Abbas Mushtaq COP601 2013/2014
ARMSTRONG, H (2009) ‘GRAPHIC DESIGN THEORY: READINGS FROM THE FIELD’, NEW YORK, PRINCETON ARCHITECTURAL PRESS
LEGRAIN, P (2003) ‘OPEN WORLD: THE
KRÖPLEN, M (2001) ‘KARL GERSTNER: REVIEW OF 5X10 YEARS OF GRAPHIC DESIGN’, GERMANY, HATJE CANTZ VERLAG
KLEMP, K & UEKI-POLET, K (2011) ‘LESS AND MORE: THE DESIGN ETHOS OF DIETER RAMS’ BERLIN, DIE GESTALTEN VERLAG
KLEIN, N (2010) ‘NO LOGO’, NEW YORK, PICADOR
KLANTEN, R, BOURQUIN, N & MAREIS C (2006) ‘ALTITUDE: CONTEMPORARY SWISS GRAPHIC DESIGN’, BERLIN, DIE GESTALTEN VERLAG
JAMESON, F (1991) ‘POSTMODERNISM, OR, THE CULTURAL LOGIC OF LATE CAPITALISM’, DURHAM, DUKE UNIVERSITY PRESS
HOLLIS, R (2006) ‘SWISS GRAPHIC DESIGN: THE ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF AN INTERNATIONAL STYLE’, LONDON, KING PUBLISHING LTD
HELLER, S & CHWAST, S (2011) ‘GRAPHIC STYLE FROM VICTORIAN TO NEW CENTURY: 3RD EDITION’, NEW YORK, ABRAMS
GRONBERG, T (2003) ‘DESIGNS ON MODERNITY: EXHIBITING THE CITY IN 1920’S PARIS’, MANCHESTER, MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS
FRIEDMAN, T (2000) ‘THE LEXUS AND THE OLIVE TREE’, NEW YORK, HARPER COLLINS NEW EDITION
DANESI, M (2007) ‘THE QUEST FOR MEANING: A GUIDE TO SEMIOTIC THEORY AND PRACTICE’, TORONTO, UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS
BIERUT, M (1994) ‘LOOKING CLOSER: CRITICAL WRITINGS ON GRAPHIC DESIGN’, NEW YORK, ALLWORTH PRESS
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Diffusion of Style in a Global Culture
Tabla de contenidos
目录
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Tabla de contenidos
盎录
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Chapter 01 .
Modernism and the early foundations of the Swiss Style
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Chapter 02 .
Cultural influence and the development of the International Style
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Chapter 03 .
Globalisation, post-modernity and cultural diffusion
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Chapter 04 .
Contemporary design practice in a global culture
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Conclusion .
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Bibliography .
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Introduction .
Introducción
目录
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Introduction .
Contemporary society is more globally connected and informed than ever before, borders between regions are blurring, as are tastes. Globalisation and capitalism have driven trade and communication between all corners of the world, creating speculation and fears the world is gradually becoming an international culture at the expense of individual diversity. The underlying question of this project is to investigate whether cultural diversity still exists, and if indeed there is the need, opportunity or evidence of the development of a New International Style, forming a correlation with an international culture. Investigating this project has involved a comprehensive undertaking in modernity and it’s aims, cultural influences shaping what would become the Swiss International Style, globalisation and it’s implications on contemporary culture - and ultimately the implications and opportunities a globalised culture extends to graphic design. The International Style of design, or more commonly referred to as the Swiss Style of design is almost universally celebrated and continually inspiring to new generations of designers. Visual characteristics of the Swiss school of design are often studied, but few question exactly why. Investigating and speculating which ideal cultural conditions and particularities formed this radical and modernist approach, and also this reputation of attention to detail and excellence in design which Switzerland still enjoys today. The relevance of the International Style of design is cross-analysed with contemporary circumstances in Chapter 4. Chapter 1 primarily deals with early modernism; it’s definitions, concepts and aims. Particular attention is paid to the Bauhaus and their teachings laying the foundations for the Swiss movement to
Introducción
目录
The influence of cultural particularities on the development of the Swiss Style of design will be examined in Chapter 2. Particularly references to Bauhaus and Constructivism and native particularities, which shaped the objectives of a new form of design, focused on rational thinking and social responsibility. Factors such as language, immigration and rebellion against old tradition inspired a change in design discourse. The development and concerns of the Swiss Style of design, are important to know, when surveying current society, the similarity in situation is considerably closer than first expected. Establishing which regional cultural particularities shaped the International Style of design creates a relevant platform of comparison with global cultural nuances today, and whether an internationalised culture today, warrants a New International Style of design. Chapter 3 investigates globalisation as an overarching term for drastic change in communication, politics and technology in a latecapitalist world. Major implications on global culture and society will be discussed, in terms of trade, communication, travel, tourism and even immigration. Cultural theorist, Marshall Mcluhan’s (MCLUHAN, 1994) famous theory of a “Global Village” will be investigated in terms of relevance and with modern-day networking and society. Fears by economists such as Naomi Klein, of “Americanisation” and society becoming increasingly standardised, is a growing concern, and will be scrutinised. Language around the world is developing collaboratively within one another, surely having implications on cultural diversity and consumer needs. Ultimately leading towards the question of whether society and local individuality remain in the face of globalisation and mass-media. Having established the cultural con-
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carry on the tradition. The remnants and horror of the Second WorldWar had an undeniable effect on Switzerland and Europe’s culture, and in turn how this helped to develop the objectives of a new form of design. The influence of Jan Tschichold’s book, New Typography (TSCHICHOLD, 2006) as a bridge between the Bauhaus and Swiss school of design is greater than most assume.
Introducción
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sequences of globalisation and the digital age, the implications of radical changes in culture and technology, on graphic design practice is examined in Chapter 4. Influence and inspiration is far easier, and more connected than ever before. Similarities and differences in graphic design practice and collaboration will be compared from fifty years ago, to now. Design is considerably less of a niche specialism; the positive and negative ramifications of a change in status are inspected. Frederic Jameson’s study of late-capitalism is analysed as a reference towards the concept of alienation within the modern environment. Growth of technology and constantly being synchronised and connected socially, have drastically extended the platform for design, and also changed society mentally (JAMESON, 1994). Social platforms connect billions of us around the world, design practice is increasingly a sociable process, and websites such as Tumblr are creating opportunities for ephemeral self-initiated design, following trends for social acceptance. A case study of Apple Inc. is a relevant investigation of a company applying traditional Swiss design principles to industrial design and reaping phenomenal success - indicating contemporary society, consciously, or subconsciously appreciates considered and mathematical design. Repercussions of living in an increasingly inconsistent visual environment are investigated, visually and mentally, and how socially responsible design can react. Similarities in situation now, are compared with the previous International Style, leading to the investigation of whether design works cyclically [RAYMOND, 2011], with each second cycle being a progression and improvement of the previous. All implications of a globalised society ultimately lead to the conclusion of whether an increasingly hybrid internationalised culture and design practice, show evidence of, or warrant, a New International Style of design.
Marshall Mcluhan .
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第1章
El modernismo y las primeras bases del estilo suizo
现代主义和瑞士风格的早期基础
‘Early in the 20th century, design was seen to be an important part of the mechanism that would transform society and help to build a utopia. Industrialisation was seen as creating the context in which liberty for all could be realised… Designers were to tap the energy of the machine, and use its qualities to create a new visual language.’ [NEWARK, 2002; p42] Modernism is a system of thought, encompassing the activities and creative output of those who felt that “traditional” forms of art; architecture, literature, socialism and religious organisations were outdated in the new economical, social and technological climate of the early twentieth-century. ‘Modernists, including the De Stijl, Constructivism and Bauhaus movements, departed from the rural and provincial zeitgeist prevalent in the Victorian era, rejecting its values and style in favour of cosmopolitanism.’ [AMBROSE, 2009; p58] Walter Gropius founded the Bauhaus school of crafts in Germany, 1919. Gropius believed the Bauhaus should avoid imposing any particular style and encourage individuality and expression. Over time this changed, and Bauhaus distanced itself from previous movements such as De Stijl and Dada in favour of a progression of Constructivism. László Moholy-Nagy arrived at the school in 1923 and proposed that ‘typography is a tool of communication’ and developed ‘typofoto’, a new form of expression using type and photographic image; a defining characteristic of the Swiss style of design. The principle of “Form follows function” associated with modern twentieth-century architecture and design, and was exemplified by Bauhaus; a heavy focus on typography and grid, creates visual unity
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Modernism and the early foundations of the Swiss Style
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and clarity. ‘Photography has the advantage over drawing that it is free of the often overwhelming “personality” of the artist, whose individuality is out of harmony with the spirit of our time. People believe a photography – a drawing not entirely.’ [TSCHICHOLD, 2006; p159] Analysing the poster created by Herbert Bayer for Kandinsky in 1926 (Fig.1) provided many clues to the foundations of a hugely influential approach to design. A concise and noticeable grid, blocking out of columns to create abstract forms reinforcing the layout, use of photography and efficiency of font – in this case only one font is used at varying point size. Max Bill and Theo Ballmer studied at the Bauhaus to learn regional typography – Bill was instrumental in Swiss design development. ‘Young Swiss designers relied on Bauhaus publications for an indication of the school’s approach to typography. There was little graphic work to be seen in the Bauhaus exhibitions in Basel and Zurich in 1929, at the time when two of the School’s Swiss students returned home – Max Bill to Zurich and Theo Ballmer to Basel. Their influence was lasting.’ [HOLLIS, 2006; p21] A seminal piece of graphic design writing is Jan Tschichold’s second book Die neue Typographie (The New Typography). Tschichold was a German (later Swiss citizen) typographer and designer who produced many writings in the 1920s and 1930s, which hugely influenced the developing principles of the Swiss style. Overwhelmed by a visit to the 1923 Bauhaus exhibition, Tschichold recognized the gulf between the archaic traditions of his printing trade and the progressive outlook of modern artists such as Lajos Kassák and Moholy-Nagy. Visiting the Bauhaus exhibition triggered Tschichold adopting modernist principles and becoming a strong advocate of this new wave of thinking, equally relevant in today’s visual culture.
El modernismo y las primeras bases del estilo suizo
现代主义和瑞士风格的早期基础
Tschichold’s poster for ‘The Professional Photographer’ exhibition in Basel, 1938 (fig.2) is a convincing example with its prominent grid, use of photography, overprinting and purposeful use of a lowercase alphabet. While purveying design characteristics of the Bauhaus, it also creates suggestions of the Swiss style to come, by being less angular and with greater emphasis of scale and negative space, a progression of the previous. The Bauhaus school of craft closed under its own leadership in 1993 amidst increasing pressure by the Nazi regime. The period of experimentation with a socially responsible amalgamation of arts, craft and design was over. The staff and its teachings disbanded all over the world taking their views and skills with them. Thousands of Germans immigrated to Switzerland and cultural diffusion took place. Regional immigration was pivotal in the development of the Swiss Style of design; in contemporary society immigration is global. ‘German-speaking northern Switzerland was especially open to German culture; Swiss interest in the school lasted until its closure in 1933, and its influence continued for several decades.’ [HOLLIS, 2006; p20]
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‘The essence of the New Typography is clarity. This puts it into deliberate opposition to the old typography whose aim was “beauty” and whose clarity did not attain the high level we require today. The utmost clarity is necessary today because of the manifold claims for our attention made by the extraordinary amount of print, which demands the greatest economy of expression.’ [TSCHICHOLD, 2006; p66]
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El modernismo y las primeras bases del estilo suizo
现代主义和瑞士风格的早期基础
The Swiss Style of design, or more commonly referred to as “The International Style” was based in Europe, predominantly Switzerland. The Swiss design philosophy has hallmarks of purely typographic design, reverence of grids, use of photographic image instead of illustration, and a socially responsibly approach to design built on a system of clarity in design equating to clarity in thought. Proponents of the International style are Josef Müller-Brockmann, Richard Lohse, Wim Crouwel, Paul Rand and Massimo Vignelli. The Swiss Style of design collated influence and design practice from all around Europe - notably from Germany, Russia and the Netherlands in the form of Bauhaus, Constructivism and De Stijl. Swiss design and its philosophies shifted in the thirties, the same decade as the outbreak of war and the disbandment of the Bauhaus. A wide variety of cultural factors shaped the Swiss style of design. Cultural factors investigated include the country’s languages, neutrality in politics and geography and cultural diffusion through tourism and immigration. ‘At least three factors account for the ‘Swiss’ style. First was the country’s position and it’s neutrality at the centre of Europe. Second was language. The north of Switzerland shares a language with Germany, where progressive ideas were proposed, attacked and defended in the 1920s. Third was a number of cultural factors: the Swiss interest in precision, in craft skills; its widely admired system of education and technical training, and the enlightened attitudes in its museums, and the Swiss enjoyment of ‘graphic culture’’ [HOLLIS, 2006; p9] The outbreak of war and its ramifications altered the evolution of
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European graphic design greatly. The neutrality of the Swiss, geographically but also politically, allowed the thirties to be a period of experimentation for the Swiss. Geographically the region was completely in the middle of all the conflict, thereby introducing a haven for fleeing immigrants. ‘The decade of the 30s was the cradle of Swiss graphic design, which was to make an international impact in the 50s’ [MÜLLER, 1995; p12] After the Second World War, countries around Europe strived to rebuild, and reshape a society free from the burdens of authoritarianism and tradition towards an idealistic view of society. Practitioners felt the need to shape society through design – constructive design. Designers such as Müller-Brockmann switched from an artistic painting background towards communicative and socially progressive design. ‘The 1950s was an interesting period in the development of graphic design. After the horror and cataclysm of the Second World War, there was a real feeling of idealism around the world, certainly in Europe. That design is part of that need to rebuild, reconstruct. There was this sense of social responsibility among designers. This is the period of the early experiments at the height of the modernist period. Design starts to be broken down, rationalised, codified. You get the emergence of this so-called International Style of Design, or Swiss design.’ [HELVETICA, 2007] ‘After worthless years of war I wanted to have a positive, constructive role in society. I could do so through rational-objective typography and functional, unmanipulated photography. I have always felt obliged to make a constructive contribution to the future of society.’ – Josef Müller-Brockmann [SCHEDDIN, 1995]
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A significant relationship factor between Switzerland and the Bauhaus is language. Switzerland is 60% German. Inevitably, a huge influx of Germans fleeing the war immigrated to Switzerland – many of whom were designers such as Otl Aicher and Anton Stankowski. The influx of German designers introduced motivations of anti-fascist rebellion and idealism – this combined with the Swiss movement of neutrality and functionalism created strong purpose and social responsibility within design. Analysing Brockmann’s work demonstrates defining objectives of the Swiss Style – photographic imagery, honest communication, strict grids, and hierarchy of type size in order to create the purest form of communication. ‘By the 1950s he was established as the leading practitioner and theorist of Swiss style, which sought a universal graphic expression through a grid-based design purged of extraneous illustration and subjective feeling. His “Musica viva” poster series for the Zurich Tonhalle drew on the language of Constructivism to create a visual correlative to the structural harmonies of the music.’ [SCHEDDIN, 1995] Scheddin (1995) refers to Muller-Brockmann’s “Musica viva” poster series for the Zürich Town Hall (Fig. 4) as a progressive representation of Constructivism, however a stronger example would be the Swiss Committee to Combat Noise poster (Fig. 5) by Brockmann, in 1960. The angled parallel lines, purposeful red and black colour palette and use of impactful monotone photography create an instant connection with works by Constructivists such as El Lissitzky. (Fig. 6) The cut and paste aesthetic progressed into a more commercial, polished style, mirroring current technology - relevant to how design should reflect current society. ‘A down-to-earth presentation is barely affected by present-day
– Jösef Muller-Brockmann [SCHEDDIN, 1995] Overprinting, as seen on works by Hans Hartmann (Fig. 7), exemplified the Swiss aesthetic; overprinting connotes efficiency of production, additional colours are created through no cost. This technique was inspired by Bauhaus (Fig. 8) and Constructivism. Switzerland has not been in a state of international war since 1815. Neutral political stances translate to the culture, which in turn has influenced and shaped the visual language of the Swiss Style. MüllerBrockmann conveyed the neutrality of Swiss culture through strict adoption of a grid, bold colour and a neutral typeface. AkzidenzGrotesk was Brockmann’s typeface of choice for purely communicative reasons as seen on the June Festival program poster for Stadttheater Zürich (Fig. 3). Typeface was a hugely conscious decision, different from today’s design practice with thousands of digital typefaces at our disposal. ‘I have come to value Akzidenz Grotesk more than its successors Helvetica and Univers. It is more expressive and its formal foundations are more universal. The end of the “e”, for instant, is a diagonal, which produces right angles. In the case of Helvetica and Univers the endings are straight, producing acute or obtuse angles, subjective angles.’ – Jösef Muller-Brockmann [SCHEDDIN, 1995] Switzerland is one of the few countries in the world with four official languages – German, French, Italian and Romansh. German is the leading language accounting for around 65%, French 22% and Ital-
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trends. It is not so much a question of making a statement that will be valid for all time as of being able to communicate information to the recipient in a way that leaves him or her free to form a positive or negative opinion.’
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ian 8%. Around 60% of the region consists of the Alps, a huge tourist attraction. The post-war period of the fifties accommodated a huge boom in the service industry such as air-travel. Consequently a huge influx of tourists of various different languages and cultures circulated in Switzerland, along with the four official languages. The issue of language pushed the Swiss design school towards ubiquitous design, accounting for diverse language and culture - calling for the need of semiotically successful design. ‘Instead of studying meaning by contemplating it directly, as traditional philosophy does, semiotics studies how it is built into signs and texts of all kinds (words, symbols, drawings, musical compositions, etc.) In short, semiotics studies ‘produced meaning’. Semiotics pays attention to what information is and how we interpret it.’ [DANESI, 2007; p12] Asymmetrical design and lack of a central axis typify the aesthetics of modernist Swiss design (Fig. 10); the style is often accepted but never questioned why. Delving deeper into European culture post-war it becomes clear even the form and structure of type is a message of idealism. Jan Tschichold may have wrote The New Typography in the 20s but over time regressed his opinions on modernist design, and argued for centrally justified structures. Swiss designers, such as MullerBrockmann believed symmetrical design was a symbol of fascism. ‘I have never understood why Tschichold reverted to centred type... symmetry and the central axis are what characterise fascist architecture. Modernism and democracy reject the axis.’ – Jösef Muller-Brockmann [SCHEDDIN, 1995] Comparing the work of Richard Paul Lohse, with Italian and Dutch designers, Massimo Vignelli illustrates adherence to the same sys-
Compared to Wim Crouwel, the difference in application of style is apparent. Crouwel’s Hiroshima poster (Fig.11) applies little bodycopy, more appreciation of space, an off-centred axis of type and a bespoke typeface created onto the grid. Much less reliance is placed on a standard sans-serif typeface. ‘Think of the so-called “Swiss/International Style”. Somebody like Crouwel took this language, and turned it into something typically Dutch. While somebody like Vignelli took the same language, first added a typically Italian accent, and then set it in a New York tone of voice. Comparing Crouwel and Vignelli, one can easily distinguish their cultural backgrounds (for example Calvinist versus Catholic), while both men are, in a way, speaking the same language. The same language, but different accents.’ [EXPERIMENTAL JETSET, 2013] Vignelli’s work showcases a corporate, western aesthetic embodying the Swiss style’s evolution into the International Style. Vignelli frequently applies Helvetica, strict grids, bold type and reoccurring relationships with large headings and small copy (Fig. 12). A collective of notable designers was formed consisting of MullerBrockmann, Richard Lohse, Hans Neuburg and Carlo Vivarelli. Together the Zurich based group founded the “Neue Grafik” magazine (New Graphic Design). Focusing towards a rigid, typographic and universal form of design, Neue Grafik proved to be hugely successful and embodied decades of design design development. Neue Grafik was a catalyst in the Swiss Style becoming “The International Style”.
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tem of thought while remaining distinguishable. Lohse’s covers for Bauen+Wohnen (Building+Home) 1953 (Fig.10) showcase an individual approach to handling type – using overprint, strict grids and photography in order to create additional colour at no cost. Type choice is often Akzidenz-Grotesk, consequently Lohse adheres to “The International Style” of design, while illustrating a European quality.
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‘The overriding policy was to demonstrate first that the practice of New Graphic Design was inherently Swiss; second, that it was inevitably ‘Constructive’; and third, that it was a logical development from Modernism. Neue Grafik took care to consider photography, both as part of Modernist practice and in its design applications. Neue Grafik was the single most important factor in establishing the international influence of Swiss graphic design.’ [HOLLIS, 2006; p206] Arguably the most recognisable symbol of The International Style is Helvetica. Developed in 1957 by Swiss typographer Max Miedinger, as an advancement of Akzidenz-Grotesk designed in 1896. Purposefully designed to be as ubiquitous as possible, creating a sense of ease and honesty. The typeface in itself removes itself of all old-fashioned elements such as varying stem widths towards complete uniformity, and is meditatively designed to reassure you in your activity. ‘Helvetica has almost a perfect balance of push and pull in its letters. And that perfect balance sort of is saying to us “Don’t worry, any of the problems that you’re having, or the problems in the world, or problems getting through the subway, all those problems aren’t going to spill over, they’ll be contained. And in fact, maybe they don’t exist.’ – Leslie Savan [HELVETICA, 2007] Helvetica changed commercial graphic design and advertising drastically in the sixties, particularly in the United States. Consumerism and capitalism were growing cultural systems and design was an increasingly important backbone. The principles of Swiss design completely rejected decoration and unnecessary information. ‘Can you imagine how bracing and thrilling that was? Like you had crawled through a desert with your mouth caked with filthy dust, and
The International Style of Design consequently reinforced global trade and commercialism. A compelling example of this radical change in communication is the evolution of Coke campaigns from early sixties (Fig.13) to late sixties (Fig. 14). Müller-Brockmann essentially saw Japanese graphic design first time by physically going to the Tokyo World Design 1960, in Japan and finding inspiration for visual design dhism. Inspiration and situations like these occur daily media culture, and the Internet at our disposal.
for the Conference in Zen Budin a mass-
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then someone offers you a clear refreshing distilled icy glass of water…it must have been fantastic.’ – Michael Bierut [HELVETICA, 2007]
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第03章
El modernismo y las primeras bases del estilo suizo
现代主义和瑞士风格的早期基础
Globalisation is a widely debated topic in contemporary society; a development in synthesis with modernism and a shift in worldwide culture towards trade and capitalism. At its core globalisation is built on political, economic and cultural communication dramatically increasing worldwide since the mid-twentieth century. Consequently geographical and cultural boundaries are blurring. As a comparatively new concept, the future of regional individuality and cultural diversity remains unknown, disputed and misunderstood. ‘Our lives are becoming increasingly intertwined with those of distant people and places around the world – economically, politically and culturally. These links are not always new, but they are more pervasive than ever. Two reasons why so many people fear it - is globalisation ending our identity, national or otherwise? Are global brands colonising economy (and our minds)? Are we losing control of our lives to heartless mega-corporations and faceless markets? Many people think so – and there is an element of truth to these worries.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p4] As previously discussed, the International Style of design developed in the 50’s had the objective of creating a ubiquitous approach to design applicable to a variety of cultures, however an international culture is emerging primarily due to rapid developments in global dialogue influence. ‘Your environment will inspire you. You will draw information from every aspect of life and find the solution to a problem in a totally different place… You work with what exists, the ideas around you and the opportunities you combine them with, within your own way of
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working to create something different.’ [OLDHAM, 2012; p60] ‘Nationality, language, ethnicity, religion and politics are all reduced to their most colourful, exotic accessories…Despite the embrace of polyethnic imagery, market-driven globalisation doesn’t want diversity, quite the opposite. It’s enemies are national habits, local brands and distinctive regional tastes.’ [KLEIN, 2010; p133] Our environment and culture shapes and inspires our approach to design [OLDHAM, 2012]; this was eloquently illustrated by unique cultural conditions shaping the Swiss school of design and its objectives. Many, including KLEIN (2010) hold the opinion that byproducts of globalisation, in particular capitalism, result in standardised societies and environments. Everyone around the world is starting to live an increasingly similar lifestyle in an increasingly similar environment. If indeed cultures are becoming identical, the question arises whether this implies design across the world will slowly become identical. To answer this question, one must first delve into the underlying question of whether cultures are indeed becoming identical and if regional diversity still remains. ‘By 1841, there were 8,500 kilometres of track in the world… In 1914 there were over 1 million kilometres of track.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p93] Globalisation is a system based fundamentally on communication. Economic, trade and political dialogue revolves around simply being able to converse - through developments in methods communication, and developments in systems of travel. Blurring of borders between states is not a condition that began to transpire in the mid twentieth century, but an evolution over hundreds of years, established during the Industrial Revolution. A dialogue, primarily in the West was beginning to emerge; it was in the late-twentieth century when this dialogue becomes global, as it is today.
Railways made an even bigger mark, connecting factories and towns to ports. The railway age started in 1929, when the world’s first passenger train rain between Liverpool and Manchester... Railways united America’s regional markets, spawning national companies in place of local ones.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p93] It’s difficult to argue against corporatism by mega-brands such as McDonalds and Coca-Cola aiming to be available worldwide. A McDonalds restaurant has a virtually ubiquitous experience whether you’re in Texas, or Tokyo. The argument arises whether the inclusion of outside references standardise our environment, or in fact diversifies it. ‘The push of the corporate giants that peddle these icons of Americana is more than matched by the pull of consumer demand. People still have to desire to reach for a can of Coke. Nobody is forced to drink Coke. Nobody should be prevented from drinking it either. Start with a simple observation: although Coke’s global spread creates greater uniformity across countries, it adds diversity within them. Cubans once swigged rum of water; now they can also choose to gulp down Coke and tuKola.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p296] On the surface it is easy to criticise brands such as Coke for trying to be within an arms reach from everyone on the planet, however the fact remains they are simply another choice in an environment. The idea of coke can be extended to influences in design and pop culture, the choice and variety simply widens – this is objective. Whether one is of the opinion this is beneficial or not to society is subjective and irrelevant in this case - external influences are not replacing
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‘Arguably, globalisation was well underway by the time the Industrial Revolution kicked off around 1770. Better transport was bringing the world together... Shipping freight from Cincinnati to New York City by wagon and riverboat took 52 days in 1817 but only 6 by canal in 1852…
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local particularities, at least in the near future. ‘American shows like Friends, ER and The Simpsons have a global following. Nearly three-quarters of television drama exported worldwide comes from the US. America is capturing a big chunk of the global TV market, which is growing fast as cable and satellite channels multiply and governments relax controls on programming.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p303] Americanisation is an often-vilified subculture within globalisation, and it relates to the notion that it’s the already developed world, in particular America that is heavily influencing and reshaping cultures around the world. Less developed, or rapidly developing regions such as the Far East are more inclined to accommodate Western influences and culture, as they haven’t had an opportunity for their own identity to emerge. By contrast, already established cities such as Paris and London are far less likely to be externally distorted. Hybrid cultures are emerging with a drastically less isolated outlook than in the past, but the balance of cultural influence remains one sided. A huge factor in the rapid development of an international culture in contemporary society is the instantaneous nature and low price of communication. As the nineteenth-century closed, the telephone (1877) and the radio (1896) were invented bringing the world closer together, not in body but in dialogue. The telegraph, invented in 1953 changed the way we communicate and allowed a message to be transferred across the globe in just a day, rather than weeks. ‘In 1850 it took a year to sail - or send a message - around the world. Now, you can fly around the globe in a day or so and send an email anywhere almost instantly. Sending a forty-page document from Chile to Kenya costs $50 by courier, and less than 10 cents by email.
Consequently, society was beginning to develop a taste for the diversity of arts and culture from across the world, and these imports were beginning to have an impact on localities from the nineteenth-century. A culturally aware and hybrid culture was beginning to develop, existing in less isolation. The Internet, coming to prominence in the nineties was a huge technological progression from the telegraph and the phone; suddenly the whole world was at our disposal and at a fraction of the cost and time. Geographically it remains the same but conceptually the world is smaller than it has ever been. ‘Today, after more than a century of electric technology, we have extended our central nervous system in a global embrace, abolishing space and time as far as our planet is concerned…As electrically contracted, the globe is no more than a village. Electric speed at bringing all social and political functions together in a sudden implosion has heightened human awareness of responsibility to an intense degree. “Time” has ceased, “space” has vanished. We now live in a global village… a simultaneous happening.’ [MCLUHAN, 1994; p63] ‘We live mythically and integrally… In the electric age, when our central nervous is technologically extended to involve the whole of mankind and to incorporate the whole of mankind in us, we necessarily participate… in the consequences of our every action.’ [MCLUHAN, 1994; p4]
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A three-minute phone call between New York and London cost $245 in 1930. It is not virtually free on the Internet.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p108]
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Marshall Mcluhan’s theory of “Global Village” hypothesised in 1967 is more relevant and prophetic than ever. We are stationery in the physical but our minds and systems of thinking are connected with others across the planet. The concept of technology being connected to our central nervous system can be extrapolated to the very real technology of local and wide area networks connecting the world. We do not have to physically move in order for our minds and tastes to be informed, inspired and communicate with global culture. Visual gateways to other cultural stimuli in the form of television and the Internet is creating a sense of oneness and potential harmony, diversifying culture yet creating a similarity in needs and tastes. ‘In a mass-media world, people and events across the globe feel closer. September 11th had such a global impact in part because people watched it live on TV. Within minutes of the tragic events, millions of people everywhere were emailing each other and texting each other on their mobile phones.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p115] ‘Not only does the global exchange promote the diversity of culture, but also simultaneously promotes its standardisation. Social and historical identities merge and assimilate.’ [KLANTEN, 2006; p208] Technology has become an extension of our senses. In particular methods of communication such as the Internet, have allowed societies around the world to develop an international dialogue and in turn a culture, aware of and influenced by each other – hybrid cultures. Air travel in the early twentieth-century was an activity only enjoyed by the elite and rich, however in the aftermath of World War II supply and demand in air travel has been synchronous with escalating technology and average disposable income. An estimated 1.6 billion tourists are estimated to make international trips in 2020, up from a mere 25 million in 1950 (Fig. 15) - suggesting 25 million instances of exporting and importing culture.
The US population soared from 10 million in 1821, to 94 million in 1914.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p95] As air-travel and tourism increased, so did immigration. Thousands of people emigrated to North America and Europe after the Second World War. In chapter 2, the discussion revolved around an influx of emigrants, predominantly German bringing their own cultural outlook and altering design discourse - today immigration is global. ‘Immigration, mainly from developing countries, is creating multicultural societies. Technology is reshaping culture: just think of the Internet. Individual choice is fragmenting the imposed uniformity of national culture. New hybrid cultures are emerging. National identity is not disappearing, but the bonds of nationality are loosening.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p297] Mid-twentieth century Switzerland is a case of one region evolving substantially due to cultural diffusion. In today’s world, cultures are diffusing globally, and altering language. Taking the UK as an example, immigration is steadily increasing, while emigration is also steadily increasing (Fig. 16). Cultures are merging with each other, standardising themselves through process. ‘There is another American export that is conquering the globe; English. Around 380 million people speak it as their first language, and a further 250 million as their second. A billion are learning it, about a third of the world’s population are exposed to it. By 2050,
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‘In 1900, Europeans and Americans were first able to talk to each other by phone. Around 60 million Europeans set sail for the resource-rich and labour-scarce Americas in the century following 1920, three-fifths of them to the United States – the biggest migration in history.
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half the world will be proficient in it.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p305] English is fast becoming the default language worldwide. Airports – a symbol of ubiquitous communication, use local languages alongside English for information and wayfinding. Soon half the world will be proficient in English, while a variety of external languages are assimilating with far-off environments. In a few decades, these huge changes will become the norm to a generation that doesn’t know any different. The context of catering for diverse languages through design was an issue Swiss designers dealt with in the 50s, in todays world we have a similar situation but on a global scale. In thirty years, international trade has grown twice as fast as the global economy. China is forecasted to replace the US as the largest worldwide economy in the next 15 years. By 2050, the largest countries in terms of GDP are likely to be China, India the United States, Brazil and Russia (WOLF, 2013). ‘Globalisation is more genuinely global than before. In the late 19th century, globalisation was driven by Europe and the Americas. The rest of the world was either plundered for raw material by its imperial masters or ignored and isolated from the world economy. From 1945 until 1980, globalisation mostly encompassed western Europe and North America…Since then the opening up of China and the collapse of the Soviet Union and its puppet states have brought another 1.7 billion people into the capitalist world.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p7] Half the world is now experiencing the same byproducts of globalisation as the West, and in turn a new First World is rising. More of the world is richer, more of the world has access to communicative tools such as the Internet, and more tourism is occurring – all contributing to the development of an internationalised culture.
Globalisation is undeniably bringing the world closer together, geographically the world has not changed in the last fifty years, however the world no longer feels constricted by distance, but simply time-zones (WATTERS, 2012). What is most pivotal for the purposes of this investigation is the development of international hybrid cultures, more culturally aware and informed than they have ever been in modern history. Established cities and regions, such as Paris, are in less of a disposition to be influenced than rapidly developed hotspots that seek to emulate at the expense of individual identity. Mass media and communicative tools such as the Internet and TV have been undeniably pivotal in integrating tastes and system of thought between global cultures. ‘We’re not so much interested in the idea of ‘national identity’ – but we do admit that we have a certain affinity with the idea of specific places (such as cities) having specific histories, and therefore having specific cultures. [EXPERIMENTAL JETSET, 2013] States, and within them - cities still uphold individuality, and yet standardised in awareness than they have ever been which is incredibly exciting. Tourism is constantly increasing – landmark cities such as Paris and London are not going to disregard t local tradition and identity, as it draws attention and economy. Cultures around the world are inevitably becoming standardised due to globalisation, especially so compared to centuries ago; the only question is the extent of the standardisation. For the foreseeable
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‘The transformation of China since 1978 is nothing short of astounding… Between 1990 and 1998, the number of Chinese living on less than a dollar fell by 150 million. That is the fastest fall in poverty the world has ever seen. Teenagers worship Madonna, not Mao. Supermarkets are stocked full of foreign consumer goods.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p15]
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future this is negligible. Environments are not converging, but what are combining are people’s tastes and needs. Society is busier, more technological and more culturally and linguistically diverse than ever – communication is key.
‘If the fear is that national cultures are under threat, individual choices, not ‘Coca-colonisation’, are to blame. If the worry is that countries are becoming more alike, this is because people’s tastes have converged, not because American companies are stamping out local competition.’ [LEGRAIN, 2003; p296] ‘The borders of the discipline graphic design are not only becoming increasingly hazy – they have already disappeared in many places. Thus new formations are permanently established from a hybrid and yet strongly tradition-linked practice that lies somewhere between artistic obstina¬¬cy and the mission to achieve high-impact (public) communication.’ [KLANTEN, 2006; p5]
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Práctica de Diseño Contemporáneo en una cultura global
在全球文化的当代设计实践
The internationalisation of culture is undeniable - a hybrid global culture is emerging. Environments and the minds of individuals are more connected than ever in human history. The implication of this rapid change in culture on design practice is the underlying investigation of this project. The Swiss design scene of the fifties hypothesised an International Style, with deep social responsibility and ubiquity through honesty. Sixty years later, society and graphic design has changed innumerably. The core of graphic design is to provide a service to society, and to improve the environment – a rapidly changing environment warrants reconsideration of design. The International Style of design, aimed to create uniform design for any context, however in todays world an increasingly connected culture is facilitating the emergence of a New International Style simply through communicative process. The needs, opportunities and similarities in situation will be compared between the LateCapitalist society of today and the Swiss design scene at the height of modernity. All previously discussed byproducts of globalisation have individual implications on contemporary design practice. ‘The world is turning into a global multicultural atelier; former stationary employees have become active creative nomads. The distance between locations seems to have become irrelevant; it doesn’t matter if a server is in the next room or on another continent. The difference cultural influences are what enriches the design process.’ [KLANTEN, 2006; p208] A pivotal product of the digital revolution is the Internet; designers around the world are connected. Inspiration from around
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Contemporary Design Practice in a Global Culture
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the world is at our disposal with thousands of portfolio platforms such as Behance to inspirational mood-boards like Pinterest. Fifty years ago a collective of designers merely took inspiration from their immediate locality and peers, whom were feasibly all from the same region. This situation is hugely different from today where a designer can take influence from a piece of design from Japan, and applying this to design in Britain, creating diffusion in style. ‘Computing machines will eventually substitute for printed matter by storing knowledge; they will have any and all desired information available and ready on short call when needed. This will be done quickly and more completely than research teems can, relieving and unburdening our brains from memory ballast.’ - Herbert Bayer, Designers Position in Society [ARMSTRONG, 2009; p48] The ease of gaining external influence not just in aesthetics, but also in local culture is substantially different from merely decades ago. Müller-Brockmann first visited Japan in 1960 to attend the Tokyo Design Conference – signaling the first time he ever saw or interacted with Japanese design. It changed his outlook on graphic design, and his practice. A designer would consciously make the decision to attend a region already relatively aware of what awaits. The cost and time was substantially higher than accidentally stumbling upon design from across the world on a website. ‘It was his first visit to Japan, immediately following his departure from Zurich. Müller-Brockmann had an affinity for Zen teachings, believing that objective design was closely related to Zen themes of empty space and the tension between the positive and negative.’ [THIS IS DISPLAY, 2011] As exciting a prospect a global library may be, fears of negative connotations such as losing individuality exist. London-based designer Kate Moross believes in a more classical approach of idea generation in isolation, instead of being influenced by regurgitated
Práctica de Diseño Contemporáneo en una cultura global
在全球文化的当代设计实践
‘At work we aren’t on Pinterest, Tumblr and so on looking at other design. Developing your own style and approach is becoming more and more difficult. Maintaining it is a daily challenge.’ [MOROSS, 2013] ‘We always discuss ideas and development in our work. We can bounce ideas off each other to produce better work. The likes of Pinterest, Tumblr, Designspiration, blogs are fantastic, we have a vast array of sources at our fingertip. I believe we are very fortunate to have this amount of sources, but this brings up another question. Can this amount of access to content hinder our creativity? [2xELLIOT, 2013] From a pool of 20 interviewed graphic designers - 60% admitted to using the Internet for inspiration, with 70% using design blogs. 55% have collaborated abroad completely through the Internet. The Internet connecting design students is undeniably influential and relevant as this is the next generation who will shape the future. ‘A semester of study and internship abroad are almost standard for a good educational curriculum these days. These are followed by artistic travel years in international agencies and ateliers – preferably in Amsterdam, Berlin, Paris, London or Tokyo.’ [KLANTEN, 2006; p207] The rise in affordable transportation and communication has changed opportunities for design experience; an increasing number of designers are travelling around the world, gaining experience and adopting design languages. Many designers settle abroad and merge their own sensibility within the environment, therefore design sensibilities are being exported and imported globally.
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trends and styles online. Moross believes the abundance of design inspiration resources on the Internet is more detrimental then helpful towards creating design with individual quality.
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The influence and global accessibility of design schools is synchronous with affordable air travel. In sync with immigration is the frequency of international students worldwide – particularly in Europe. In the last decade, the number of students enrolling internationally ((Fig. 18) has doubled. The same concept of working abroad can be correlated to a professional workplace, illustrating another avenue for cultural sensibilities, tastes and also languages to assimilate internationally. ‘There was around 40% Asian students on my design course. Not all of us were English - we were from all over. People bring their own backgrounds and cultures with them and slowly they merge with ours, what’s seen as British suddenly over time becomes different. That’s exciting!’ [MOROSS, 2013] Collaboration is easier and more accessible than ever and is changing the way graphic designers network. Designers can collaborate and communicate without leaving their home via e-mail and video-call. Fewer costs mean more collaboration, and more global freelance work from potential clients reaching out to designers whom they discovered online. Consequently, international contacts are made, design work can be sent across the world for international contexts and again, design styles are submerging. Collaboration, and networking is taking place earlier in careers than ever before - graphic design students can potentially have a global design practice and following before graduation.. ‘I’ve collaborated with both local and international. I’ve collaborated with studios based in the UK – Manchester and Liverpool. I’ve collaborated with a photographer based in Tel Aviv and designers based all around the world. Denmark, Slovenia, India even. I’ve done work for a lot of magazines based in Hong Kong too bizarrely.’ [LANE, 2013]
Práctica de Diseño Contemporáneo en una cultura global
在全球文化的当代设计实践
The unique situation of producing design to cater for a society that spoke three different languages was a considerable inspiration for the International Style of Design. Switzerland accounted for French, Italian and German speaking regions almost equally. Similar developments are now occurring, but on a global scale; design must reflect and improve the clarity of the environmental context it is in. ‘It gives you new ways to see the world… English has become the default language across the world. What would a global font look like? What would a font be like that works in Roman English, but has International sensibilities?’ [SAVILLE, 2013] Solving the issue of communicating universally to diverse cultures has already been attempted when L.L. Zamenhof introduced Esperanto in 1887 as the world’s first constructed international language, possessing no affiliation to country and ease in learning. A similar objective can be applied to design - creating a socially aware approach to design with the objective of encouraging understanding between cultures, linguistically as concise as possible and highly communicative. Resembling Esperanto, a style of design that doesn’t belong to a group of people or country, but reflects the
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When designing for a society which is becoming increasingly multilingual and diverse, it is essential for graphic design to be highly communicative, and objective in order for the message to be successfully understood. When studying pieces of design adhering to the International Style such as Neue Grafik (Fig. 20), these objectives come to the forefront, the layouts consistently accommodate three different languages, resulting in design three times more likely to be successful - a similar approach is warranted today.
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international dialogue that is developing throughout the world. ‘Design exists to improve and to inform, and to be effective it has to be understood.’ [OLDHAM, 2012; p53] Cities and cultures, contrary to many fears, still possess individuality, and will do in the foreseeable future. Our inspiration and consciousness is more intertwined than it ever has been before (MCLUHAN, 1994). The growing homogeneity in global culture is undeniable, but local particularities and traditions still remain. To hypothesise a New International Style of design, an understanding of the current situation is required in order to change the future. ‘Whenever we are invited or commissioned to work on a project abroad, a lot of our excitement has to do with the fact that this project will enable us to experience (and hopefully participate in) the culture of that particular city.’ [EXPERIMENTAL JETSET, 2013] ‘There’s a unique quality to UK design, London in particular. It’s almost a crucible of multidisciplinary design. There’s no other singular place at this time that has the same mix. Paris, fashion. Milan, product. Germany, technology. [SAVILLE, 2013] The focus on communication, capitalism and trade in a global culture is greatly contributing to the growth of a new First World. Celebrated and highly influential movements within the arts have predominantly been documented in Europe and the West. Movements such as Bauhaus, the Rennaisance, De Stijl, Futurism, and Modernism – have all grown in the West – graphic design was a luxury the regions afforded importance and investment in. Countries such as China, Brazil, Hong Kong and Singapore are increasingly prosperous in economy and trade, therefore investing a greater focus on cultivating design schools and studios. Regions are developing their own visual
Práctica de Diseño Contemporáneo en una cultura global
在全球文化的当代设计实践
‘None are more affected than China. China wants what we have in terms of a design scene. BMW’s, Mercredes etc. The time will come when they activate their own aesthetic.’ [SAVILLE, 2013] Graphic design is less of a niche specialism than it has ever been, fifty years ago a designer had to make a conscious decision based on preemptive interest in the art – producing traditional graphic design, mostly for a client. Consequently design had an objective and context. Today, design software is readily affordable to everyone, an individual can refer to himself as a graphic designer without receiving any formal training, inevitably design is becoming oversaturated, and often with an uninformed, hobbyist context. ‘Over the past two decades, designers seem less and less interested in solely solving the problems of their clients. No they’re far too interesting for that.’ [OLDHAM, 2012; p60] Social networking is a cultural phenomenon of the last decade, and has changed the way society is connected; similarly graphic design is becoming an increasingly sociable experience, often at the expense of substance. Blog communities such as Tumblr allow one to like, comment and share design. The dynamics of acceptance within a social circle are driving designers to produce design adhering to trends which reliably receive likes, comments and shares purely on visual merit instead of objective concepts. The creativity and honesty of work suffers, producing ephemeral design adhering to regurgitated “trends”, rather than an individual “style” – there is difference, and often confusion between the two.
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identities and design consequently has inspiration from all over the world, connected globally. Studios such as Foreign Policy (Fig. 20) are globally influential, possessing a worldwide client base while based in Singapore.
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‘Style is yearning for recognition from your peer group… It is fatal to assume that graphic design is a medium for selfexpression.’ [OLDHAM, 2012; p56] The concepts of “Style” and “Trend” are often confused, disarranged and used in the wrong context. Designers throughout history have adhered to a school of thought, and not a “trend”. When aligning with a similar system of thought, objectives should be in synthesis, not simply following rigid rules. Style should be unique, an individual approach to solving a problem through innate creativity. Style is not adhering to compiled list of characteristics in order to achieve a desired aesthetic and social acceptance, with no logical thought process. Often critics use the concept of style in a negative context, actually referring to designing for trends. ‘I’ve always aspired to have a “style”. That’s not in terms of how it looks, but in the way it works, for example, my approach to it. Regurgitation of design drives me crazy!’ [MOROSS, 2013] An innate creative approach to design problems within a synthesis of objectives still produces recognisable nuances - individual mannerisms and local particularities come through. Diversity in working within a shared manifesto of process is embraced in music, for example. Within genres of music, we have favourite musicians that are celebrated for showcasing innovative and exciting approaches within a mainframe of “rules” – using the analogy of the same language, but a different accent. A universal style of design would also provide a mainframe, yet still inevitably have nuances. Styles of approach through a logical process should be embraced. Selfexpression should not appear at the expense of the clients needs, but as recognisable nuances through the organic process of handling colour, type and layout.
Práctica de Diseño Contemporáneo en una cultura global
在全球文化的当代设计实践
The same language, but difference accents.’ [EXPERIMENTAL JETSET, 2013] Society is globally connected; technology is becoming an extension of our consciousness (MCLUHAN, 1994). Billions of us are just a few clicks from being connected on social networks, push-notifications such as texts and live news alerts provide increasingly less personal space, and freedom to breathe. The enormous amount of information around us has negative connotations of feeling overwhelmed and sensing anxiety. Visual design is more widespread than ever before, from smartphones to bus stops; visual pollution is impossible to escape. The overload of content such as typeface is making design less logical and considered, in the past a typeface meant a physical case of metal type – it had to be a considered, intelligent decision – today a font file can be downloaded in seconds. ‘In the new computer age, the proliferation of typefaces and type manipulations represent a new level of visual pollution threatening our culture. Out of thousands of typefaces, all we need are a few basic ones, and trash the rest.’ – Massimo Vignelli [OFFSET, 2009] “Digital detox” programs are appearing to encourage complete resistance to all technology for mental peace. In a culture full of widespread visual and mental pollution - the social responsibility of honest communication and objective graphic design has never been more relevant.
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‘Even if there were such a thing as a ‘universal’ graphic design language, it wouldn’t mean the end of local differentiation. Think of the ‘Swiss/International Style’. Crouwel took this language, and turned into something typically Dutch. While Vignelli took the same language, first added an Italian accent, and then set it in a New York tone of voice. Comparing Crouwel and Vignelli, one can easily distinguish their cultural backgrounds, while both men, are in a way, speaking the same language.
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‘We’re becoming a true global community. But something isn’t working. Recent studies reveal that life in the digital age is far from ideal. The cultural pressures to constantly check messages and to stay up to speed on the latest blogs or news media often lead to a feeling of being overwhelmed and frustrated without time to breathe. The average American spends 8-12 hours a day staring at a screen. Heavy Internet users are 2.5 times more likely to be depressed.’ [DIGITAL DETOX, 2013] ‘We are definitely against any fashion of design. We despise culture of obsolescence, the culture of waste, the cult of the ephemeral. We are for a design that is committed to a society that demands respect and integrity. We like the use of primary shapes and primary colours because their formal values are timeless. We like a typography that is beyond time – that doesn’t follow trends.’ [VIGNELLI, 2010; p30] Post-modernism is a late 20th-century movement criticizing and rejecting modernist ideals. Subscribers to postmodernism within design, rebel against the failings of modernist principles - by reintroducing tradition elements of decoration in an almost satirical manner. For example rejecting sans-serif typeface and strong gridular structure as a disagreement against the idealist principles they stood for in contrast with the political state of the environment in reality. Frederic Jameson is a political theorist that applied one of the first Marxist theoretical treatments of postmodernism and latecapitalism. Jameson’s observation of the growing alienation within the city is increasingly relevant in today’s capitalist society pushing oversaturation in visuals. However anti-design adds to the sense of alienation by creating difficulty in understanding the environment around you.
Práctica de Diseño Contemporáneo en una cultura global
在全球文化的当代设计实践
Whether post-modernism still exists is vehemently debated, however the visual objective of post-modernism still remains. Cultural critic Alan Kirby (2006) argues the period is over and given way to a new paradigm based on digital technology. Designers are increeasingly adhering to a growing anti-design movement, again rebelling against the principles of efficient design. Modern anti-designers use digital technology to rebel against technology and disorientation amongst modernity (JAMESON, 1991). The negative connotations of modernity, in particular the engraving of technology in our lives is increasing – yet creating decorative design without a justified context is inefficient and visually insensitive. Designers often adhere to the aesthetics for social acceptance as a “trend”, rather than a purpose. Design should indeed be a reflection of society, but also seek to improve society and the lives of those who interact with it. Deconstructive design is difficult enough to understand on its own merit, regardless of being considerate to increasing visual pollution and multiculturalism. ‘How often we see design that has no meaning: stripes and swashes of colour for no reason whatsoever. Well they are meaningless or incredibly vulgar. I consider this action criminal since it is producing visual pollution that is degrading our environment just like other types of pollution.’ [VIGNELLI, 2010]
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‘Aesthetic production today has become integrated into commodity production: this frantic economic urgency of producing fresh waves of ever more novel-seeming goods, at ever greater rates of turnover. The alienated city is above all a place in which people are unable to map (in their minds) either their own positions or the urban totality in which they find themselves. We are to lift our minds to a point at which it is possible to understand that capitalism is the best thing that has ever happened to the human race, and the worst.’ [JAMESON, 1991; p13]
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The current situation of growing kitsch aesthetics (Fig. 25) is a progression and cycle of the avant-garde decoration in Europe prior to the original International Style, this suggests systems of design working cyclically. Raymond’s (2010) trend model (Fig. 21) illustrates the timeline of a “trend”, and can be extended to the concept of “anti-design” at one stage being the “anti-innovator” against modernist design. Over time, anti-design, has become the norm, a “mainstay”. Design therefore works in cycles, with each cycle being a progression and answer to criticism of the previous. Consequently what recurrently appears innovative, and away from the norm is highly communicative, honest design (Fig. 24). In the same respect as current avant-garde design being a progression of the previous cycle, albeit with different objectives - an opportunity has introduced itself for intellectually elegant design to again become the “trend creator”. Apple Inc. has enjoyed tremendous success and exponential growth in the previous decade. Apple’s share price rose from $9.34 in 2001, to over $400 in 2013, Apple is a relevant case study as a central factor in their success is the application of pragmatic design. Dieter Rams is an industrial designer responsible iconic product design at Braun. Ram’s work was an extension of the International Style’s fundamentals to products that were highly functional and timeless in form. Ram’s work is hugely inspirational to Jonathan Ive, Senior Vice President of Design at Apple Inc. ‘No part appeared to be either hidden or celebrated. At a glance, you knew exactly what it was and exactly how to use it. What Dieter Rams did was to produce wonderfully conceived and designed objects: products that were beautifully made in high volumes and that were broadly accessible.’ – Jonathan Ives [WARMAN, 2011] As Rams himself acknowledges (WARMAN, 2011), much of Ive’s design is a clear application of previously held traditions (Fig. 22 & 23), yet in a progressive and contemporary manner – a second cycle.
Práctica de Diseño Contemporáneo en una cultura global
在全球文化的当代设计实践
Without doubt there are few companies in the world that genuinely understand and practise the power of good. Apple and Vitsoe are lone voices treating the discipline of design seriously in all corners of their businesses. Apple has managed to achieve what I never achieved… design is a serious profession; and for our future welfare we need more companies to take that profession seriously.’ – Dieter Rams [WARMAN, 2011]
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Further developing modernist ideals for a different generation sociably responsible design, with truth to materials, creating an almost meditative interaction and personal attachment. Products such as the iPhone sought to crystallise and create order amongst the disorder of inefficient smartphone design around, just as designers such as Vignelli sought to cure visual clutter. Apple’s phenomenal success in product design clarifies the legacy of the International Style remains and is still highly influential. Accommodating the opportunity for the same progression to be applied to print.
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Modernity and globalisation have completely reshaped the communication between the world and contemporary society. The Internet and mass-global media have diffused tastes, opinions, influence and systems of thinking, any corner of the world is available to inspire and influence us. Growing economies of the Far East and Asia have further created an increasingly equal global community, importing and exporting tourists, cultural nuances, and inevitable graphic design. Individual environments have never in human history been as culturally diverse, yet standardised in needs as they are today. Technology has made graphic design an increasingly global practice, creating a platform for practitioners to gain a global audience and client-base. The ease and cost-effective nature of modern collaboration purely through the digital frontier is further adding to a diffusion of style across the world. Graphic designers are incredibly informed and synchronised with design styles from other cultures and regions. Many critics of globalisation fear capitalism and the negative ethics of Americanisation are creating a global Americanised community – essentially smaller brethren of their original source. Although it is indeed undeniable society is increasingly becoming westernized in pop-culture and media, one would hope this actually creates further variety, not uniformity - cultural diversity still remains, at least in the near future - within global cultures, individual localities emerge. Many critics also fail to realise, the Western world has even more immigration than the countries the critics argue are being negatively influenced, creating a balancing effect and development of a new hybrid culture. Cultural and regional particularities shaped the development and objectives of what would become the International
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Conclusion .
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Style of design – in a culture becoming increasingly global in scope, the opportunity arises for a New International Style of design to be truly international in sensibility. ‘Intellectual elegance is our civic consciousness, our social responsibility, our sense of decency, our moral imperative.’ [VIGNELLI, 2010; p28] Not all byproducts of globalisation have shaped modern society positively; the Internet has added a dynamic of social acceptance to design, often at the expense of clarity and purpose. Many designers create a socially acceptable aesthetic to adhere to a trend; an ephemeral style of design in the hope of gaining an audience of likes and shares – designing in an egotistical manner, instead of respecting the client’s investment. Design is less specialist than it has ever been before, design becoming digital in process has created affordable production suites affordable to the average hobbyist, typefaces are a tiny digital file – fifty years ago gaining design credentials and choosing a typeface was a conscious decision and required commitment and consideration. Design is such a quick process, what would have took days to accomplish with analog tools can now be created in a matter of minutes, the treatment of design by many has become ephemeral and uninformed – practitioners consciously seek to design with a variety of typefaces, frowning on the notion of having a small collection of typefaces to rely on. ‘Life of a designer is a life of fight, fighting against the ugliness. Just as a doctor fights against disease. For us visual disease is all around, and we try to cure it somehow through visual design.’ – Massimo Vignelli [HELVETICA, 2007] Consequently environments oversaturated with visual design, good and bad, assault our minds – technology and constantly being connected is making an increasing number of us depressed and overwhelmed with information. The International Style of design in the 50s had
‘History provides the riches and most valuable source of reference a tool on which to produce better, more considered work which allows the transference of thinking from period to another. But so many of the new blood entering the industry lack this reference tool.’ [OLDHAM, 2012; p Comprehension of the past is required, in order to understand the present and forecast the future. Design works in cycles, with each cycle being a progression and education of the previous, the new avant-garde and decorative design is a form of digital rebellion, using technology to combat technology and create design showcasing a purposefully kitsch aesthetic. Similarly, inexpensively sourced, ephemeral material designed to be temporary with little memorability or consideration of efficiency is now widespread – from a flyer for a musical event, to supplements with a newspaper. Successful design, should not be at a premium, in fact it should save money and create a stronger investment. Using Raymond’s model of a trend, or in this case a style suggests what was once away from the norm has now become a mainstay. What society needs, and is drawn towards in contemporary culture is elegant design, with truth to function and honesty in communication, distilling information down to its bare necessities to create a seamless and efficient experience, good design is almost unnoticeable in its productivity – as you can not imagine it being any different. The phenomenal recent success of Apple Inc. due to their investment in clinical and reductive design, illustrates the opportunity for the same reverence to be applied to print.
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a visual relationship with Zen Buddhism, which in itself has an experiential relationship with meditation. In today’s environment, design with a considered, honest and meditative influence on its viewer has never been more warranted.
conclusión
结论
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Adhering to a “style” of design does not mean an individual designer loses an aesthetic voice, and simply abides by rules. In fact, a style is an individual approach to design, a process of innate creativity and intuition in solving a problem as one sees best. Adhering to a style of design, should in fact be agreeing on achieving similar objectives and ideals. Using the example of the International Style, many of the designers such as Wim Crouwel and Massimo Vignelli had never met each other - they did not collectively create a checklist of rules to abide by, although many assume so all “Swiss Style” designers, simply agreed on principles of design and addressed said principles individually, creating visual unity and dialogue between them. ‘Even if there was such a thing as a ‘universal’ graphic design language, it wouldn’t mean the end of local differentiation, of cultural variety. Think of the so-called ‘Swiss/International Style’. Somebody like Crouwel took this language, and turned into something typically Dutch. While somebody like Vignelli took the same language, first added an Italian accent, and then set it in a New York tone of voice. Comparing Crouwel and Vignelli, one can easily distinguish their cultural backgrounds, while both men, are in a way, speaking the same language. The same language, but difference accents.’ [EXPERIMENTAL JETSET, 2013] A similar dialogue of design is emerging in today’s circumstance, but a second cyclical progression of the previous. Studios such as Berger & Föhr, Neubau, Heydays and Two Times Elliot, based in Colorado, Berlin, Norway and London respectively (Fig. 27 – 30), apply Swiss design principles to a digital, international society - in the process creating a progressive identity answering valid criticisms of the original International Style.
‘The new is created from a synthesis of preserved traditions and a conscious breach of them.’ [KLANTEN, 2006; p104] The opportunity for a ‘New’ International Style of design that truly respects the environment and the intelligence of its receiver has never been more relevant, and as required. Global practice, influence and collaboration is at once assimilating approaches to design and creating an international sensibility to design. A growing global collective of thought (MCLUHAN, 1994) is growing in dialogue and agreement in the social responsibility of objective design (BERGER & FÖHR, 2013) in an increasingly oversaturated ambiguous environment – The community is not just communicating locally, but now globally. A New International Style will not be “International” simply in ambition and name, but truly International through sensibility and a truly global collaborative process. Design practiced with principle, intention, honesty and responsibility will shape the future.
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‘We choose objectivity over subjectivity, accountability over bureaucracy and personal responsibility over ambiguity. Our studio principles are the product of a contemporary and analytical approach to design. We consider out style international in sensibility.’ [BERGER & FÖHR, 2013]
bibliography
参考书目
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参考书目
books
KLANTEN, R, BOURQUIN, N & MAREIS C (2006) ‘ALTITUDE: CONTEMPORARY SWISS GRAPHIC DESIGN’, BERLIN, DIE GESTALTEN VERLAG
AMBROSE, G (2012) ‘BASICS GRAPHIC DESIGN 02: DESIGN RESEARCH: INVESTIGATION FOR SUCCESFUL CREATIVE SOLUTIONS’, LAUSANNE, AVA PUBLISHING ARMSTRONG, H (2009) ‘GRAPHIC DESIGN THEORY: READINGS FROM THE FIELD’, NEW YORK, PRINCETON ARCHITECTURAL PRESS BIERUT, M (1994) ‘LOOKING CLOSER: CRITICAL WRITINGS ON GRAPHIC DESIGN’, NEW YORK, ALLWORTH PRESS DANESI, M (2007) ‘THE QUEST FOR MEANING: A GUIDE TO SEMIOTIC THEORY AND PRACTICE’, TORONTO, UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS FRIEDMAN, T (2000) ‘THE LEXUS AND THE OLIVE TREE’, NEW YORK, HARPER COLLINS NEW EDITION GRONBERG, T (2003) ‘DESIGNS ON MODERNITY: EXHIBITING THE CITY IN 1920’S PARIS’, MANCHESTER, MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS HELLER, S & CHWAST, S (2011) ‘GRAPHIC STYLE FROM VICTORIAN TO NEW CENTURY: 3RD EDITION’, NEW YORK, ABRAMS
KLEIN, N (2010) ‘NO LOGO’, NEW YORK, PICADOR KLEMP, K & UEKI-POLET, K (2011) ‘LESS AND MORE: THE DESIGN ETHOS OF DIETER RAMS’ BERLIN, DIE GESTALTEN VERLAG KRÖPLEN, M (2001) ‘KARL GERSTNER: REVIEW OF 5X10 YEARS OF GRAPHIC DESIGN’, GERMANY, HATJE CANTZ VERLAG LEGRAIN, P (2003) ‘OPEN WORLD: THE TRUTH ABOUT GLOBALISATION’, LONDON, ABACUS LOIS, G (2013) ‘DAMN GOOD ADVICE’, NEW YORK, PHAIDON PRESS MCLUHAN, M (1994) ‘UNDERSTAND MEDIA: THE EXTENSIONS OF MAN’, MASSACHUSETTS, MIT PRESS NEW EDITION MÜLLER, L (1995) ‘JOSEF MÜLLER-BROCKMANN: PIONEER OF SWISS GRAPHIC DESIGN’, BADEN, LARS MÜLLER PUBLISHERS NEWARK, Q (2002) ‘WHAT IS GRAPHIC DESIGN?’ EAST SUSSEX, ROTOVISION
HOLLIS, R (2006) ‘SWISS GRAPHIC DESIGN: THE ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF AN INTERNATIONAL STYLE’, LONDON, KING PUBLISHING LTD
OLDHAM, C (2012) ‘THE DEMOCRATIC LECTURE’ MANCHESTER, YOUR UNIFIED THEORY OF EVERYTHING
JAMESON, F (1991) ‘POSTMODERNISM, OR, THE CULTURAL LOGIC OF LATE CAPITALISM’, DURHAM, DUKE UNIVERSITY PRESS
PURCELL, K W (2006) ‘JOSEF MÜLLERBROCKMANN’, LONDON, PHAIDON PRESS INC RAYMOND, M (2010) ‘THE TREND FORECASTER’S
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HANDBOOK’, LONDON, LAURENCE KING PUBLISHING LTD TSCHICHOLD, J (2006) ‘THE NEW TYPOGRAPHY (WEIMAR AND NOW: GERMAN CULTURAL CRITICISM)’, CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS VIGNELLI, M (2010) ‘THE VIGNELLI CANON’, BADEN, LARS MÜLLER PUBLISHERS
journal articles
KIRBY, A (2006) ‘PHILOSOPHY NOW: NOV/ DEC 2006: THE DEATH OF POSTMODERNISM AND BEYOND’ 58 SCHWEMER-SCHEDDIN, Y (1995) ‘EYE MAGAZINE VOLUME 5: REPUTATIONS: JOSEF MÜLLERBROCKMANN’ P34-35
online
BERGER & FÖHR (2013) ‘BERGER & FÖHR: CONTACT’, COLORADO, BERGER & FÖHR, AVAILABLE FROM < HTTP://BERGERFOHR.COM/ CONTACT/> [29/12/13] DIGITAL DETOX (ANON.) (2013) ‘DIGITAL DETOX: PHILOSOPHY’, OAKLAND, THE DIGITAL DETOX, AVAILABLE FROM < HTTP://THEDIGITALDETOX.ORG/ABOUT/THEDIGITAL-DETOX-EXPLAINED/> [30/12/13] FOREIGN POLICY (2013) ‘FOREIGN POLICY: CONTACT US’, SINGAPORE, FOREIGN POLICY DESIGN, AVAILABLE FROM < HTTP://
FOREIGNPOLICYDESIGN.COM/V4/#!/CONTACT/> [29/12/13] MARTIN, R (2010) ‘THE TREND FORECASTER’S HANDBOOK’, LONDON, LAURENCE KIND PUBLISHING LTD OLDS, K & ROBERTSON, S (2011) ‘INTERNATIONAL STUDENT MOBILITY HIGHLIGHTS IN THE OECD’S EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2011’, USA, WORDPRESS, AVAILABLE FROM <HTTP:// GLOBALHIGHERED.WORDPRESS.COM/2011/09/13/ INTERNATIONAL-STUDENT-MOBILITY-HIGHLIGHTSIN-THE-OECDS-EDUCATION-AT-A-GLANCE-2011/> [22/12/13] PENTAGRAM (ANON.) (2013) ‘ABOUT’, LONDON, PENTAGRAM DESIGN, AVAILABLE FROM < HTTP:// WWW.PENTAGRAM.COM/WORK/> [29/12/13] SCHNEIDER, S (2011) ‘JOSEF MÜLLERBROCKMANN: PRINCIPAL OF THE SWISS SCHOOL’, GERMANY, NOUPE, AVAILABLE FROM <HTTP:// WWW.NOUPE.COM/DESIGN/JOSEF-MULLERBROCKMANN-PRINCIPAL-OF-THE-SWISS-SCHOOL. HTML> [19/9/13] SYMES, B (1995) ‘MARSHALL MCLUHAN’S GLOBAL VILLAGE’, UK, ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY, AVAILABLE FROM < HTTP://WWW.ABER.AC.UK/ MEDIA/STUDENTS/BAS9401.HTML> TERROR, D (2009) ‘LESSONS FROM SWISS STYLE GRAPHIC DESIGN’, GERMANY, SMASHING MAGAZINE, AVAILABLE FROM <HTTP://WWW. SMASHINGMAGAZINE.COM/2009/07/17/LESSONSFROM-SWISS-STYLE-GRAPHIC-DESIGN/> [10/12/13] THIS IS DISPLAY (ANON.), (2011) ‘WORLD DESIGN CONFERENCE IN TOKYO 1960’, NEW YORK CITY, KIND COMPANY, AVAILABLE FROM < HTTP://WWW.THISISDISPLAY.ORG/FEATURES/ WORLD_DESIGN_CONFERENCE_1960_IN_TOKYO> [22/9/13]
WARMAN, M (2011) ‘DIETER RAMS: APPLE HAS ACHIEVE SOMETHING I NEVER DID’, UK, TELEGRAPH MEDIA GROUP LTD, AVAILABLE FROM < HTTP://WWW.TELEGRAPH.CO.UK/TECHNOLOGY/ APPLE/8555503/DIETER-RAMS-APPLE-HASACHIEVED-SOMETHING-I-NEVER-DID.HTML> [23/12/13] WOLF, M (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION: AN OVERVIEW’, LONDON, FINANCIAL TIMES, AVAILABLE FROM < HTTP://WWW.FT.COM/CMS/ S/0/12C74980-D1BF-11E2-9336-00144FEAB7DE. HTML#AXZZ2FDZZJDJE> [23/9/13
interviews
DUANE DALTON (2xELLIOT) (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION AND CONTEMPORARY DESIGN PRACTICE’ [INTERVIEW – EMAIL] ON 22nd NOVEMBER 2013 COLOPHON TYPE FOUNDRY (2013) ‘DESIGN MANCHESTER 2013: Q+A’, ON 31ST OCTOBER 2013, UK: MANCHESTER [RECORDED] EXPERIMENTAL JETSET (STOLK, M & BRINKERS, E & DUNGEN, D) (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION AND CONTEMPORARY DESIGN PRACTICE’ [INTERVIEW - EMAIL] ON 23rd NOVEMBER 2013 FINCH, J (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION AND CONTEMPORARY DESIGN PRACTICE’ [INTERVIEW – EMAIL] ON 23rd OCTOBER 2013
GUIRADO, R (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION AND CONTEMPORARY DESIGN PRACTICE’ [INTERVIEW – EMAIL] ON 27th OCTOBER 2013 KOLLER, S (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION AND CONTEMPORARY DESIGN PRACTICE’ [INTERVIEW – EMAIL] ON 5th OCTOBER 2013 LANE, S (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION AND CONTEMPORARY DESIGN PRACTICE’ [INTERVIEW – EMAIL] ON 27th SEPTEMBER 2013 LO, V (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION AND CONTEMPORARY DESIGN PRACTICE’ [INTERVIEW – EMAIL] ON 27th OCTOBER 2013 MOROSS, K (2013) ‘DESIGN MANCHESTER 2013: Q+A’, ON 31ST OCTOBER 2013, UK: MANCHESTER [RECORDED] OLDHAM, C (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION AND CONTEMPORARY DESIGN PRACTICE’ [INTERVIEW – EMAIL] ON 3RD OCTOBER 2013 SAVILLE, P (2013) ‘DESIGN MANCHESTER 2013: Q+A’, ON 31ST OCTOBER 2013, UK: MANCHESTER [RECORDED] SVENDSEN, J (2013) ‘GLOBALISATION AND CONTEMPORARY DESIGN PRACTICE’ [INTERVIEW – EMAIL] ON 26TH SEPTEMBER 2013
film
‘HELVETICA’ (2007), DOCUMENTARY, DIRECTED BY GARY HUSTWIT [DVD], US: SWISS DOTS ‘OFFSET 2009: MASSIMO VIGNELLI’ (2009), PRESENTATION, DIRECTED BY ANON., [ONLINE VIDEO], DUBLIN, OFFSET, AVAILABLE FROM < HTTP://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/ WATCH?V=N2ZZPKAZ1V0> [13/9/13]
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THOMPSON, H (2009) ‘THE ROMANCE OF CHEMICALS: MAX SCHMID’, UK, EYE MAGAZINE, AVAILABLE FROM <HTTP://WWW.EYEMAGAZINE. COM/BLOG/POST/THE-ROMANCE-OF-CHEMICALS> [19/12/13]
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