lambing seasons and the cyclical growth of hedgerows

EVOLUTION

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N S E T T L E M E N T S C A L E

Pattern 1 Additive

EVOLUTION

2C C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

Moving to the scale of the home, the home becomes a setting where process meets domesticity and defines a reorganization and distribution of both process and domestic life. Process re-engages the home as an extension of the landscape.

Page 80, Figures.

lix

Page 82, Figures.

lviii

Page 83, Figures.

PART T WO

lxi

Illustrated plan.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

Peatlands

Lowlands Cambridgeshire Project A aims to store the manager and the managed collectively, by operating through two modules, one for domestic use and the other for production constantly interrelated with one another.

PART T WO

lxii

Illustrated plan.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

Peatlands

Highlands Lancashire Project B. The home acts as a greenhouse for cultivating mosses amid domestic life. It intertwines live, work, and restoration under one roof.

PART T WO

lxiii

Illustrated plan.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

Rivers

Pembrokeshire Project C is a dichotomy between various aspects that define the decision-making factors like economy/ecology, domesticity/stewardship, home/land while primarily enabling Moss farming. In terms of spatial arrangement, it uses the wall as a tool to divide, integrate and disperse various gardens/farms. The wall on both its sides becomes a part of production/ restoration itself.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

Grasslands Devon

Project D aims to incorporate the domestic realm with sheep farming and hedgerow management. The merging of the ecological process, economic process, and domesticity is obtained by the chain-like organization of spaces.

lxiv

Page 88, Illustrated Plan.

PART T WO

Pattern 1 Adjacent The ecological process is visually adjacent to domesticity, but not integrated.

Pattern 2 Detached The ecological process is neither visually adjacent nor integrated into domesticity.

Pattern 3 Concentric The ecological process surrounds domesticity.

Pattern 4 Overlaid The ecological process encompasses domesticity

Pattern 5 Interlocking The ecological process is integrated into the home through the juxtaposition of domesticity and process.

Pattern 6 Framed Domesticity frames the ecological process

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

E C O LO G I C A L P RO C E S S The first cluster of home patterns is called ecological process which concentrates on how domestic and ecological processes are integrated within the home.

Domestic Ecological Process

lxv

Page 90, Figures.

lxvi

Page 92, Figures.

lxvii

Page 93, Figures.

PART T WO

Domesticity and ecological process are spatially juxtaposed. Project A places harvesting processes in a warehouse-like structure adjacent to the domestic units as they require a large, cool and well-ventilated space.

The boundaries between home and ecological process are blurred, the domestic spaces are surrounded by the ecological process.

The home has a clear spatial distinction is drawn between ecological restoration and domestic spaces.

The domesticity and ecological process overlap in a threshold.

E C O LO G I C A L P RO C E S S

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

Pattern 1 Adjacent

Pattern 5 Interlocking

Pattern 2 Detached

Pattern 5 Interlocking

E C O LO G I C A L P RO C E S S

PART T WO

Pattern 1 Adjacent Economic management is visually adjacent to domesticity, but not integrated

Pattern 2 Detached Economic management is neither visually adjacent nor integrated into domesticity

Pattern 3 Overlaid Economic management encompasses domesticity

Pattern 4 Interlocking Economic process is integrated into the home through the juxtaposition of domesticity and production.

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

E C O N O M I C P RO C E S S

The second cluster of home patterns is called the economic process, exploring the organization of the home in relation to work.

Domesticity Economic Process

lxx

Page 94, Figures.

lxix

Page 96, Figures.

lxviii

Page 97, Figures.

PART T WO

The domestic and economic processes overlap and are co-dependent. The oven is used as a process to produce bread from wet farming but also serves as a passive heating strategy for the domestic spaces.

The home itself acts as node facilitating each step of the material production.

The work and live are intrinsic and intertwined but placed adjacently keeping in mind integrated habitual circulation

The domestic realm and sheep farming overlap in a threshold.

E C O N O M I C P RO C E S S

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

Pattern 3 Overlaid

Pattern 4 Interlocking

Pattern 2 Detached

Pattern 4 Interlocking

E C O N O M I C P RO C E S S

PART T WO

Pattern 1 Concentric Exterior boundary surrounds an open core.

Pattern 2 Framed Exterior boundary frames a progression of softer boundaries within.

Pattern 3 Eccentric Exterior boundary is soft and undefined surrounding a solid core.

Pattern 4 Linear Singular distinction between hard and soft boundary.

Pattern 5 Bifurcated Binary distinction that splits the boundary into two solid pieces.

Pattern 6 Convergent Binary distinction that unifies the boundary into one structured core that fades into a soft remedial boundary

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

INTERIOR - EXTERIOR

The third cluster of home patterns is called transition, exploring how landscape and building are reconciled. Within this cluster, the first pattern family determines thermal boundaries that are driven by process. Interior Intermediate Exterior

lxxi

Page 98, Figures.

lxxii

Page 100, Figures.

lxxiii

Page 101, Figures.

101

PART T WO

The home creates a series of spaces with a variety of thermal regulations to meet the harvest management requirements.

The outer layer of the home acts flexibly to achieve a greenhouse condition. The inner domestic core is completely unregulated and relies on the heated envelope.

The home creates micro climates using split pattern for economic and ecology moss and soft thresholds to separate them

The sheep barn is used as a source of heating for the domestic realm. The home has a singular distinction of thermal boundaries.

INTERIOR - EXTERIOR

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

Pattern 5 Bifurcated

Pattern 3 Eccentric

Pattern 5 Bifurcated

Pattern 4 Linear

INTERIOR - EXTERIOR

PART T WO

Pattern 1 Concentric Exterior boundary surrounds an open core.

Pattern 2 Framed Exterior boundary frames a progression of softer boundaries within.

Pattern 3 Eccentric Exterior boundary is soft and undefined surrounding a solid core.

Pattern 4 Linear Singular distinction between hard and soft boundary.

Pattern 5 Bifurcated Binary distinction that splits the boundary into two solid pieces.

Pattern 6 Convergent Binary distinction that unifies the boundary into one structured core that fades into a soft remedial boundary

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

B O U N D A RY

The second pattern family under transition cluster is called boundary which determines how thresholds and spatial demarcation are driven by process.

Hard Soft Porous

lxxvi

Page 102, Figures.

lxxv

Page 104, Figures.

lxxiv

Page 105, Figures.

105

PART T WO

The home adjusts to the porosity of the boundaries in correlation to different thermal requirements.

The outer layer of the home is visually connected to the landscape beyond providing a porous boundary.

The home creates micro climates using split pattern for economic and ecology moss and soft thresholds to separate them

Domesticity, economic and ecologic processes are linked to each other with linear thresholds.

B O U N D A RY

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S O N H O M E S C A L E

Pattern 5 Bifurcated

Pattern 3 Eccentric

Pattern 5 Bifurcated

Pattern 4 Linear

B O U N D A RY

PART T WO

C O M PA R I S O N I N V E S T I G AT I O N S

These four projects are representative how these typological patterns are informed by the active integration of economic and ecological process within the rural home. The shaping of lines, planes and boundaries are all informed by process and have a variety of opportunities for reconsideration.

109

PA RT T H R EE C O N F I G U R AT I O N O F P RO C E S S

3A C O N F I G U R AT I O N O F P RO C E S S

Earlier, we had outlined how Maki’s research into collective form had culminated in a theory of linkage. He had argued that “linking, or disclosing linkage are invariant activities in making collective form”. Similarly, our research, manifesto and pattern study, all investigating the reconciliation of domesticity and environmental stewardship in the rural ecosystems of Britain has led us to a theory of process. Through this theory, we aim to describe a design approach that can be aligned with the concept of sub-urbanism. Put forward by Sebastien Marot as a counter-narrative to superurbanism, in sub-urbanism program becomes the site itself. Arguing that the century of expanding cities, which perhaps validated super-urbanism as a viable option has passed, Marot declared that now is a time of deepening territories. Koolhaas’ “fuck context” would not need to be countered by a literal come-back like “fuck programme”. Rather, a new understanding of programme based on the material and territorial constellation of the land as it is, could be generated.

113

PART THREE

C O N F I G U R AT I O N O F P RO C E S S

Within this framework, program becomes site, and the architecture becomes program at both the scale of the home and the settlement. To put it more specifically, the process of ecological restoration becomes the program and this program in turn shapes the architectural decisions regarding size, continuity, grouping, event and materiality. This set of relationships immediately brings about a notion of temporality. As the site evolves, the process of restoration changes. As the process changes, so does the program and the architecture. The process-led approach is essentially marked by a sensitivity towards landscape as a positive and charged space rather than a negative of buildings. Following Maki’s operational categories guiding the theory of linkage, we generated our own categories guiding a theory of process.

115

PART THREE

dilara - kolaj

lxxvii

Figure

C O N F I G U R AT I O N O F P RO C E S S

1 To Learn Observing, researching and analysing the existing and emerging conditions of an ecosystem to inform restoration strategy and generate a suitable morphology A revised approach to building in and inhabiting the rural should be based on a process of learning and adapting. The instabilities and shifting characteristics of ecosystem should be embraced and understood rather than suppressed and overcome. As ecosystems change, patterns of inhabitation should change too. Maki’s operational category “to mediate16” suggests that when a link is properly conceived, it changes with changing primary needs. Exemplified by the arcades of Bologna and the stoep, the responsive and adaptive quality of mediative links assign them a status of functional ambiguity. In our case, interventions based on an ongoing learning process create the desired ambiguity between domesticity and stewardship as they continuously influence each other in response to the needs of the ecosystem.

16 Fumihiko Maki. Nurturing Dreams: Collected Essays on Architecture and the City. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press 2008, n.d.

117

PART THREE

sarah_home-plan

lxxviii

Figure

C O N F I G U R AT I O N O F P RO C E S S

2 To Mark Defining the limits of various spatial operations with a varying use of thresholds and boundaries The ambiguities that arise out of the process of continuous learning should be complemented by the anchoring process of marking. Different marks, understood as built, vegetal, programmatic or other boundaries and thresholds, can embody varying degrees of permanence, some shifting or even falling away over time. To mark is to create flexible and adaptive guidelines. Maki’s operational category “to define17” suggests that when a spatial enclosure is created, a distinguishment starts taking place between what is inside and what is outside, grouping some elements through a sense of identity and leaving some others out. In our case, marking is essentially a way to form an interwoven relationship between inside and outside, home and field, rather than create rigid boundaries.

17 Fumihiko Maki. Nurturing Dreams: Collected Essays on Architecture and the City. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press 2008, n.d.

119

PART THREE

lxxix

Figure

C O N F I G U R AT I O N O F P RO C E S S

3 To Engage Establishing a system where each home contributes to ecosystem restoration. As learning and marking create an approach to facilitate elements, engagement assigns them the role of active participation, distributing the responsibilities required to maintain the overarching framework. The same responsibility or different responsibilities concerning the same process can be distributed to disparate elements, enabling a sense of collaboration and a part to whole relationship. Maki’s operational category “to repeat18” suggests that the introduction of one common factor, formal, material or even functional in each of the dispersed parts of a design can become a linking device. The repetition allows these dispersed elements to be read as a cluster. In our case, active engagement of each home in the process of restoration is vital. Even if they are not visually read as a group, they have to act like one.

18 Fumihiko Maki. Nurturing Dreams: Collected Essays on Architecture and the City. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press 2008, n.d.

121

PART THREE

lxxx

Figure

C O N F I G U R AT I O N O F P RO C E S S

4 To Swarm Collectively facilitating an active process of ecosystem restoration via settlement To become more than the sum of its parts and display resilience, the process of ecosystem restoration should be collective. The process can be reimagined and redistributed as the settlement changes and extends, also creating beneficial socio-spatial repercussions that become embedded in the way of life such as gathering points, events and communal exchange. Maki’s operational category “to make a sequential path19” suggests that an arrangement of urban elements in relation to a sequence of useful activity can serve to create linkage. This should take place through a three-dimensional and experiential projection. In our case, the process thinking becomes a way to create a sequential experience of collectivity that can be experienced across multiple scales. Every space and relationship established responds to various sequences of ecosystem restoration, creating a swarming effect whereby the elements are both alone and always together.

19 Fumihiko Maki. Nurturing Dreams: Collected Essays on Architecture and the City. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press 2008, n.d.

123

PART THREE

lxxxi

Figure

C O N F I G U R AT I O N O F P RO C E S S

5 To Integrate generating a new landscape through process As the introduced elements respond to an existing ecosystem, they also change it, gradually producing a new one of which they are part. Integration reflects a process of growing harmony, epitomizing the vitality of each element to the system and the importance of transformation. Maki’s operational category “to select20” suggests that a strategic selection of site, a piece of land or an element in the town, that is prominent enough in advance of the design can establish linkage through unity. In our case, the opposite can be said to be true as the aim is to restore, rather than build on something that is already well-functioning. By caring for and integrating the site which has no visible prominence yet potential, we aim to transform it and make it prominent as an activated ecosystem.

20 Fumihiko Maki. Nurturing Dreams: Collected Essays on Architecture and the City. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press 2008, n.d.

125

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. 2. 3.

6. 7.

9. 10. 11. 12.

13. 14. 15.

Alexander, Christoper, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid FiksdahlKing, Shlomo Angel. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977). https://web.p.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ AMO, Rem Koolhaas. Countryside, A Report. (Koln: Taschen, 2020) Aston, Mick. "Medieval Rural Settlement". From Michael Aston, David Austin, Christopher Dyer. The Rural Settlements of Medieval England: Studies Dedicated to Maurice Beresford and John Hurst. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989). 93–98. https://www. somersetheritage.org.uk/downloads/publications/150years/HES_150_Years_Chapter_15.pdf Baron, Jill S, N. LeRoy Poff, Paul L. Angermeier, Clifford N Dahm. "Meeting Ecological and Societal Needs for Freshwater". Ecological Applications. 12(5) (2002). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/246801761_Meeting_Ecological_and_Societal_Needs_for_Freshwater Bennett, Nathan J., Tara S. Whitty, Elena Finkbeiner, Jeremy Pittman, Hannah Bassett, Stefan Gelcich & Edward H. Allison. "Environmental Stewardship: A Conceptual Review and Analytical Framework". Environmental Management. Volume 615. 97–614(2018). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-017-0993-2 Costanza, Robert. Michael Mageau. "What is a healthy ecosystem?". Aquatic Ecology. Volume 33. 105–115(1999). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1009930313242 Chazdon, Robin L., Pedro H. S. Brancalion, Lars Laestadius, Aoife BennettCurry, Kathleen Buckingham, Chetan Kumar, Julian Moll-Rocek, Ima Célia Guimarães Vieira & Sarah Jane Wilson. "When is a forest a forest? Forest concepts and definitions in the era of forest and landscape restoration". Ambio. Volume 45. 538–550(2016). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13280-016-0772-y Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs. Countryside Stewardship: An overview. (UK Government). https://assets.publishing.service.gov. uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/996741/ Countryside_Stewardship_2020_Overview_leaflet_online.pdf Food & Farming Foresight. New model farming: resilience through diversity. (Campaign to Protect Rural England). https://www.cpre.org. uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/New_Model_Farming.pdf Geographical Journal. Volume 127(3) (2011). https://www. tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14702541.2011.616864 Guinane, Thomas. The Continuing Use Of The Dartmoor Longhouse. (Cardiff University: 2017). http://www.tguinane.com/The_Continuing_Use_of_the_Dartmoor_Longhouse.pdf Hodder.K.H, Douglas.S, Newton.A.C, Bullock.J.M, Scholefield.P, Vaughan.R, Cantarello.E, Beer.S, Birch. J. Analysis Of The Costs And Benefits Of Alternative Solutions For Restoring Biodiversity. (Bournemouth University: 2010). https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/523760/1/N523760CR.pdf IPCC. Climate Change 2022, Mitigation Of Climate Change. (IPCC: 2022). https:// report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FinalDraft_FullReport.pdf Quinney, Adam "Farmer’s Diary: Curry Report Verdict". BBC News. January 29, 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1789209.stm Regan, Eugiene. TESSA: A toolkit for rapid assessmentof ecosystem services. (UNEP, WCMC). https://unstats.un.org/unsd/ envaccounting/seeaRev/meeting2013/EG13-3-TESSA.pdf

16. Rural Payment Agency. Countryside Stewardship 2022: How torequest a Mid Tier or Higher Tier application pack. (UK Government: 2022). https://assets.publishing. service.gov.uk/media/6228a8548fa8f526d907f6b0/Countryside_Stewardship_2022_-_ How_to_request_a_Mid_Tier_or_Higher_Tier_application_pack_v1.0.pdf 17. Sébastien Marot. Taking the Country's Side : Agriculture and Architecture. (Lisbon: Lisbon Architecture Triennale; Barcelona: Polígrafa, 2019) 18. Steel, Carolyn. Hungry city: how food shapes our lives. (London: Vintage, 2009) 19. Taylor, Christopher Village and farmstead : a history of rural settlement in England. (London: George Philip, 1984) 20. United Nations. "Climate Change". United Nations. Accessed 22 February 2022. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange 21. Ward, Tam A Miscellany Of Bastle Houses. (Biggar Archeology Group: 2017). http://217.199.187.196/biggararchaeology.org.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2018/08/A-Miscellany-of-Clydesdale-Bastle-Houses.pdf 22. Westwood, Christine, "The laithe house of upland West Yorkshire: its social and economic significance". Loughborough University. https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/thesis/The_ laithe_house_of_upland_West_Yorkshire_its_social_and_economic_significance/9414572 23. White, Robin, Siobhan Murray, Mark Rohweder. Pilot Analysisof Global Ecosystems: Grassland Ecosystems. (World Resources Institute: 2000). http://pdf.wri.org/page_grasslands.pdf 24. Whitfield, Stephen,Mark Reed,Ken Thomson,Mike Christie,Lindsay C. Stringer,Claire H. Quinn,Russell Anderson,Andrew Moxey &Klaus Hubacek. "Managing Peatland Ecosystem Services: Current UK Policy and Future Challenges in a Changing World". Scottish 25. Woods, Michael. Rural. (London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2010). https://ebookcentral. proquest.com/lib/aaschool/detail.action?docID=958794ebook/bmxlYmtf XzIwOTY4NjNf X0FO0?sid=b3ea2d4c-c1b6-49b8-841c-5cf47a18d778@redis&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1

127

TA B L E O F F I G U R E S i By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. ii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. iii https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_White_Horse_by_John_Constable_-_ Google_Art_Project.jpg iv English Village Southern District , AA Archives. Date and origin unknown. Lantern Slide. v Rae, John. Timber & Concrete Block. 1965. AA Archives. vi Gerhard Rosenberg. Preston Wynne (Near Hereford), Date and origin unknown. The AA Archives vii De Mare, Eric Samue. Distant View of an Unidentified Farmhouse, UK. c1960. The AA Archives. viii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. ix By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. x By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xiii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xiv Part of the tithe map for Barnham in Sussex dated 1846., c1846. The National Archives xv Ravilious, James. New House, Ashreigny, North Devon; a cob and thatch farmstead. Devon Historic Buildings Trusts. Photograph from “The Cob Buildings Of Devon 1 History, Building Methods And Conservation”, https://www.devonearthbuilding.com/leaflets/cob_buildings_of_devon_1.pdf xvi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xvii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xviii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xix By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xx By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xxi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xxii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xxiii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xxiv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xxv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xxvi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xxvii Google Earth Pro. NOAA, DigitalGlobe 2013. (Accessed June 8, 2022). xxviii Dinas-Bran-Small.Jpg (2000×1266). Accessed 9 June 2022. https://www.clwydianrangeanddeevalleyaonb.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Dinas-Bran-small.jpg. xxix Grazing Ecology. Accessed 9 June 2022. https://knepp.co.uk/the-inspiration. xxx Peter Cairns. Upland Peatbog Pool, Pumlumon Fawr, Cambrian Mountains. 2020. Potograph. https://www.montwt.co.uk/projects/pumlumon-project. xxxiValley Head New Planting Project – Wild Ennerdale. Accessed 9 June 2022. https://www. wildennerdale.co.uk/managing/valleyhead/. xxxii Ruth Meech. Clean Up: River Frome. 2011. https://www.dorsetecho.co.uk/news/features/echo_country/9247759.water-way-to-clean-rivers/. xxxiii Google Earth Pro. NOAA, DigitalGlobe 2013. (Accessed June 8, 2022). xxxiv Toby Driver. Moel-y-Gaer, Hillfort, Llantysilio. 2007. https://coflein.gov.uk/en/. xxxv Intensive Farming ‘least Bad Option’ for Food and Environment. 14 September 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-45520399. xxxvi Herd-Sheep-Grazing-Mountain-Pasture-Countryside-Romania-Sheep-Grazing-Green-Pastures-Romania-112673222.Jpg (1300×958). Accessed 9 June 2022. https://thumbs. dreamstime.com/z/herd-sheep-grazing-mountain-pasture-countryside-romania-sheep-grazing-green-pastures-romania-112673222.jpg.

xxxvii Holidays-Uk-Drives-near-Me-Birmingham-Driving-Routes-Avis-2555805.Webp (590×359). Accessed 9 June 2022. https://cdn.images.express.co.uk/img/dynamic/133/590x/ secondary/holidays-uk-drives-near-me-birmingham-driving-routes-avis-2555805.webp?r=1594630327196. xxxviii The Great Fen Project. https://www.greatfen.org.uk/sites/default/files/styles/spotlight_single_desk_wide/public/2019-11/DroneGreatFenRymes2018.webp?h=f5173cf1&itok=ldScA1l_/ maps-family-local-history.htm xxxix By Authors. Figure. 2022. Hand drawing. xl By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xli By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xlii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xliii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xliv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xlv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xlvi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xlvii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xlviii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. xlix By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. l By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. li By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. liii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. liv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lvi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lvii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lviii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lix By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lx By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxiii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxiv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxvi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxvii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxviii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxix By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxx By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxiii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxiv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxv By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxvi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxvii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxviii By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxix By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxx By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing. lxxxi By Authors. Figure. 2022. Computer aided drawing.

129

THE LONG GAME

Lucy Styles Atishay Agrawal Jingyan Kang -

Chun Liu Maohang Lin

Dilara Kuran Sami Yucel -

Haotian Fang Sarah Cope

HO USING AND URBANISM A R CHI T E CT UR A L A S S O CIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

1: An abandoned building in the field; Photograph by Panos Pictures; 2008

PREFACE The Long Game is a design workshop based on a reading and reconsideration of rural England. It aims to question the idyll and explore the central role that a new conception of rural can play in ecological renewal by employing an alternative relationship between domesticity and land. To shape our argument, we went through a collaborative research process divided into the following chapters: The Rural Condition: what does the rural mean, how has it been defined historically both globally and within the UK, why is it important to reconsider it, how has it been reconsidered in policy and in architectural discourse? The Rural Home: how can a rural housing typology be generated within the framework of this reconsideration, which rural housing typologies from the past should we be learning from, what are the key components of a new rural home? Environmental Stewardship: what is environmental stewardship and how can it be made compatible with socioeconomic sustenance, what is the potential within existing policies, what are potential sites to activate environmental stewardship? Ecosystem Management: what are the crucial ecosystems that require management, what is the nature of these ecosystems and what challenges are they facing, what are potential strategies for responding to them? Implementation: what kind of policy and stakeholder webs do we need to familiarize ourselves with to implement our ideas, what are some cases that we can learn from, are they feasible and if so, what makes them viable? This extensive research led us to a manifesto and an architectural study which we can use to reconstruct our projects. Our manifesto is a conceptual guideline by which we will expose the missing components of our existing projects. The architectural study, essentially a pattern study inspired by Christopher Alexander’s book of the same name, is a method we used to see the similarities between each other’s responses as well as to elaborate on potential responses which none of us have yet explored but could in the future.

MANIFESTO

iii

This research culminated into a group manifesto, a conceptual framework of which we have begun to reflect on and reconstruct our projects. Our manifesto is a conceptual guideline annotating key arguments from our research as they contribute to the brief. The manifesto summarises a group ethos by structuring each argument into a philosophy which can be used as a decision-making tool at multiple levels of engagement, scale, and site. 1. Restore ecosystems and form an alternative relationship to the land through active stewardship. 2. Redefine housing to become a pivotal component in the restorative process of ecosystems. Redefine patterns of domesticity to incorporate stewardship into daily life. 3. Enable and increase engagement with the land and restorative processes through the creation of a new rural typology. 4. Shape the composition of the settlement and spatial strategy through restorative processes and patterns of management. 5. Achieve carbon neutrality by negotiating a diverse ecological strategy. 6. Achieve self-sufficiency and viability through integration of socio-economic drivers. 7. Integrate ecological succession with settlement patterns to facilitate resilient model. 8. Embed temporality into the cyclical process of ecological evolution. 9. Adopt and activate the existing socio-economic and political stakeholders in a viable implementation of design that can encourage the future development of this framework. 10. Develop a system of stewardship that is contextual, but adaptable for future distribution and implementation.

2: Farm follows function; Photograph by Jethro Marshall; 1930s

3: Paddingtonstation Milk; Photograph from Didcot Railway Centre; 1926

The Rural Condition

Housing Typology and Settlement

Environmental Stewardship

Ecosystem Management

Implementation

Pattern Study

On Ground

Individual Investigations

A.1: British Landscapes of the Early 1800s; Drawn by John Constable; 1800s

A THE RURAL CONDITION As the rural geographer and historian Michael Woods extensively illustrates in his work, the rural is a messy and slippery idea that eludes easy definition and demarcation. Over the course of history, it has been endowed with symbolic importance, disparaged as a counterpoint to modernity, celebrated as a bucolic idyll and more. But most commonly, the rural has been defined through what it is not or its so-called opposite, the urban. 1 In the words of Fernand Braudel, the town and country are never separate like oil and water. They are at the same time distinct yet drawn together, divided yet combined. The dependencies between rural and urban have changed over the course of time, redefining boundaries.2

A.2: Effects of Good Government in the city; Drawn by Lorenzetti Ambrogio

III

Rural History The binary distinction between the urban and the rural is deeply ingrained in our society and woven into our economy. It has been manufactured through an evolutionary change in agriculture and food consumption. Prior to the active land management we see today, early settler communities would live in the fields to catch the exact moment that wild grains would start ripening. Over time, this symbiotic way of living was replaced with agricultural technology, developed to manage our lands. Populations thrived and grew due to this vast access to natural resources. Settlements evolved into towns, and towns evolved into cities until an immense physical and perceptive gap started appearing between the city and the land.

Rural as Productive Back-of-House The rural has become the back-of-house of urban sustenance, supplying urban industrial processes with the raw material they need. This condition has also changed over the course of time with the growing globalization of food chains. Every urban area is dependent on a rural area, but this rural area is often miles away, making it even more difficult to comprehend this relationship of dependency.

Rural as an Escape

The rural areas that cannot be used for agriculture on the other hand, have been idealized as beautiful and clean refuge away from the dirt and density of the city. This poeticized landscape has been reserved for hybrid functions of preservation and tourism. The rural has been stripped of its productive potential in many instances.

A.3: UK Countryside View; Drawn by John Constable; 1818

The UK Situation Working Landscape Zooming into the experience of the rural-urban distinction in the case of the United Kingdom, we see that the British countryside is a working landscape which has been constantly altered by various agricultural models and economies adopted from various parts of the world. Taken over by monotype agricultural models, the British countryside nowadays is a constellation of fragmented ecosystems.

Preservation without Production In recent history, this dilemma has been addressed by modes of preservation devised independently of production. The 2001 Curry Report, for example, started subsidizing Britain’s farmers to manage their land rather than producing food. But as Carolyn Steel points out in her seminal book Hungry Cities, a landscape teeming with wildlife but no food production would be both fake and unsustainable.3

A.4: The preservation and production networks and condition in the British post- Brexit era; Drawn by authors; Please see Image Reference for the contained photogragh

VII

Preservation and Production Recent events, particularly post-Brexit policies, however, have enabled a reexamination of the British countryside as both a productive and a restorative landscape. Free to replace the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy, the UK is working on an independent subsidy regime which will be co-designed with farmers, land managers and other interested parties. Through the new scheme, formed in collaboration with DEFRA (Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs), farmers and other land managers will be primarily paid for delivering environmental benefits rather than the amount of land they farm. A document published by DEFRA shortly after this Agricultural Act, The Path to Sustainable Farming, also outlines how methods of biodiversification, restoration and preservation can be integrated into agricultural production. Central to the new regime is the Environmental Land Management Scheme (ELMS) which aims to support the rural economy while achieving the goals of the 25 Year Environment Plan.4

VIII

A.5: Different countries’ total CO2 Emissions; Diagram from Global Carbon Project

Reconsidering the Rural There has been a heightened interest in the state of the rural on a local and global scale both within emerging policymaking and architectural discourse in the last years. The main driver of this perspective shift is the global climate crisis.

A.6: The diagram of the relationship between biodiversity action and climate action, Drawn by authors XI

The Rural and Cimate Change United Nation’s most recent IPCC Report has formally stated how human influence on the Earth’s climate has become unequivocal, increasingly apparent and widespread. Highlighting the deficiency of current pathways to climate resilient developments, the report has outlined that systems transitions can enable climate resilient development when accompanied by appropriate enabling conditions and inclusive arenas of engagement. The report has particularly emphasized the importance of societal choices in the near-term for the determination of future pathways.5 Within this framework, a reconfiguration of the rural-urban binary could aid both a psycological and physical shift. As the IPCC report outlines, the decline in global biodiversity must be mitigated. Could strategies of rural biodiversification be hybridized further to accommodate a change in the way we perceive and relate to the rural?

XII

A.7: The coverpage of Countryside A Report; Book written by AMO, Rem Koolhaas

A.8: The coverpage of Taking to the country’s side; Book written by Sebastin Maro

XIII

The Rural and Urbanism Within the scope of our investigation, we identified two extensive research projects within contemporary architectural discourse that deal with such a reconsideration of the rural.

XIV

A.9: Circle loop field combined with solar energy in the USA; Data from Google earth

A.10: The Continuous Monument: On the River; Drawn by Superstudio

Countryside, A Report The first is Countryside, A Report by AMO and Rem Koolhaas which primarily concentrates on how networks of late capitalism have transformed the urban, the rural and their relationship of dependency. The extensive documentation and commentary provide an insight into how the countryside has been treated as an empty canvas, becoming increasingly designed to accommodate any activity that would be incompatible with urban life, but which urban life nevertheless heavily depends on. Building on examples such as the server farms placed in the fields of Nevada to support the tech industry in Silicon Valley and the growing digitization of farming to grow more crops, Countryside argues that currently, the rural is going through an urbanization without people. Koolhaas creates an analogy between the scale of emerging rural architectures and American land art as well as Superstudio’s sketches for total urbanization. Although the report avoids any architectural proposals and is primarily interested in multitude of ways architecture can reconsider and respond to the urbanrural dichotomy, in the light of AMO’s past research in metropolitanism, it could be argued that Countryside embraces the unification of rural and urban through an agenda of total urbanization. Koolhaas calls for a new rural imagination stripped of nostalgia and geared towards emerging technologies as well as migration patterns.6

XVI

A.11: Negotiation Urbanism, Taking to the Country’s Side; Drawn by Sébastien Marot; 2019

XVII

Taking the Country’s Side Taking the Country’s Side, an exhibition and publication led by Sebastien Marot, on the other hand explores the interdependencies between architecture and agriculture, highlighting how they have always produced and designed each other as twin phenomena. Contesting metropolitanism and the notion of never-ending growth that is currently leading the material progression of the city and the country, the investigation explores latent relationships that can emerge between city and agriculture. The first scenario is Incorporation whereby the capitalist metropolis takes over the countryside through an intensification of the technological path forming what could be called “eco-modernism”. The second is Negotiation whereby hybrid cities are created designing the built environment with an integration of agriculture, forming a condition that resembles Paolo Vigano’s horizontal metropolis. The third is Infiltration whereby surplus or abandoned spaces in the city are converted into pockets for agriculture, as might already be seen in post-industrial cities like Detroit. And finally, Secession, which the report inexplicitly embraces, whereby new forms of self-reliant communes part with the metropolis in search of a new understanding of growth and even degrowth that is embedded in principles of permaculture.7

XVIII

Production dichotomy Using the countryside as a purley productive landscape

Preservation Shifting the countryside from a productive to restorative landscape.

Synthesising both production and preservation

A.12: Diagram of preservation and synthesis stance from the field context; Drawn by authors XIX

Our Stance Our design workshop aims to pinpoint an emerging rural typology in the British countryside which can synthesize production, preservation, restoration and innovation in relation to existing catalysts for change globally and locally. In the light of this framework, our stance places equal value in designing a guideline, a brief and various implementation strategies as well as designing buildings. Resonating with Taking the Country’s Side recognition of the knowledge and practice networks embedded in past forms of rural life, the next chapter will form the steppingstone of our guideline through an investigation rural typologies vernacular to the British countryside.

Notes for Chap.A 1 Woods Michael. Rural Geography. 2 Steel Carolyn. Hungry city : how food shapes our lives. 3 BBC News, “Farmer’s Diary: Curry Report Verdict” 4 Rural Payment Ageny. Countryside Stewardship 2022: How torequest a Mid Tier or Higher Tier application pack. 5 IPCC. “Climate Change 2022”. Mitigation Of Climate Change. 6 AMO, Rem Koolhaas. “Countryside, A Report”. 7 Sebastian Marot. Taking the Country’s Side: Agriculture and Architecture. XX

B.1: Laxton Map; Collected by Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford

XXI

B A RURAL HOME An underexplored yet significant catalyst is the progressive migration from urban to rural areas that has been occurring in the light of the global pandemic. Our design workshop asks how this mobility can be coupled with the notion of environmental stewardship to generate new typologies of inhabiting the rural while also nurturing it.

XXII

B.2: Schematic diagram of rural settlement; Roberts.B.K; 1996

XXIII

The Home and Settlement Within this framework, we see the opportunity for a new housing typology to bridge models of environmental stewardship and the emerging mobility towards the rural. Through this lens, the arising typology can facilitate diverse types and durations of residence and consequently various readings of the rural with the only condition that the land will constantly be actively maintained by its residents.

XXIV

B.3: Diagrams show the scale of settlements; Drawn by authors XXV

Scale of Focus: The Hamlet To find the most appropriate scale for our investigations, we consulted the UK classification scheme which outlines the settlement types defining the urban and rural areas in the UK. We decided to work with the scale of hamlets and isolated dwellings. Through its sparsity and relative independence from existing built environment, this category enabled us to imagine new typologies which are determined more by their relationship to the land rather than to pre-established patterns of settlement.

B.4: British rural settlements; Publicity Photo by Daily Mail XXVI

B.5: countryside cottage; Photograph by Robinson.P.F.; 1833

XXVII

Typology Study

To explore spatial principles that are intergral to different lifestyles and the logistics of living on land, we studied various vernacular housing typologies that have historically emerged in rural UK. Analyzing them both individually and comparatively, develpoed an insight into how different land management techniques can become interrelated with domestic functions. 1. The Hut 2. The Long House 3. The Laithe House 4. The Bastle House 5. The Courtyard and the Walled Garden

XXVIII

Single Room Hut Glastonbury, Somerset, England

Single Room Hut

A monastic cell in Skelling Michael, Ireland

Single Room Hut

Two-Roomed Hut

Passage Hut

B.6: Plan view of hut typology diagram; Drawn by authors XXIX

The Hut As the standard form of housing built in Britain from the Bronze Age throughout the Iron Age, huts were usually constructed along a circular plan capped by a canonical thatched roof. Whereas early huts were inhabited seasonally by nomadic communities, their later development indicates that with improved land management strategies, they became more established settlements, with an increased variety of internal spaces.8

B.7: Perspective view of hut; Drawn by authors XXX

Unsubstantial mud and straw shelters

More substantial solid dry-slone walled building

Substantial solid dry-slone walled building with a solid wall at the end

Substantial solid dry-slone walled building with a second screen

Substantial solid dry-slone walled building with a chimney stack

Substantial solid dry-slone walled building with “outshots”

B.8: Plan view of long house typology diagrams; Drawn by authors XXXI

The Long House Known as the earliest form of permanent structure in many cultures, long-house is a type of long and narrow building which has been expressed in a variety of ways across different parts of the UK. An important characteristic of the longhouse is its emphasis on housing the animal and human under the same roof. Here, not only do the cattle and the people share the same entrance, but also their domestic processes are completely intertwined as the cattle’s presence is used as a source of heat. Whereas early longhouses are singleroomed, with a minimum number of partitions between animal, human and fire, later forms become so divided that it is arguable whether they can continue to be called longhouses at all.9

B.9: Perspective view of long house; Drawn by authors XXXII

Sands Bastle House Sowerby, North Yorkshire, England

Upper Town End Bastle House Austonley, West Yorkshire, England

Hill Top Bastle House Northowram, West Yorkshire, England

Broadfold Bastle House Sowerby, North Yorkshire, England

B.10: Plan view of Laithe house typology diagram; Drawn by authors XXXIII

The Laithe House Operating as a single structural unit that contains a dwelling other farm buildings and a workshop, laithehouse is a more strictly organized version of longhouse that became widespread as a smallholding from the late 18th century onwards as a smallholding. The emergence of the Laithe house’s is intricately linked with the growing importance of the textile industry in West Yorkshire. Its hybrid spatial program indicates a relatively more conscious design of boundaries to achieve an efficient organization of different economic and ecological processes. The laithe house dies out towards the end of 19th century due to the decline of the textile industry.10

B.11: The perspective view of Laithe house; Drawn by authors XXXIV

living

livestock

living

livestock

Carnwath Mill Bastle House South Lanarkshire, Scotland

Glenochar Bastle House South Lanarkshire, Scotland

Snar Bastle House Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland

B.12: Plan view of Bastle house typology diagram; Drawn by authors XXXV

The Bastle House A type of construction found on the Anglo-Scottish border, bastle houses are 2-storey fortified farmhouses with extremely thick walls and small windows. Built for defense purposes, bastle houses place the most valuable animals on the ground floor and the family on the first floor, linked to each other with a mobile ladder. Both their internal arrangement and the way they sit on the land embody principles of self-defense, ranging from security to camouflage.11

B.13: Perspective view of Bastle house; Drawn by authors XXXVI

Courtyard house Chysauster, Cornwall, UK

Sparsholt Roman Villa Sparsholt, Hampshire, England

Frocester Courtyard House Frocester, Gloucestershire, England

B.14: Plan view of British rural courtyard typology diagram; Drawn by authors XXXVII

The Courtyard and the Walled Garden A type of house where the main parts of the building, usually the barn, the bathhouse and the dwelling, are laid around a central patio, courtyard houses are also derivered primarily from Roman villas. An important organizational characteristic of courtyard houses comes from the storage of agricultural produce, particularly grain. The central courtyard becomes a microclimate which can be used for various purposes.12

B.15: Perspective view diagram of British rural courtyard; Drawn by authors XXXVIII

B.16: Man repairing a barn; Photograph collected by The Museum of English Rural Life

XXXIX

Comparitive Study

The interrelation of domesticity and land management can take different forms across different scales. To compare our chosen typologies in the light of this, we identified the following categories: • • •

Organization of the Home Settlement Boundary and Land Management

Hut

Long House

Laithe House

Bastle House

XLI

Organization of the Home •

Nature of main spaces, organizational principle

•

Hut/Roundhouse: single entrance, unified space around a centralized zone of heat/fire

•

Longhouse: single entrance, three main spaces allocated to animal, fire and human

•

Laithe House: multiple entrances, two main spaces for farm and dwelling

•

Bastle House: vertical division across two storeys

•

Courtyard house: one main entrance leading to multiple entrances, main spaces distributed around a central courtyard

Walled Garden House

B.17: Representative typology of rural housing; Drawn by authors XLII

Huts Shaugh Moor, Devon

Long Houses Houndtor, Devon

Laithe House Dean Stones, Northowram, West Yorkshire

XLIII

Settlement Nature of collectivity, evolution pattern, settlement character, principle of aggregation •

Hut/Roundhouse: distributed in different shapes and sizes within a singular boundary line

•

Longhouse: aggregated on/along uneven field boundaries with a variety of shapes and sizes Laithe House:

• •

Bastle House: un-aggregated, singular mass within vast and ambiguous field boundary positioned close to a stream

•

Courtyard house: un-aggregated, creates its own boundary as a singular dwelling distributing and connecting different functions

Bastle House Glengeith Hamlet, Scotland

Sparsholt Roman Villa Sparsholt, Hampshire, England B.18: Settlement diagrams classified by housing type; Drawn by authors XLIV

use

long house

long

laithe house

Bastle House

bastle house long house

Hut

laithe house

long house

bastle house laithe house

bastle house

Long House long house

bastle house House Courtyard

long house bastle house

laithe house

bastle house

Laithe House laithe house

Walled Garden House

bastle house

B.19: Diagrams of different housing’s boundary and land management; Drawn by authors XLV

bastle ho

Boundary and Land Management Position of mass in relation to land and field boundaries •

Hut/Roundhouse: defined boundaries at settlement level but ambiguous land boundaries.

•

Longhouse: embedded in sloped landscape.

•

Laithe House: embedded in sloped landscape.

•

Bastle House: blends in with the sloped landscape.

•

Courtyard house: defined boundaries, enclosed/ contained land(management).

XLVI

B.20: Children and farmworkers; Photograph collected by The Museum of English Rural Life

XLVII

Our Stance Increased urban migration to rural areas and the recent promotion of rural biodiversification schemes hint at an opportunity to generate a new housing typology that can bridge patterns of domesticity with environmental stewardship. To find the most appropriate scale of investigation both at the home and the settlement level, we consulted the UK urban-rural classification scheme, concluding at the category of hamlets and isolated dwellings. Through its sparsity and relative independence from existing built environment, this category enables us to imagine new typologies which are determined more by their relationship to land than to pre-established patterns of settlement. To explore spatial principles that are integral to different lifestyles and logistics of living on land, we studied various vernacular home and housing typologies that have emerged in rural Britain: the hut, the long house, the laithe house, the bastle house and the courtyard house. Analyzing them both individually and comparatively through the organization of the home, settlement patterns and boundary characteristics, we extracted spatial principles geared towards reconciling environmental stewardship with domesticity. To further link this theory to contemporary context, the following chapter will elaborate on the notion of environmental stewardship. By investigating its formal principles of application, we will be able to find a suitable territory of action.

Notes for Chap.B 8 Aston Mick. “Medieval Rural Settlement”. 9 Guinane Thomas. The Continuing Use Of The Dartmoor Longhouse. 10 Westwood, Christine. “The laithe house of upland West Yorkshire: its social and economic significance”. 11 Tam Ward. A Miscellany Of Clydesdale Bastle Houses. 12 Taylor Christopher. Village and Farmstead: A History of Rural Settlement in England. XLVIII

Home acts as a foci for initiation

With home comes land management and stewardship

A ripple effect is created through daily domesticity C.1: Diagram of home and stewardship, Drawn by authors XLIX

C HOME AND STEWARDSHIP

There is a very succinct link between the house and the management of land. You can see a dependency on how a well-designed house and settlement can enable better stewardship and give an option to be economically independent. To intertwine spatiality and production in a way where it entangles with the daily domesticity creating healthier habits of living and sustaining in the rural. This creates a will of active management and initiative of action.

C.2: Diagram of environmental stewardship process, Drawn by authors

Stewardship Any debate about environmental stewardship revolves around taking action. Stewardship actions are a collection of techniques, practices, attitudes, and technology used to conserve, restore, or use the environment responsibly. The effects of stewardship actions can be seen in the following ways:-. • • • • •

Can form informally during day-to-day decisionmaking Can stem from formal or informal decision-making processes involving local collectives or networks Can result from formal top-down processes or mandated requirements of government Can derive from direct objectives relating to environmental sustainability Can indirectly result as an ancillary effect of other objectives (i.e., livelihood security or social justice)

LII

Individual Individual landowners might restore habitat on their property through small scale interventions and care. It is usually related a lot to farming and personel land maintainence as an incentive.

Mesoscale At the mesoscale, stewardship can take the shape at a community level where socio-economic factors and a larger settlement level issues are tackled at the Local scale.

Megascale At a larger scale, stewardship activities might be conducted at the national, eco-regional, transboundary, or regional levels. This is where ecosystems are targeted as a whole. forming the Global scale

C.3: Land management stewardship in different scale, Drawn by authors LIII

Scale of Stewardship It is necessary to understand certain key terms relating to stewardship.13 •

Stewardship Actions: Ways to protect, restore or sustainably use the environment.

•

Actors (or stewards): Those who are driving stewardship initiatives (with different rights, roles and responsibilities)

•

Motivations for Stewardship: A. Intrinsic motivations: Bring spiritual satisfaction to people. B. Extrinsic motivations: A direct benefit or reward in material terms.

•

Capacity for Stewardship: The ability to take action to care for the environment. But this capacity is sometimes supported or limited by local factors.

•

Context of Stewardship: Contains social, cultural, economic, political and biophysical factors. Also determines which stewardship actions are influenced in the vicinity.

•

Outcomes of Stewardship: The ecological and social impacts of stewardship actions.

•

Stewardship Interventions: Projects promoted or implemented by different organizations or actors to promote or develop environmental stewardship.

•

Leverage Points for Stewardship: Acts as a personal capitol invested be it social, monetary or legal , which acts as leverage points to incentivise stewardship.

LIV

C.4: People walking in feilds; Photogragh by Rewilding Britain

Local To Global Stewardship can also take the form of passive management, such as not harvesting an area and allowing it to regrow. To put it another way, stewardship may be achieved by deliberate inactivity. We don’t assume what kinds of behaviors constitute stewardship, and we promote a definition of stewardship that includes indigenous worldviews and techniques as well as western conservation concepts. The idea is that from a scale of one farm to a practice which is introduced globally the effect magnifies. That’s the power of Local to Global. Stewardship actions can be carried out on a local, regional, national, or global scale, and in both rural and urban environments. It’s tempting to feel that local remedies aren’t up to the challenge because many current environmental issues are global in scale. Participating in local environmental stewardship activities and initiatives, which they can undertake using their own expertise and knowledge, may help people get involved in promoting sustainability. As a result, our definition of environmental stewardship throughout this article includes a focus on the often-central role of local people in caring for the environment that they are close to, linked to, and, in certain circumstances, rely on for subsistence and livelihoods. Even at a local scale the current trend and responsibility of stewardship falls into the hands of an controling figure which is usually the government. The government has the onus of acting as a motivator to enable a change.

LVI

C.5: “Tea break” from harvesting the barley crop; Photograph collected by The Museum of English Rural Life

LVII

Capital and Policy C

• • • • • •

Social Capital:Informal and formal relationships which can support stewardship. Cultural Capital: Connections and processes with various cultural dimensions. Financial Capital: Financial resources that are available to individuals or collectives to promote stewardship actions. Physical Capital: Technology or infrastructure that enables people to be self-sufficient. Human Capital: Individual and group attributes. Institutional Capital: Empowerment, agency and options available to local communities and to stewardship resources that results from broader governance.

Irrespective of the capital investment, it is the government framework that the people are going to end up enforcing. Hence critiquing the current policy and not human motivation would lead to better implementation and outputs.14

LVIII

C.6: Part of the tithe map for Barnham in Sussex dated 1846; Map collected by The National Archives

How can successful and suitable local stewardship efforts be established or supported in various contexts? What factors help or hinder environmental stewardship’s effectiveness? More specifically, how can external organizations, governments, and consumers successfully promote or support local stewardship efforts?

LIX

Government as a Motivator Governance, which includes institutional systems (such as laws and policies, formal and informal organizations, and decision-making processes) as well as structural processes related to power and politics (such as economic inequality, discrimination, and exclusion from decision-making), can empower or constrain a potential steward’s sense of agency, available options, and capacity. Extrinsic incentives, on the other hand, are linked to the expectation of achieving other goals, such as social reinforcement or financial gains that are not related to the self. Extrinsic motives are classified as follows: Externally provided rewards or punishments, which can be economic, social, physical, or legal, and the perceived balance of the costs and benefits of stewarding natural resources.15

C.7: Yurt housing inside the wildland; Photograph from Knepp

LXI

Types of Government Motivators •

•

Financial Incentives: Payments to enable management measures, payments for ecosystem services, market premiums for more ecologically friendly products are some examples for incentives. Financial disincentives are fines or loss of market access. Social Motivation: The need for social recognition or the avoidance of punishments, both of which are connected to group norms and collective orientation, are typically powerful motivators for resource conservation or adhering to group regulations. Praise, prizes, or certification are examples of social acknowledgment, as is maintaining excellent relationships with other resource users. Legal Motivations: Powerful motivators, whether they are used to clearly articulate society norms and expectations as obligations and responsibilities, or they are used as legal punishments and enforcement procedures.

In all these scenarios there is a type of capital involved which is traded, be it tangible or intangible. The value of this capital will differ from person to person creating different needs and aspects of motivation.16

LXII

C.8: A cob and thatch farmstead in North Devon; Photograph by James Ravilious

LXIII

Critique and Inference Rural regions are diverse and are influenced by a variety of policies. As a result, the focus of rural planning and implementation must shift away from a limited set of policies that primarily target farming and the environment in rural regions, and instead strive to combine policies of a more generic approach. As a result, rural policymaking is becoming increasingly crosscutting, including a wide variety of policy factors that affect distinct rural communities. It’s important to make sure that all policies are ‘rural proofed.’ Local environmental stewardship is the action taken by individuals, groups or networks of actors, with various motivations and levels of capacity, to protect, care for or responsibly use the environment in pursuit of ecological and/or social outcomes in diverse social-ecological contexts. Environmental stewardship creates a unique opportunity and distinctly different relationship to living with the land in our modern society. The practice which is not new has been fueled by a recent policy driven commitment to ecosystem. But these are not sufficient. There is a need to create new motivators and imbibe stewardship in a way where extrinsic reasons for motivation are not required.

LXIV

C.9: British woodland photograph; Photograph by Stuart Franklin; 2008

LXV

Our stance C

The idea is to create programs and architecture in a way where stewardship can be ingrained as a habit in daily domesticity. The viability of doing and putting in any effort, hours or capital should be economically compensated. Hence stewardship and restoration become a habitual by-product of the production aspect of the scheme. This changes the dynamic and power between individuals and larger entities, taking stewardship action down to as small as doing mundane everyday things. Creating a new emerging motivator driven not by decision but by habit. While it obviously can be established that stewardship for land management is a given necessity, the question is what to target, creating beneficial practices and maximum outreach. The UN says that the largest impact that can be made on nature is by targeting and restoring ecosystems.17 Tackling ecosystems is beneficial as they do not look at only one aspect but cover every factor that can contribute to global environmental change. It is necessary to understand how different ecosystems work, to be able to intervene seamlessly with ecological land management and stewardship.

Notes for Chap.C 13 Nathan J. Bennett. "Environmental Stewardship: A Conceptual Review and Analytical Framework". 14 Ibid, 13 15 Ibid, 13 16 Ibid, 13 17 United Nations. "Climate Change". LXVI

D.1: Ecological Break in a hedgerow; Photograph by Sarah Cope; 2021

LXVII

D ECOSYSTEM

There is a very succinct link between the house and the management of land. At a meso or mega scale it is more a link of affecting ecosystems through settlements. You can see a dependency on how a well-designed house and settlement can enable better stewardship and facilitate economic independency. To intertwine spatiality and production in a way where it entangles daily domesticity creating healthier living habits and sustaining in the rural. This creates a will of active management and initiative of action.

LXVIII

D.2: Grasses in scotland; Photograph by Stuart Franklin; 2008

LXIX

Ecosystem Conditions An ecosystem is a geographical region in which plants, animals, and other species, as well as weather and topography, interact to generate a living bubble. Ecosystems comprise both biotic and abiotic elements or living and nonliving components. Plants, animals, and other species are examples of biotic factors. Rocks, temperature, and humidity are examples of abiotic variables. Every aspect of an ecosystem, whether directly or indirectly, is dependent on every other factor. A change in the temperature of an ecosystem, for example, can have an impact on the plants that grow there. Animals that rely on plants for food and shelter will either have to adjust to the changes or migrate to a different habitat. Ecosystems can range in size from enormous to tiny. In a wider field, ecosystems are frequently linked to large areas of land, sea, or atmosphere which are known as biomes. People have been engaged with ecosystems for thousands of years and many cultures arose adajcently. That is where the rural, the home and ecosystem intervene as a primary.18 Hence to create positive spaces in a rural condition it becomes necessary to understand ecosystems and their conditions.

LXX

D.3: Mappings of 8 ecosystems distribution in the UK; Drawn by authors LXXI

Global Ecosystems United Nation General Assembly established guidelines and ecosystems of interest in their resolution 73 on 1 March 2019. The UN identified 7 ecosystems for global protection and revival to benefit both man and nature.19 The repair of these ecosystems is essential for the future. This ecosystem initiative has the potential to reverse climate change, improve universal health and wellbeing, and prevent the collapse of biodiversity. D

Farmlands Forests Freshwater Coasts +

Ocean

Peatlands, Grasslands + Shrublands Mountains Towns and Cities

LXXII

D.4: 5 selected ecosystem distribution in the UK; Drawn by authors LXXIII

Local Ecosystems Out of this global list, we have selected 5 for their relevance within the UK Farmlands Forests Freshwater Grasslands + Shrublands Peatlands

LXXIV

Local - Types

Local - Distribution

Global - Carbon Sequestration

Global - Distribution

38% Non-Irrigated Arable Land

70%

41%

Pastures

D.5: Hedgerow; Photogragh by Getty

D.6: Pastures; Photogragh by Robert Mertl

D.7: Haystack Process; Photogragh by Lumin Osity

LXXV

33%

10%

Farmlands Agricultural land is typically land devoted to agriculture, the systematic and controlled use of other forms of life—particularly the rearing of livestock and production of crops—to produce food for humans.20 Classification • Arable land • Permanent crop land • Permanent pasture Ecological Contribution supplying people with food, fodder, and fiber hosting a variety of organisms. Issues • Large monocultures • Over-grazing • Removal of hedges and trees letting rain and wind erode soil • Excessive use of fertillizer causes pollution of soils and waterways • Habitat destruction and wildlife decline

LXXVI

Local - Types

Local - Distribution

Global - Carbon Sequestration

Global - Distribution

8% 19% Plantations and Caledonian forests and Native Woods native coniferous woods

30%

19% Broadleaved woodland

D.8: Ancient Woodland; Photogragh by Neil Burnell

D.9: Caledonian Forests and Native Coniferous Woods; Photogragh by John Macpherson/WTML

D.10: Wildfire; Photogragh by Pedro Felizardo

LXXVII

13%

19% Ancient Woodland

15%

Forests The United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization has a definition of forests: its occupied space should be more than 0.5 hectares, and the height of trees inside should be more than 5 meters with an over 10% canopy covering, or trees going to reach these criteria in situ.21 Classification • Ancient Woodland • Broadleaved Woodland • Caledonian forests and native coniferous woods • Plantations and new native woods • Temperate rainforest • Wet Woodland Ecological Contribution • Carbon sequestration • Air pollution removal • Flood mitigation • Temperature regulation • Noise reduction Issues • Logging • Firewood Cutting • Pollution • Invasive Pests • Wildfires

LXXVIII

1% 5%

D.11: River Form; Photogragh by Georgina Richards

Lakes Rivers and Ponds

D.13: Freshwater Pollution; Photogragh by Ovnirox Fred

Local - Types

19%

Local - Distribution

Global - Carbon Sequestration

Global - Distribution

81%

D.12: Chalk River; Photogragh by The Wildlife Trust

LXXIX

Freshwater Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of aquatic ecosystems on the planet. Lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, springs, bogs, and wetlands are among them. When compared to marine habitats, which have a higher salt concentration, they are less salty. Temperature, light penetration, nutrients, and vegetation are all criteria that may be used to classify freshwater environments.22 Classification • River • Chalk River • Lake • Pond

Ecological Contribution • Supply food, water, and energy to people • Protect people from droughts and floods • Provide unique habitat • Shielding our coasts against tsunamis and erosion • Moderate water flows • Store vast amounts of carbon Issues • Threat of freshwater species extinction • Pollution • Over-fishing • Over-extraction of water to irrigate crops • Flooding • Over-extraction of underground water

LXXX

Heathland and moorland

17%

30%

17%

D.13: Scottish Highland; Photograph by Anthony Jeffrey

Natrual grassland

Local - Types

Local - Distribution

Global - Carbon Sequestration

Global - Distribution

34%

D.14: Chalk Grassland; Photograph by Hugh Mothersole

D.15: Cattle Grazing at Coombe Hill; Photograph by Hugh Mothersole

LXXXI

Grasslands and Shrublands Grasslands are areas dominated by grass cover, but they can also contain lots of other plants. Grasslands cover large areas of the UK, but most are highly modified by land management and agricultural ‘improvement’. Seminatural grasslands are very scarce, and some wooded areas contain important pockets of semi-natural grasslands within glades, rides, wood-meadows and clearings.23 Classification • Chalky grassland • Acidic grassland • Neutral grassland • Marshy grassland • Heathland and moorland Ecological Contribution • Carbon Sequestration • Promotion of genetic diversity • Weather amelioration • Provision of wildlife habitat Issues • Invasive species displace native plants and reduce the quality of a grassland • Monoculture agriculture • Replacement by modern urban facilities

LXXXII

30%

10%

Local - Types

81% 1%

Local - Distribution

Global - Carbon Sequestration

Global - Distribution

Fens Bogs

D.16: Fen; Photogragh by Beth Thomas

D.17: Bog; Photogragh by Moors for the Future

D.18: Peat Section; Photogragh by Ben Dolphin

LXXXIII

Peatlands Peatlands are terrestrial wetland ecosystems in which waterlogged conditions prevent plant material from fully decomposing. Consequently, the production of organic matter exceeds its decomposition, which results in a net accumulation of peat. In cool climates, peatland vegetation is mostly made up of Sphagnum mosses, sedges and shrubs and are the primary builder of peats, whereas in warmer climates graminoids and woody vegetation provide most of the organic matter.24 Classification • Fen Bogs • Raised Bogs • Blanket Bogs

Ecological Contribution • Preventing and limiting the influence of climate change, • Preserving biodiversity, • Reducing flood risk • Ensuring safe drinking water. • Largest natural terrestrial carbon store Issues • Net carbon source • Dissolved organic carbon • Particulate organic carbon • Carbon stocks depleted • Loss of biodiversity • Loss of historic archive • Colored peaty water • Farming and recreation

Notes for Chap.D 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Robert Costanza, Michael Mageau. "What is a healthy ecosystem?". Ibid, 17 Food & Farming Foresight. New model farming: resilience through diversity. Robin L. Chazdon. "When is a forest a forest? Forest concepts and definitions in the era of forest and landscape restoration". Jill S Baron. "Meeting Ecological and Societal Needs for Freshwater". Robin White. Pilot Analysisof Global Ecosystems: Grassland Ecosystems. Stephen Whitfield. “Managing Peatland Ecosystem Services: Current UK Policy and Future Challenges in a Changing World”

LXXXIV

Process

Farmlands

Wildlife-friendly farmlands

Hedgerow growing

Pesticide using reduction

Forests

Natural woodland regeneration

Deer population control

Natural habitat restoration

Water quality purification

Freshwater

Grasslands +Shrublands Low density grazing

Mosaic grassland

Unimproved grassland restoration

Peatlands

Peatland restoration

Peatland moistening

D.19-D.21|D.23|D.25-D.27|D.29: Photogragh by Rewilding Britain D.22: Photogragh by Salix D.24: Photogragh by Graeme Prudy D.28, Photogragh by Getty D.30, Photogragh by DEFRA

LXXXV

Stewardship

30min

Trimming hedge

Killing pests

Weeding

1h 15min

Killing pests

Weeding

Watering

Mowing

15min

10min

Check tree guards

Coppicing

30min

Cleaning trapped sediment

Physico-chemical Chemical monitor- Biological monitoring analysis ing analysis monitoring analysis

1h 15min

Watering

3min

Aerateing

Mowing

Each ecosystem requires different kinds and levels of land management, involvement, time and processes. Looking at them from a broader perspective you can see the different combinations of parameters required to restore, manage or maintain it. This creates various opportunities to intervene through different strategies.

D.31: Stewardship of different ecosystem’s regeneration; Drawn by authors

LXXXVI

Succe

Farmlands

Forests

Freshwater

Peatlands

Grasslands +Shrublands

D.32: The succession outcome of ecosystem r LXXXVII

ession

Freshwater Trees Grass, Shrub, Hedgerow Soil Short plants Stag Doe Sheep Wolf Water bird Cow Fish Invertebrates Water plants Various of flowers Hedge Various of crops Shrubs Grass Sapling Hardwood trees Softwood trees

regeneration through years; Drawn by authors LXXXVIII

E.1: The interior view of British rural kitchen; Photograph from Knepp

LXXXIX

E IMPLEMENTATION

The ecosystem services method has gained widespread acceptance, recognizing the need to link environmental functioning and human well-being. The scenario comparisons between site-based and landscape-scale management show that landscape-scale management can provide significant benefits in terms of biodiversity protection and ecosystem services. This chapter looks at different cases that are already existing and compares them looking at various aspects that help them be ecologically and economically sustainable. It assesses the landscape scale strategy through lenses like intangibles, succession and carbon scales. The study looks at both quantitative and qualitative parameters to graph out a certain scale. These findings along with the inferences from the previous chapter lead to our projects in coherence with the manifesto.

Landscape-Based Management Whole landscape Management can be planned & implemented for whole site.

Wild Ennerdale, Cumbria

Knepp Wildland, West Sussex

Great Fen, Cambridgeshire

Habitat Patches - Cordinated Implementation only on patches, but plans consider landscape factors & vision may include networks.

Frome Catchment (Rebuilding Biodiversity), Dorset

Heather and Hillforts, Living Landscapes, Denbighshire, Wales

Pumlumon, Cambrian Mountains, Wales

Habitat Patches - Not cordinated Implementation only on patches, plans make no explicit reference to landscape factors

Site-based Management

Pre-project and/or ‘Business as Usual’ scenarios for case studies

E.2: Diagram showing cases of Landscape-Based Management and Site-based Management; Drawn by authors; Please see Image Reference for the contained photogragh XCI

Case Study

The case studies were chosen because they have either adopted or are planning to implement a landscape-scale management strategy. Three of the locations were unique, with a single owner or a small group of owners working together closely. The subsequent case studies were landscape visions in which implementation would take place on patches, but they were regarded as part of a larger landscape with the possibility for inter-patch connection in the management vision. To investigate the consequences of alternative management practices in diverse situations, a variety of landscape types were chosen, including uplands, fenland, and lowland agricultural landscapes spread over numerous areas of England and Wales.

XCII

E.3: Distribution of the rewilding and ecological projects in the UK; Drawn by authors

XCIII

Landscape Scale Management To distinguish the ‘landscape-scale approach’ from other techniques, we required a workable definition. According to certain studies25, such initiatives should include

•

A regional system of interconnected properties.

•

Efforts should be organized in some way to achieve one or more specific conservation objectives.

•

Various landowners and managers within a conservation region should cooperate or collaborate in some concrete way to achieve those objectives.

•

Even within this description, there are a few management systems that vary by geography, partnership activity, ownership range, and a variety of other considerations. From huge single site management to management focused on tiny single sites, there will be a gradual decrease in inter-site management cooperation.

XCIV

E.4: Chart of British ecological regeneration case studies; Drawn by authors XCV

E.5: Chart of British ecological regeneration case studies; Drawn by authors; Please see Image Reference for the contained photogragh XCVI

E.6: First chart shows each case study’s set up cost; The second chart shows each case study’s annual running cost from landscape scale’s and the pre-project side; The third chat shows each case study’s additional annual cost and the ratio of it; Drawn by authors XCVII

Why Landscape-scale management?

Project implementation, operating, and opportunity expenses are all included in the costs. Be- because some were intimately related to services and others were implemented throughout the case study sites, cost estimates required a range of methodologies. By subtracting production costs from the market price of ecosystem services, expenses were accounted for. The value in this study included opportunity costs associated with implementing various scenarios. For example, if the landscape vision scenario reduced food production relative to the business-as-usual scenario, this would be an opportunity cost. Due to various areas of uncertainty in the projection of the scenarios, as well as in the evaluation of ecosystem services, some of which were not monetizable, estimating net costs as a monetary value was extremely difficult. Although a Benefit: Cost ratio for one project was calculated, it did not consider other elements and was very sensitive to carbon values. It was clear that in the landscape-scale scenarios, greater supply of most services happened, and that even the imperfect benefits appraisals would typically surpass the costs. Because this effect was mostly reliant on carbon levels, those locations with the largest shift in land-use had larger overall gains in ecosystem service value.26

XCVIII

E.7: Chart shows each case study’s landscape-scale scenario rate and business as usual scenario rate in different aspects; Drawn by authors XCIX

Parameters for Assessment Parameters for Assessment The selection of a subset of critical ecosystem services for value was based on the project requirements, literature research, and scoping study.5 Except where they were given a score of 0 in the scoping exercise, these services were explored for their potential for valuation in the case studies.27 Ecosystem Services • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • •

Food - Cultivated crops, wild foods, livestock, fish and game. Fiber/raw materials - Timber, plant fiber (such as straw), animal skins and leather, wool. Fuel/energy - Renewable fuel products or renewable energy: wood fuel, biofuel crops, hydroelectricity. Fresh water provision - Provision of reservoirs and aquifers for domestic consumption, industry or agriculture. Flood protection - Influence of the site in mitigating downstream flood risk. Nature-based recreation - Tourism opportunities provided by the landscape: walking/hiking, horse riding, cycling/mountain biking, rock climbing, naturewatching, fishing/angling, boating, water sports etc. Aesthetic benefits - Characteristics of the landscape that are of aesthetic value to people. Carbon - Carbon storage/sequestration capacity of land-cover types. Carbon storage is the amount of carbon stored in vegetation (above and below ground). Biodiversity - Biodiversity protection and habitat connectivity for species of conservation interest.

E.8: Chart shows each case study’s stakeholder scoping exercise proportion, evaluation process’s proportion, and the no change proportion in different aspects; Drawn by authors CI

Economic viability To be viable, landscape-scale programs must be financially sustainable over time. The variety of economically exploited ecosystem services proposed or established by the projects under consideration, such as quality beef, reeds, and recreation, demonstrates a path that ensures integration with the local economy. Although these market forces should be encouraged to the greatest extent possible, it is also acknowledged that the market cannot be expected to deliver the full range of ecosystem services from a given landscape2, and the overall challenge is to determine the best policy instruments for enhancing natural assets while also ensuring economic and social sustainability. The initiatives studied here demonstrated the critical role of agri-environment programs in implementing large- scale developments. The available resource, if properly targeted, has immense potential for allowing the restoration of an ecologically functioning landscape - the AES pays roughly £400 million to England’s land managers each year.28 To provide adequate sustainability at vast temporal and geographical scales, realistic landscape-scale activities will be fully integrated with the local economy and supported through suitable governmental tools.

CII

E.9: Sheep in the British rural field; Photograph by Lumin Osity

CIII

Ecological intangibles It’s important not to overlook the importance of providing values that can’t be measured in money. This encompasses the inherent biodiversity value and aesthetic value of the environment, as well as more subtle influences on users’ long-term health and well-being. If a cost benefit analysis is necessary, it is critical to guarantee that these components are considered – either by converting all assessed elements to indices or by translating these elements to monetary values. There is still a need for a viable answer in this area. Some advantages were evaluated, but their inclusion in the quantitative study was left. These were the following: •

Knowledge - This advantage might be reflected via educational and research possibilities. Property - Although the existence of a site can influence property values, it is difficult to predict what these values will be in the future.

•

Well-being - Without a primary valuation assessment, this advantage might be extremely subjective and difficult to quantify.

•

Assistance services - These services are necessary for the providing of all other services, for example, soil retention is required for furnishing services. As a result, appraisal would lead to duplicate counting.

CIV

Habitat Type

Pre-Project

Business-as-usual

Landscape Acid Grassland

Fen, Marsh, Swamp

Bog

Inland Rock

Braken

Mixed Woodland

Broadleaved Woodland

Montane Habitats

Coniferous Woodland

Neutral Grassland

Dwarf Shrub Heath

Standing Water/Canals

Dwarf Shrub Heath with Native Trees

E.10: The ecological land using proportion changes from business as usual scenario and landscape scenario from the Knepp practice to illustrate the concept of building alternative scenrio; Drawn by authors CV

Succession For each case study location, alternate scenarios were created to reflect different management techniques1. Each case study location was visualized in at least two situations, with the possibility of a third scenario. •

Pre-project scenario – before the commencement of the landscape project, the land cover (I.e., site-based conservation).

•

Landscape-scale scenario – the predicted land cover in 2060 if the landscape-scale project is completed successfully.

•

‘Business as usual’ future scenario — future visualization without landscape-scale intervention.

The landscape-scale management visions were either in the early stages of development or were yet to be developed at all sites, so future scenarios were visualized by spatially projecting the landscape that is expected to develop by 2060 if the landscape scale management strategies are implemented successfully.29

CVI

E.11: Cattles on the hill and the farmland; Photograph by Helena Lopes; 2015

CVII

Inferences Landscape-scale management, which implicitly moves away from intensification, would always result in lower food production; however, in two of the case studies, this service was increased because grazing animals could still be marketed and may be of higher meat value than those produced prior to the conservation initiative. Even in initiatives like the Great Fen, where huge losses in food yield are expected, the financial loss from arable crops is vastly offset by the additional and improved services. Even though not all services are compensated since they are not monetized, this remuneration happens (flood mitigation and aesthetic value for instance).30 The potential benefits of adopting biodiversity protection on a landscape scale are becoming increasingly apparent, with the goal of creating a more dynamic landscape that is more resilient to environmental change. Integration of environmental, economic, and social aspects is required for a successful evaluation of such a landscape-scale approach, and acknowledgement of multi-functionality is required for implementing an ecosystems approach into policymaking.

Notes For Chap.E 25 Hodder.K.H. Analysis Of The Costs And Benefits Of Alternative Solutions For Restoring Biodiversity. 26 Ibid, 25 27 Eugenie Regan. TESSA: A toolkit for rapid assessmentof ecosystem services. 28 Ibid, 4 29 Ibid,25 30 Ibid,25 CVIII

MANIFESTO

CIX

F.1: Draft of pattern study matrix; Drawn by authors CXI

F PATTERN STUDY After going through various aspects of rural typology, morphology, landscape and ecosystems, we all applied these findings to specific cases and sites. The design ethos was based on our manifesto. Abstracting and deducing our projects we could see similar codes and patterns evolving. A similar methodology could be seen with the ideas proposed in the book, “A Pattern Language – Towns, Buildings, Construction” by Christopher Alexander, Murray Silverstein, and Sara Ishikawa.31 The two scales we talk about are Home and Settlement. We could see similar codes that are applicable at both scales, but they could possibly behave differently. The idea was also to figure out patterns that we had not applied and missed. This as an exercise distilled us to deducing a common language for the intertwined rural, ecosystem and stewardship. Home • Transition between Home and field • Boundary • Inside – Outside • Economical Process • Ecological Process • Ground Settlement • Economical Process • Ecological Process • Collectivity • Evolution

Notes for Chap.F 31 Christopher Alexander. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. CXII

Home

Linear

Concentric

Singular distinction between hard and soft boundary.

Exterior boundary surrounds an open core.

Bifurcated

Framed

Binary distinction that splits the boundary into two solid pieces.

Exterior boundary frames a progression of softer boundaries within.

Eccentric

Convergent

Exterior boundary is soft and undefined surrounding a solid core.

Binary distinction that unifies the boundary into one structured core that fades into a soft remedial boundary

F.2: Patterns showing boundry in transition between home and field; Drawn by authors CXIII

Transition Between Home - Field reconciliation of landscape with building

Boundary

determines how thresholds and spatial demarcation are driven by process.

Hard Soft Porous F

CXIV

Home

Linear

Concentric

Singular distinction between hard and soft boundary.

Exterior boundary surrounds an open core.

Framed

Bifurcated Binary distinction that splits the boundary into two solid pieces.

Exterior boundary frames a progression of softer boundaries within.

Eccentric

Convergent

Exterior boundary is soft and undefined surrounding a solid core.

Binary distinction that unifies the boundary into one structured core that fades into a soft remedial boundary

F.3: Patterns showing space in transition between home and field; Drawn by authors CXV

Transition Between Home - Field reconciliation of landscape with building

Interior - Exterior

thermal boundaries that are driven by process.

Interior Covered Exterior F

CXVI

Home

Adjacent

Overlaid

Economic management is visually adjacent to domesticity, but not integrated

Economic management encompasses domesticity

Detached

Interlocking

Economic management is neither visually adjacent nor integrated into domesticity

Economic process is integrated into the home through the juxtaposition of domesticity and production.

F.4: Patterns showing Economic process in domesticity; Drawn by authors CXVII

Economic Process the weaving of economic processes into the spatial organisation

Economy in Domesticity

exploring the organization of the home in relation to work.

Seperation Economic Process Domestic F

CXVIII

Distributed - Even Each home in the settlement plays an equal role in the economic process, there is no hierarchy to the structure of placement.

Distributed - Uneven Each home in the settlement plays an unequal role in the economic process, there is a variation in level of activity due to process.

Settlement

Distributed - Concentrated The home and economic process are completely detached within the settlement. CXIX

Economic Process It explores how an economic process can further engage the landscape after environmental restoration has taken place. As a spatial strategy, economic process can be reactionary to existing materials and landscape. The restorative ecological process drives the composition of the economic process.

Economy in Field

The weaving of economic processes into the settlement area

Seperation Economic Process Domestic F

F.5: Patterns showing Economic process in field; Drawn by authors CXX

Home

Interlocking

Adjacent Economic management is visually adjacent to domesticity, but not integrated

The ecological process is integrated into the home through the juxtaposition of domesticity and process.

Concentric

Detached

Economic management encompasses domesticity

The ecological process is neither visually adjacent nor integrated into domesticity.

Overlaid

Framed Domesticity frames the ecological process

The ecological process encompasses domesticity

F.6: Patterns showing Ecological process in domesticity; Drawn by authors CXXI

Ecological Management The weaving of field management into the spatial organisation

Ecology in Domesticity

The relationship between ecological and domestic processes

Seperation Economic Process Domestic F

CXXII

Centralized

Remote

Ecological process is surrounded by settlement in a localized condition but integrated into the settlement in moments of domesticity

The settlement is placed separate from ecological process to not inhibit the restorative process taking place

Embedded & Scattered

Embeded & Contained

The settlement is surrounded by ecological process, but the placement of settlement is reactive to the landscape itself

The settlement is surrounded by ecological process and acts as a keystone facilitating restoration

Settlement

Embedded & Structured The settlement is surrounded by ecological process but also frames its restoration

F.7: Patterns showing ecological process in field; Drawn by authors CXXIII

Ecological Process A series of patterns it explores how ecological restoration transforms the landscape through active management reshaping and reactivating the traditional rural landscape into a spatial strategy that revolves around process. This spatial strategy examines how homes begin to act as a catalyst for ecological restoration within the landscape

Ecology in Field

The positioning of the home in relation to managed field

Economic Process

Domestic F

CXXIV

Unifed The collective nature of process the settlement acts as a singular entity.

Seperated - Uneven The collective nature of process drives the structured nature of the field.

Settlement

Seperated - Even The collective nature of process is distributed amongst the field driven by structured boundaries CXXV

Collectivity It explores how the collective engagement of homes within the settlement can be distributed on the site in a collective manner. While not exclusively process driven, this pattern determines the distribution of domesticity as a tertiary spatial strategy within a collective settlement.

Economic Process

Domestic F

F.8: Patterns showing collectivity; Drawn by authors CXXVI

Subtractive The settlement can reduce its participation in response to the succession of ecological and economic processes

Mobile The settlement can move and transform in a reactionary response to the succession of ecological and economic processes

Settlement

Additive The settlement can grow its participation in response to the succession of ecological and economic process CXXVII

Evolution Progression of spatial organisation over time

Settlement with Landscape

The type of evolution allowed by the architecture of settlement

Previous Housing location Possible Housing location Current Housing location F

F.9: Patterns showing evolution of settlements; Drawn by authors CXXVIII

Spread - Linear

Spread - Radial

Settlement

Confined

CXXIX

Evolution Progression of spatial organisation over time

Landscape

The way succession can evolve

F.10: Patterns showing evolution of landscape; Drawn by authors CXXX

Home

Raised

Levelled

Digged

CXXXI

Ground How the building touches the ground

Ground line Underground Domestic F

F.11: Patterns showing how the home constrcution touch the ground; Drawn by authors CXXXII

G.1: Sheep grazing; Photogragh from DEFRA

CXXXIII

G ON GROUND DEFRA – Introduction - Authority The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) is the government department in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland that is responsible for environmental protection, food production and standards, agriculture, fisheries, and rural communities. Concordats provide arrangements for cooperation between the Scottish Government, Welsh Government, and Northern Ireland Executive, who have devolved responsibilities for certain issues in their respective countries. Although a new Department of Energy and Climate Change was founded on 3 October 2008 to take over the last task, Defra also represents the UK in international discussions on sustainable development and climate change on agricultural, fisheries, and environmental issues.32

CXXXIV

G.2: Cow grazing; Photogragh by Albert Pego; 2016

CXXXV

DEFRA – Introduction - Authority

Step 1

Identify access and administrative geography boundaries site lies in.

Step 2

Identify countryside stewardship targeting layers and schemes that are valid for that area. Which tier it falls under, in the scheme. What restorative and stewardship processes might give you a monetary incentive and what you must maintain/restore as a law, like in SSIs for example. Management options 1. manage land for the benefit of local wildlife • provide sources of nectar and pollen for insect pollinators • provide winter food and nesting habitats for farmland birds 2. support local priority habitats such as: • species-rich grasslands • wetlands, rivers, streams, ponds and ditches • hedges, orchards, wood pastures and parklands 3. manage flood-risk in your local area • reduce soil erosion and improve water quality 4. convert and manage land to organic certification standards 5. manage and maintain landscape features • maintain traditional farm buildings • manage features of archaeological interest • manage Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and scheduled monuments33

CXXXVI

Payment

£30 per Hectare per year ELS Eligible ELS

£600 per Hectare per year Land under conversion - top fruit orchards (for first three years) £175 per Hectare per year Agreement for improved land (for first two years)

HLS

£60 per Hectare per year OELS Eligible

OELS

£8 per Hectare per year LFA Eligible

G.3: Diagram showing payment; Drawn by authors

CXXXVII

Example - ERDP Scheme

The scheme is an agri-environmental scheme managed under the ERDP. Its main objectives are to: •

Conserve wildlife and biodiversity.

•

Maintain and enhance landscape quality and character

•

Protect the historic environment and natural resources

•

Promote public access and understanding of the countryside

•

Conserve genetic resources

•

Provide flood management

CHART FOR THE SCHEME AT THREE LEVELS – ELS, OELS, HLS.34

CXXXVIII

High Level Stewardship HLS aims to provide significant environmental benefits in priority areas and situations.

Hedgerows - e.g., maintenance to high environmental value

Restoration and Maintenance of Lowland Heath

Wetlands - Maintenance of ponds of high wildlife value and reed beds.

Resource Protection - to prevent erosion and run-off

Entry Level Stewardship This whole farm scheme is open to all farmers and land managers in England and encourages simple yet effective environmental management.

Improvements to water quality and reductions in soil erosion.

Improvements in conditions for farmland wildlife.

Maintained and enhanced landscape character.

Protection of the historical environment

Organic Entry Level Stewardship The OELS is largely the same as the ELS but open to farmers whose land is either wholly or partly managed organically or under conversion.

Boundary Features

Buffer Strips

Management Planning

Trees and Woodlands

G.4: Diagram showing different levels of stewarship; Drawn by authors; Please see Image Reference for the contained photogragh CXXXIX

Example - ERDP Scheme Step 3

Identify land-based designation and authority controlling it.

Step 4

Identify if land is to be leased/rented or purchased. In case the land is privately owned, you could do either based on economic viability. If land is government designated, it can only be leased

Step 5

Look at various options for stakeholders. Options – CSR, Private, Self, Government funds, NGO/NPO’s, UN and its various fund entities, Private. Types of Grants offered by the government for example • Mid Tier • Wildlife Offers • Higher Tier • Capital Grants • Protection and Infrastructure grant • Woodland support grants • Implementation Plan (PA1) and Feasibility Study (PA2) grants

Step 6

Recognize the stewardship and intervention level scale based on participatory demographic. Our emphasis on local stewardship also corresponds with a growing focus on local communities and resource users in conservation and environmental management policies, programs, and practice throughout the world, as illustrated by projects such as • community-based conservation (CBC) • community-based management (CBM) • community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) • indigenous and community conserved areas (ICCAs) • Integrated conservation-development projects (ICDPs) • locally managed marine areas (LMMAs) • other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) • urban stewardship initiatives35 Notes for Chap.G 32 33 34 35

Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs. Countryside Stewardship: An overview. Ibid, 32 Ibid, 32 Ibid, 32

CXL

WATER QUALITY MONITORING LAB AND LARGE COMMUNITY SHARED DESIGN

In a community that aims to restore the natural environment, it is essential that the water qu local rivers is monitored and managed in a scientific system. The second area of the design was therefore designed as a laboratory for daily water quality monitoring and a large indoor space to meet the community's needs. Similar to the housing area mentioned above, this also flanked by a large number of floor-to-ceiling windows, creating a blurring of the archit boundary with the natural environment. Within this area, walls are also used as partitions to the public and private areas.

Due to the increasing desire for individuality in today's society, at the same time people's ne the use of public space will change over time. Therefore, in the design and planning of the area, the partition walls of this public activity area will be designed to be flexible and mov order to satisfy the balance between the individual and the collective. In addition, this arrang allows different social classes and ages within the community to have their own space for ac which adds a degree of durability to the building and responds well to one of the design the 'accommodating all'.

1 2

2 4 3

1-- Staff Room

gh gh PeterborouPeterborou

2-- Workshop

Integrating Wetlands - Fenland Restoration Dilara Kuran

Public Zone Plan 1:1200

3-- Exhibiton 4-- Lounge

5-- Monitoring

River Nene

Context Diagram

ridge mbridge Camb Ca

The Isometric Drawing of Public Zone

ground_1 dry grassland

ground_2 moist grassland

ground_3 wet grassland

ground_4 restored fenland

ground_1 dry grassland

ground_2 moist grassland

ground_3 wet grassland

ground_4 restored fenland

Railway Drain Field Boundaries / Ditches Railway Drain Field Boundaries / Ditches

H.1: Quick view of 8 individual investigations; Drawn by authors CXLI

The Main Elements of Public Zone

H INDIVIDUAL INVESTIGATIONS

CXLII

Cranberry and Reforestation Designer: Maohang Lin Site: Taynuilt, Scotland Ecosystem: Forest Housing structure: Rammed Earth The cultivation of cranberries is essential to generate economic benefits while providing the basis for reforestation at a later stage. The project aims to create a reforestation tourism area with a cranberry economy at its heart and use the economy as a catalyst for the ecological development of the area. A study of the existing ecosystem and the surrounding tree species shows that the local forest is also in an independent state and that tree planting projects have already been initiated in the area. The project will therefore contribute to the reconstruction of the local forest. The site’s new wetland resources are suitable for developing a cranberry industry, and the conditions are such that this economic model could contribute to the process of ecological conservation in the area. According to the survey, a 50-acre cranberry area would generate an economic income of approximately £1,250,000, of which 75% could be used to provide for 30-35 families, with the surplus being used for the reforestation. In contrast to the previous project, the economic cycle is self-sustaining and has a positive relationship with the ecological environment. The project aims to create ecological corridors between the forests of the area, and this virtuous circle will allow for the gradual expansion of the project into a new form of rural business.

H.2: Masterplan

CXLIII

H.3: Plan of the Home

CXLIV

Moss Restoration Designer: Atishay Agrawal Site: Cilgerran, Wales Ecosystem: Freshwater Housing structure: Moss Concrete On the edge of the Afon Tiefi river ecosystem in Wales, lies Cilgerran which is a protected area and a reserve forest. There is rare moss growing around the highlighted clearing. The idea was to use Mutualistic symbiosis between human and plants, creating ecology and economy benefit. Hence creating a moss farming community which benefits from the commercial moss grown and sold but also restores the rare moss around through stewardship. A. The clearing identified is near a settlement which it can depend on for major infrastructure. Hence the intervention can purely focus on production and restoration. The forest surrounding the site has rare moss which needs responding. B. To give equal importance and ignore neither, the domestic was placed on the overlap of the economy and ecology moss corridors. Instead of distributing the system, it encourages each user to take on the role of stewardship as well. C. Three Principles of mutualism ingrained into the home. C. 1 The translation of transportation relevant to this site is by creating multiple corridors for ecology, economy and infrastructure. This corridors help the moss grow along them and spread on the peripheries. C. 2 To protect, enable and separate the moss, certain cavity walls as hard boundaries are set. These walls act as planes to grow moss as well. Plus there is a roof to protect the moss at the important junction as they need cold shaded climates to grow in. C.3 Nutrition indirectly is translated to stewardship and management. For that two layers of domestic and work are set in. They are intertwined in a way where the live work boundary blurs even though there is a very clear dichotomy in the arrangement of the system. D. Multiple micro-climates were created to maximise efficiency of production. The work and domestic spaces revolve around them. E. Charting out various possibilities for movement of work through the home. This again helps condition humans into incorporating new habits or rituals. F. Roof plan showing potential areas for service, production and drying. G. Ground floor showing how the two different types of moss grow and where the start from. H. Diagram explaining potential of the roof as an important element. It creates shade for moss to grow in, but also gives a uninterrupted platform to dry the moss in. I. Ground floor plan showing a set of two homes and two green houses/work. CXLV

H H.4: Diagrams and plan of the home and settlement CXLVI

the public and private areas. contribute to the

conservation of nature.

Due to the increasing desire for individuality in today's society, a River Communitythe use of public space will change over time. Therefore, in the area, the partition walls of this public activity area will be desig order to satisfy the balance between the individual and the colle Designer: Haotian Fangallows different social classes and ages within the community to Site: River Wye, Englandwhich adds a degree of durability to the building and responds w Ecosystem: River 'accommodating all'.

Housing structure: Wood&Steel

In the cases described above, the typology of the design often allows the user to distinguish the designer's expectations from the exterior of the building. Therefore, as the river and the countr yside are the main elements of this project, it would be an choice to design the shape of the building to follow the flow of the river on the site. This will, to some extent, distinquish the new rural community from the others. At the same time, the large, flowing, integrated building will express the main idea of the community of the project, which is to accommodate all those who wish to contribute to the conservation of nature.

1 2

WATER QUALITY MONITORING LAB AND LARGE COMMUNITY SHARED 2ZON DESIGN

In a community that aims to restore the natural environment, it is essential that the water 4 quality local rivers is monitored and managed in a scientific system. The second area of the design proje was therefore designed as a laboratory for daily water quality monitoring and a large indoor pub space to meet the community's needs. Similar to the housing area mentioned above, this area 3 also flanked by a large number of floor-to-ceiling windows, creating a blurring of the architectu boundary with the natural environment. Within this area, walls are also used as partitions to divi the public and private areas.

Similarly, as the whole building crosses the river in several places, bridges across Due to the increasing desire for individuality in today's society, at the 5 same time people's needs the use of public space will change over time. Therefore, in the design and planning of the pub 5 4 these rivers will likewise be built to 5 area, partition walls of this public activity area will be designed to be flexible and movable H.5: the Architectural Typology order to satisfy the balance between the individual and the collective. In addition, this arrangeme Arc connect communities in each side of allows different social classes and ages within the community to have their own space for activitie the river. As for the choice of building which adds a degree of durability to the building and responds well to one of the design themes Public Zone 'accommodating all'. Plan 1:1200 materials, most of them are locally Similarly, as the whole building crosses the 1--Staff Room sourced, such as oak, birch and Norway 2--Workshop likewise be built to connect communities in spruce from the nearby Forest of Dean, 3--Exhibition Hall where there are over 20 million trees, all 4--Lounge As for the choice of building materials, mo of which are excellent building materials. 1 5-- Monitoring Lab Norway spruce from the nearby Forest of D At the same time, using wood as one of 2 the main materials for the design allows are excellent building materials. At the sa the whole building to be better integrated the design allows the whole building to be into its natural surroundings. They will 2 be calcined to enhance the hardness and 4 be calcined to enhance the hardness and longevity of these building materials. Room 3 building is made of a combination of1--2-- Staff timbe Almost the entire building is made of Workshop 3-- Exhibiton Hall a combination of timber and steel. All 5 the same cross-section despite their diffe 5 4 5 4-- Lounge structural entrances to the building 5-- Monitoring Lab modular and prefabricated. have the same cross-section despite Public Zone Plan 1:1200 their different spans, making the entire envelope of the project modular and The Isometric Drawing of Public Zone The M prefabricated. H.6: Public Zone Plan

CXLVII

H.7: The Main E

at the same time people's needs for e design and planning of the public WATER QUALITY MONITORING LAB AND LARGE COMMUNITY SHA DESIGN gned to be flexible and movable in ective. In addition, this arrangement In a community that aims to restore the natural environment, it is essential that the w have their own space for activities, local rivers is monitored and managed in a scientific system. The second area of the was therefore designed as a laboratory for daily water quality monitoring and a larg well to one of the design themes of

space to meet the community's needs. Similar to the housing area mentioned abo also flanked by a large number of floor-to-ceiling windows, creating a blurring of th boundary with the natural environment. Within this area, walls are also used as par the public and private areas.

Due to the increasing desire for individuality in today's society, at the same time peo the use of public space will change over time. Therefore, in the design and plannin area, the partition walls of this public activity area will be designed to be flexible a order to satisfy the balance between the individual and the collective. In addition, th allows different social classes and ages within the community to have their own spac which adds a degree of durability to the building and responds well to one of the de 'accommodating all'.

1 2

1-- Staff Room

2-- Workshop

3-- Exhibiton Hall

4-- Lounge

chitectural Typology

5-- Monitoring Lab

The Isometric Drawing of Public Zone

Main Elements of Public Zone

e river in several places, bridges across these rivers will Public Zone Plan 1:1200 n each side of the river. ost of them are locally sourced, such as oak, birch and Dean, where there are over 20 million trees, all of which ame time, using wood as one of the main materials for e better integrated into its natural surroundings. They will d longevity of these building materials. Almost the entire er and steel. All structural entrances to the building have erent spans, making the entire envelope of the project

Elements of Public Zone

The Main Elements of Public

H H.8: The Isometric Drawing of Public Zone

CXLVIII

Chalk Community Designer: Chun Liu Site: New Alresford, England Ecosystem: River&Grassland Housing structure: Chalk&Timber Chalk is particular geology in the United Kingdom, the project locates along River Itchen, and aims to restore chalk streams and grassland ecology. The local chalk stream has problems with too much sediment and a lack of biodiversity, while the local grassland needs to create mosaic grassland. Most of the chalk stream restoration strategies are to create shelters and habitats for water animals, and other measures are going to create a better fishing environment for people. The mixed planting strategies of the chalk grassland are based on their height, conservation status, and colour. The linear settlements are arranged perpendicular to the streams of the River Itchen, and their combination creates a weave. Housing A type is a narrow house with a long filtration net hanging on the bridge for filtering the sediment from upstream of River Itchen. One experiment and recording room and two warehouses are designed next to the staircases. Housing B type is a dormitory for the fishing school, every four students share one house and they can stick the fishing rod out of the long window to do indoor fishing in the communal kitchen, and they could rent the fishing gear in the service centre. Housing C type is a settlement for the fishery, people do fishery on the bridge and then deal with the fish or store them in the working space on the left side of the collective indoor space.

100m

H.9: Masterplan

H10: Detail plan CXLIX

15m

H.11: Plan of Housing A

H.12: Plan of Housing B

H.13: Plan of Housing C CL

Stitching Hedgerows Designer: Sami Yucel Site: Devon, England Ecosystem: Grasslands Housing structure: Stone and Cob Separating one field from the other, hedgerows are living infrastructures; providing shelter, food, and navigation for wildlife. Through stitching hedgerows together, the architectural intervention aims to create wildlife corridors while storing carbon and increasing the soil and water quality of the grasslands. The proposal uses existing hedgerow types found in the concentrated area, southwest Devon: stone-faced hedges, windswept hedges with gorse, and beech hedges. Each type varies in its laying technique, vegetation it contains, and width. The multiplicity of types not only increases biodiversity and nurtures the landscape but also informs the typologies found in the settlement. Building upon the hedgerow patterns on the site, the width of the proposed rural homes corresponds to the width of the hedgerows, understanding the home as a continuation of the ecological process. The hedgerows create a meshwork that divides the land into smaller paddocks while weaving the landscape together. Dividing land into smaller paddocks creates optimal conditions for sheep farming, as it enables rotational grazing and prevents sheep from hypothermia. Moreover, being located in the periphery of Plymouth, the architectural intervention enables a working-from-home balance, tying home to the broader area.

H.14: Site plan CLI

H.15: 1:200 Plan_2 in Winter

H.16: 1:200 Plan _2 in Summer

H H.15: 1:200 Plan _1

H.17: Type_2 Section CLII

Grassland Restoration Designer: Jingyan Kang Site: Ingleborough, England Ecosystem: Grassland&Limestone quarry Housing structure: Wood&Stone In my design, I focus on the grassland and the limestone quarry’s eco restoration, meanwhile using the wildlife corridor as a linkage to break the isolation of the ecosystems and keep its long-term sustainability. The restoration of these grassland and limestone quarries can be criticized as precedence for the post-industrial era abandoned quarry regeneration and low-quality soil upgrading. My design site has an abandoned limestone quarry, and it is surrounded by the grassland. My architectural intervention is using the internal collectivity feature of the stepped terraced quarry, the housing settlement plan is allocated 50 housing units along the quarry boundary. The settlements are the transition for two forms of wildlife corridor to connect two ecosystems’ construction, one is a centripetal limestone-based wildlife corridor, using the limestone hedgerow (boundary of each family’s grassland field, two centripetal wildlife corridors link to one housing unit) to as a mediator to bring the more vibrant grassland ecological factor into the quarry to promote the quarry ecosystem restoration. The other one is a wildlife corridor loop, a series of green spaces inside the housing units maintain the connectivity of the ecological settlement. Each housing cluster is a collective space which made up by the distribution of several functional building units and green spaces (walled garden, kitchen garden, orchid). Based on the grassland and quarry ecosystem restoration process, the first 5 years the soil upgrading and ecosystem firstly regenerating era, the housing cluster are the Airbnb which undertake the demands for ecotourism use. The second period is after 10 years the outer grassland has transformed into the field; the outer half of each housing cluster would transform into agricultural use. The last period, after the ecosystem restoration, the quarry and grassland can simultaneously transfer into field, the housing cluster would change into the agricultural only form.

H.18: Masterplan CLIII

H.19: Plan of the Housing Cluster A: Stage 1: Housing for rural eco tourism

H.20: Plan of the Housing Cluster B: Stage 2: Housing for half rural eco tourism use and half argriculture use

H H.21: Plan of the Housing Cluster C: Stage 3: Housing for adavnced rural agriculture CLIV

Peatland Restoration Designer: Sarah Cope Site: Sharneyford, England Ecosystem: Peatlands Housing structure: Wood and Stone I focused my attention of Moorlands and Peatlands as a fragmented patchwork of corridors that have been drained for human benefit. The restoration of these moorlands and peatlands have a potential to become critical component in the global reduction of carbon emissions. My architectural intervention aims to restore the overgrazed peatlands and revitalize the postindustrial periphery. The dispersed nature of the settlement plan is in response to the ecological restoration process which utilizes localized moss growth and flooding to re-wet the landscape and allow for decomposition. The circuit formation of the site utilizes each building as a critical step in the process to both restore the landscape and produce construction materials in a collective production process. The home integrates the settlement and restoration into the interior. The home acts as a greenhouse for cultivating mosses amid domestic life. It intertwines live, work, and restoration under one roof. The domestic spaces are woven alongside the ecological and economic restoration like nested dolls. The boundaries of the home play a significant role in the interlocking of program. The outer layer of the home is visually connected to the landscape beyond providing a porous boundary. The domestic core has a soft flexible boundary with the main greenhouse. The inner domestic core has a soft flexible boundary with the main greenhouse. The inner domestic core has a solid hard boundary separated from the rest of the home. Type 1 - MoundHouse

Year 1:

Type 2 - GreenHouse

Year 2:

Type 3 - GreenHouse + DryHouse

Year 2-3:

Type 4 - Collective Production

Year 4+:

H.22: Context

Type 1

Type 2

Type 3 Type 4

H.23: Settlement strategy CLV

H.24: Masterplan

H H.25: Plan of the Home CLVI

Peterborough Peterborough

Integrating Wetlands - Fenland Restoration

Restorative Megaform

Dilara Kuran

Designer: Dilara Kuran Site: Cambridgeshire, England Ecosystem: Fenland Housing structure: Timber&Reed Thatching In our investigations, I have concentrated on the restoration of fen landscapes in the lowlands of Cambridgeshire. There is an existing masterplanning project in this heavily drained area, aiming to create a wetland corridor between two existing habitats.

Cam

bridg

e e bridg Cam

I am concentrating on an area that encapsulates a big portion of dry grassland, moistsoil wetland and emergent marshes unfolding next to the existing railway. The land strategy aims to restore the habitats with specific agendas of foraging in the dry grasslands, wet farming in the moist-soil wetlands and reed harvesting in the emergent marshes. I am concentrating on wet farming and reed harvesting for my investigation. Context Diagram In the light of the importance of active management, the building typology is based on the dual accommodation of both the manager, people and the managed, mainly reed and grains.

ground_1 dry grassland

ground_2 moist grassland

ground_3 wet grassland

ground_4 restored fenland

ground_1 dry grassland

ground_2 moist grassland

ground_3 wet grassland

ground_4 restored fenland

The layout of the building operates through two modules, one for domestic use and the other for production. The domestic module is largely determined by the bread making agenda. The bread oven is situated between two spaces to become both a structural and microclimatic element. The variation of the volume of bread ovens across the different modules creates a variety of ground floor conditions, allowing for both single and collective living arrangements and creating public spaces across the corridor. The production module is largely determined by the storage of grain and reed, which create soft boundaries within this ware-house like open plan structure. The building works as a shelter in a wide flat landscape, which can be detected as a dot or a megaform depending on where one stands. H.26: Masterplan, drawings and plans of the project CLVII

Railway Drain Field Boundaries / Ditches Railway Drain Field Boundaries / Ditches

River Nene

CLVIII

BIBLIOGRAPHY Book 1. 2. 3. 4.

AMO, Rem Koolhaas. Countryside, A Repor t. (Koln: Taschen, 2020) Sébastien Marot. Taking the Country's Side : Agriculture and Architecture. (Lisbon: Lisbon Architecture Triennale; Barcelona: Polígrafa, 2019) Steel Carolyn. Hungry city: how food shapes our lives. (London: Vintage, 2009) Christopher Taylor. Village and farmstead : a history of rural settlement in England. (London: George Philip, 1984)

E-Book 1. 2.

Woods Michael. Rural. (London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2010). https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aaschool/detail.action?docID=958794 Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King, Shlomo Angel. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977). https://web.p.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/ bmxlYmtfXzIwOTY4NjNfX0FO0?sid=b3ea2d4c-c1b6-49b8-841c-5cf47a18d778@redis&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1

Journal article 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Aston Mick. "Medieval Rural Settlement". From Michael Aston, David Austin, Christopher Dyer. The Rural Settlements of Medieval England: Studies Dedicated to Maurice Beresford and John Hurst. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989). 93–98. https:// www.somersetheritage.org.uk/downloads/publications/150years/HES_150_Years_Chapter_15.pdf Christine Westwood, "The laithe house of upland West Yorkshire: its social and economic significance". Loughborough University. https:// repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/thesis/The_laithe_house_of_upland_West_Yorkshire_its_social_and_economic_significance/9414572 Jill S Baron, N. LeRoy Poff, Paul L. Angermeier, Clifford N Dahm. "Meeting Ecological and Societal Needs for Freshwater". Ecological Applications. 12(5) (2002). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246801761_Meeting_Ecological_and_Societal_Needs_for_Freshwater Nathan J. Bennett, Tara S. Whitty, Elena Finkbeiner, Jeremy Pittman, Hannah Bassett, Stefan Gelcich & Edward H. Allison. "Environmental Stewardship: A Conceptual Review and Analytical Framework". Environmental Management. Volume 615. 97–614(2018). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-017-0993-2 Robert Costanza, Michael Mageau. "What is a healthy ecosystem?". Aquatic Ecology. Volume 33. 105– 115(1999). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1009930313242 Robin L. Chazdon, Pedro H. S. Brancalion, Lars Laestadius, Aoife Bennett-Curry, Kathleen Buckingham, Chetan Kumar, Julian MollRocek, Ima Célia Guimarães Vieira & Sarah Jane Wilson. "When is a forest a forest? Forest concepts and definitions in the era of forest and landscape restoration". Ambio. Volume 45. 538–550(2016). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13280-016-0772-y Stephen Whitfield ,Mark Reed,Ken Thomson,Mike Christie,Lindsay C. Stringer,Claire H. Quinn,Russell Anderson,Andrew Moxey &Klaus Hubacek. "Managing Peatland Ecosystem Services: Current UK Policy and Future Challenges in a Changing World". Scottish Geographical Journal. Volume 127(3) (2011). https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14702541.2011.616864

Report 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs. Countryside Stewardship: An overview. (UK Government). https://assets.publishing.service. gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/996741/Countryside_Stewardship_2020_Overview_leaflet_online.pdf Eugenie Regan. TESSA: A toolkit for rapid assessmentof ecosystem services. (UNEP, WCMC). https:// unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/seeaRev/meeting2013/EG13-3-TESSA.pdf Food & Farming Foresight. New model farming: resilience through diversity. (Campaign to Protect Rural England). https://www.cpre.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/New_Model_Farming.pdf Guinane Thomas. The Continuing Use Of The Dartmoor Longhouse. (Cardiff University: 2017). http:// www.tguinane.com/The_Continuing_Use_of_the_Dartmoor_Longhouse.pdf Hodder.K.H, Douglas.S, Newton.A.C, Bullock.J.M, Scholefield.P, Vaughan.R, Cantarello.E, Beer.S, Birch. J. Analysis Of The Costs And Benefits Of Alternative Solutions For Restoring Biodiversity. (Bournemouth University: 2010). https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/523760/1/N523760CR.pdf IPCC. Climate Change 2022, Mitigation Of Climate Change. (IPCC: 2022). https://report. ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FinalDraft_FullReport.pdf Robin White, Siobhan Murray, Mark Rohweder. Pilot Analysisof Global Ecosystems: Grassland Ecosystems. (World Resources Institute: 2000). http://pdf.wri.org/page_grasslands.pdf Rural Payment Ageny. Countryside Stewardship 2022: How torequest a Mid Tier or Higher Tier application pack. (UK Government: 2022). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6228a8548fa8f526d907f6b0/ Countryside_Stewardship_2022_-_How_to_request_a_Mid_Tier_or_Higher_Tier_application_pack_v1.0.pdf Tam Ward. A Miscellany Of Bastle Houses. (Biggar Archeology Group: 2017). http://217.199.187.196/biggararchaeology. org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/A-Miscellany-of-Clydesdale-Bastle-Houses.pdf

Website content 1. 2.

Adam Quinney. "Farmer’s Diary: Curry Report Verdict". BBC News. January 29, 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1789209.stm United Nations. "Climate Change". United Nations. Accessed 22 February 2022. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange

CLIX

IMAGE REFERENCES Photograghs: Albert Pego •

G.2, CXXXV, https://www.istockphoto.com/photo/wind-power-pland-in-a-grassy-field-with-cows-grazing-gm585518028-100430159

All Turf Solutions •

G.4, Diagram-High Level Stewardship (4), CXXXIX, https://i.pinimg.com/originals/de/95/39/de953966f98797c5e7edc8e880088ab1.jpg

AMO and Rem Koolhaas •

A.7, XIII, https://www.dezeen.com/2019/10/31/new-york-guggenheim-rem-koolhaas-countryside-the-future/

Anthony Jeffrey •

D.13, LXXXI, https://www.behance.net/gallery/108816069/Scotland-from-Oban-to-Isle-of-Skye-via-Glencoe

Barbarella •

G.4, Diagram-Organic Entry Level Stewardship (3), CXXXIX, https://www.pinterest.com/pin/202662051958514473/

Ben Dolphin •

D.18, LXXXIII, https://www.walkhighlands.co.uk/news/why-we-should-care-about-peat/

Beth Thomas •

D.16, LXXXIII, https://www.ywt.org.uk/what-happened-our-peatlands

Championing the Farmed Environment •

G.4, Diagram-Entry Level Stewardship (2), CXXXIX, 2018, https://www.cfeonline.org.uk/environmental-management/wildlife/

Clare Coulson •

G.4, Diagram-Organic Entry Level Stewardship (1), CXXXIX, 2021, https://www.gardenista.com/posts/hardscaping-101-dry-stone-walls/

Daily Mail •

B.4, XXVI, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4325916/Call-end-green-belt-house-building-ban.html

Danny Lipford •

G.4, Diagram-Organic Entry Level Stewardship (2), CXXXIX, https://todayshomeowner.com/how-to-test-seeds-for-germination-before-planting/

DEFRA • •

D.30, LXXXV, http://adlib.everysite.co.uk/adlib/defra/content.aspx?id=000HK277ZX.0HAMAXCK1XW7SWA G.1, CXXXIII, https://www.version1.com/news-uk-public-sector-g-cloud-12/

Didcot Railway Centre •

3, v, https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/28/2016/09/RAIL253-76.jpg

Graeme Prudy •

D.24, LXXXV, https://bds.org.uk/information-advice/about-deer/deer-species/red-deer/

Georgina Richards •

D.11, LXXIX, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/17/laws-of-nature-could-uk-rivers-be-given-same-rights-as-people-aoe

Getty • • • •

D.5, LXXV, https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/hedgerow-network-countryside-wildlife-habitat-b1914679.html D.28, LXXXV, https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2021/11/26/ Rainforest-Alliance-CABI-tie-up-helps-smallholders-reduce-chemical-pesticide-use-in-food-production E.5, Diagram-Pre-project (6), XCVI, 2020, https://cdn.images.express.co.uk/img/dynamic/133/590x/secondary/holidays-uk-drives-near-me-birmingham-driving-routes-avis-2555805.webp?r=1594630327196 E.5, Diagram-Pre-project (4), XCVI, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-45520399

Helena Lopes •

E.11, CVII, https://www.pexels.com/photo/herd-of-cattle-in-daytime-841303/

Hillforts •

E.5, Diagram-Scenarios (3), XCVI, 2019, https://www.clwydianrangeanddeevalleyaonb.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Dinas-Bran-small.jpg

Hugh Mothersole •

D.14-D.15, LXXXI, https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/chilterns-countryside/features/discover-chalk-grassland-in-the-chilterns-countryside-

Jacquesvandinteren •

G.4, Diagram-High Level Stewardship (3), CXXXIX, https://www.freepressjournal.in/mumbai/ navi-mumbai-green-activist-seeks-chief-minister-uddhav-thackerays-interference-to-save-panje-wetland

James Ravilious •

C.8, LXIII, William Morris, “The Cob Buildings Of Devon 1 History, Building Methods And Conservation”, Historic Buildings Trust , https://www.devonearthbuilding.com/leaflets/cob_buildings_of_devon_1.pdf

Jethro Marshall •

2, v, https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/28/2016/09/RAIL253-76.jpg

John Macpherson/WTML •

D.9, LXXVII, https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/habitats/caledonian-forest-and-native-conifer-woods/

CLX

IMAGE REF Knepp • • •

C.7, LXI, https://knepp.co.uk/camping-and-safaris E.1, LXXXIX, https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/595ca91bebbd1a1d0aa ab285/1513334667285-S5F6U4REFU6330VAGJIL/Cow+Barn+Dinner+parties+Bispoke+Safaris+Knepp+Wildland8 E.5, Diagram-Scenarios (4), XCVI, https://knepp.co.uk/

Lumin Osity • •

D.7, LXXV, https://www.behance.net/gallery/87283459/On-the-Farm-English-Countryside E.9, CIII, https://www.behance.net/gallery/87283459/On-the-Farm-English-Countryside

Marot Sébastien •

A.8, XIII, Cover page of Taking The Country’s Side

Martin Mejia •

G.4, Diagram-Entry Level Stewardship (4), CXXXIX, Pachacamac in Peru, https://en.englishlib.org/dictionary/en-bn/archaeologists.html

Matt Ellery •

E.2, Whole Landscape (2), XCI, 2016, https://www.flickr.com/photos/matt_ellery/24442849145/

Milis Nurseries •

G.4, Diagram-High Level Stewardship (1), CXXXIX, https://www.residencestyle.com/effective-ways-to-keep-the-environment-clean/

Montgomeryshire Wildlife Trust •

E.5, Diagram-Scenarios (5), XCVI, https://www.montwt.co.uk/projects/pumlumon-project

Moors for the Future •

D.17, LXXXIII, https://www.moorsforthefuture.org.uk/our-work/our-projects/moor-carbon

Panos Pictures •

1, i, https://www.storybench.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Nature-country-emissions-1200x643.png

Pedro Felizardo •

D.10, LXXVII, https://www.behance.net/gallery/100819191/Firewatcher

Neil Burnell •

D.8, LXXVII, https://www.behance.net/gallery/92928573/MYSTICAL/modules/537676111

Nicole Tabit •

G.4, Diagram-Entry Level Stewardship (1), CXXXIX, 2016, https://www.sierraclub.org/ohio/blog/2016/10/understanding-lake-erie-algal-bloom-policy

North East Wales •

E.2, Diagram-Habitat Patches (2), XCI, 2022, https://www.northeastwales.wales/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/loggerheads-country-park.jpg

Ovnirox Fred •

D.13, LXXIX, https://www.behance.net/gallery/38671177/Pollution-sometimes-has-some-charm

Pip Jones •

E.2, Diagram-Diagram-Habitat Patches (3), XCI, 2020, https://walesbucketlist.com/climbing-pumlumon-mountain-wales/

Rewilding Britain • • • • • • •

C.4, LV, https://rewildingbritain.org.uk/local-network/cornwall-rewilding-network?_ga=2.73763543.410438310.1654541821-710877904.1653437142 D.19, LXXXV, https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/rewilding-projects/geltsdale-farm D.20-21, LXXXV, https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/rewilding-projects/kilchoan-estate D.23, LXXXV, https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/rewilding-projects/hesketh-out-marsh D.25, LXXXV, https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/rewilding-projects/west-acre D.26, LXXXV, https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/rewilding-projects/kingsdale-head D.27, LXXXV, https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/rewilding-projects/ewhurst-park

Rhett A. Butler •

G.4, Diagram-Organic Entry Level Stewardship (4), CXXXIX, 2021, https://earth.org/ hold-the-tree-planting-protect-ecosystems-first-for-maximum-carbon-storage/

Robert Mertl •

D.6, LXXV, https://www.behance.net/gallery/122650071/landscape-conservationists

Robinson.P. F. •

B.5, XXVII, https://jstor.org/stable/community.13906860

Ruth Meech • •

E.2, Diagram-Habitat Patches (1), XCI, 2011, https://www.dorsetecho.co.uk/news/features/echo_country/9247759.water-way-to-clean-rivers/ E.5, Diagram-Pre-project (1), XCVI, 2011, https://www.dorsetecho.co.uk/news/features/echo_country/9247759.water-way-to-clean-rivers/

Salix •

D.22, LXXXV, https://www.salixrw.com/peatland-restoration/

Sarah Cope • •

D.1, LXVII, Lincoln in the UK A.4, Diagram, VII, Peak in the UK

Silviu-florin Salomia •

E.5, Diagram-Pre-project (5), XCVI, 2022, https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/herd-sheep-grazing-mountain-pasture-countryside-romania-sheep-grazing-green-pastures-romania-112673222.jpg

CLXI

FERENCES Steve Hillebrand •

G.4, Diagram-High Level Stewardship (2), CXXXIX, 2021, https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/ project-ideas/EnvEng_p039/environmental-engineering/clean-drinking-water-flocculation

Stuart Franklin • •

C.9, LXV, https://jstor.org/stable/community.9720391 D.2, LXIX, https://jstor.org/stable/community.9720391

Tassels •

G.4, Diagram-Entry Level Stewardship (3), CXXXIX, 2012, https://tassels.tumblr.com/post/18176744290

The Museum of English Rural Life Collection • • •

B.16, XXXIX, https://www.reading.ac.uk/merl/imagelibrary/crafts.html B.20, XLVII, https://www.reading.ac.uk/merl/imagelibrary/steam.html C.5, LVII, https://www.reading.ac.uk/merl/imagelibrary/wla.html

The Wildlife Trust •

D.12, LXXIX, https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/habitats/freshwater/chalk-rivers

Toby Driver •

E.5, Diagram-Pre-project (3), XCVI, 2007, https://coflein.gov.uk/en/site/306813/images

Visit Cumbria •

E.2, Diagram-Whole Landscape (1), XCI, 2018, https://www.visitcumbria.com/photos/simon/ennerdale-8670a.jpg

Wild Ennerdale •

E.5, Diagram-Scenarios (6), XCVI, 2022, https://www.wildennerdale.co.uk/managing/valleyhead/

Wildlife Trust for BCN •

E.2, Diagram-Whole Landscape (3), XCI, https://www.wildlifebcn.org/nature-reserves/great-fen

Paintings, Mural, drawings, and data resource: Authors • • • • • • • •

Bodleian Libraries collection •

B.1, XXI, Collected by Bodleian Libraries of University of Oxford, https://treasures.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/treasures/laxton-map/

Global Carbon Project •

A.5, IX, https://www.storybench.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Nature-country-emissions-1200x643.png

Google Earth • •

A.9, XV E.5, Diagram-Scenarios (2)|Pre-project (2), XCVI

John Constable • • •

Cover page, https://jstor.org/stable/community.15026245. A.1, I, The National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., Widener Collection, https://jstor.org/stable/community.14802493 A.3, V, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_White_Horse_by_John_Constable_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg

Lorenzetti Ambrogio •

A.2, III, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, https://jstor.org/stable/community.13597053

Marot Sébastien •

A.11, XVII, https://archis.org/volume/taking-the-countrys-side-sebastien-marot-christophe-catsaros/

Roberts.B.K •

B.2, XXIII, Landscapes of Settlement: Prehistroy to the Present , https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/settlement-pattern

Superstudio •

A.10, XV, https://www.moma.org/collection/works/934

The National Archives •

C.6, LIX, https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/maps/maps-family-local-history.htm

CLXII