M
USLIMS & OSQUES THE BRITISH
An arch i tec tu ra l, cul tura l a n d th eolog ica l a p p roa ch to mo s qu e d es ig n in Brita in Albakar Mukadam
THE BRITISH MUSLIMS AND THE MOSQUES An architectural, cultural and theological approach to mosque design in Britain
Albakar Mukadam S18129816 Birmingham School of Architecture ARC6010 Cultural Context: Critical Study in Architecture
CONTENTS
GLOSSARY
6
PREFACE
9
INTRODUCTION
11
WHAT IS A MOSQUE?
13
MOSQUE ARCHETYPES
17
MUSLIM MIGRATION TO BRITAIN
20
THE 3 MAIN MOSQUE TYPOLOGIES IN BRITAIN
24
THE FIRST MOSQUES IN BRITAIN
27
QUILLIAM’S UNBUILT VISION
38
THE IMPORTANCE OF PURPOSE BUILT
40
GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD OF MOSQUES IN BRITAIN
42
MOSQUES IN BIRMINGHAM
45
FIRST MOSQUES IN BIRMINGHAM
46
CONTEMPORARY BRITISH MOSQUE ERA
53
CONCLUSION
58
REFERNCES
60
GLOSSARY
Athaan
The Islamic call to prayer
Darul Uloom
Arabic term translating to “house of knowledge”. Referring to an Islamic educational institution.
Deoband
An Islamic revivalist movement originating from Deoband, India.
within
Sunni
Islam,
Hadith
Actions, approval, and words of Prophet Muhammad.
Darul Uloom
Arabic term translating to “house of knowledge”. Referring to an Islamic educational institution.
Imam
Islamic leader. Commonly used as a title for the lead worshipper in a mosque.
Madrassa
An Islamic educational institution.
Masjid
“Place of ritual prostration”. A mosque.
Mihrab
An indent or a niche in the wall indicating the direction of prayer.
Mimbar
A pulpit or a raised platform in a mosque where the imam stands to deliver sermons. 6
GLOSSARY
PBUH
Abbreviation for “Peace be Upon Him”. A phrase Muslims utter after mentioning or hearing the Prophets name.
Qiblah
The direction in which Muslims face when offering prayer facing the direction towards Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
Quran
Religous text of Islam. Revelation from God.
Sahn
A courtyard in Islamic architecture.
Salaah
Prayers offered by Muslims in the direction of the Qiblah.
Salafi
A movement in Sunni Islam.
Shia
A minority branch/sect of Islam
Sufi
A mystical movement in Islam.
Sunni
A majority branch/sect of Islam
Tariqa
A Sufi order.
Wudu
The Islamic purification proceedure carried out before offering prayers. 7
PREFACE
The cultural architectural styles of the migrant Muslim communities within Britain have adapted and evolved under the homogenous umbrella of religion (Islam). Muslim migrant communities in Britain originate from all parts of the globe with different cultural influences, theological approaches as well as different architectural styles. So how have these factors impacted mosque designs in Britain?
Opposite - Figure 1: Prostration, (2013)
9
10
INTRODUCTION
Islam has grown at a rapid rate, becoming the secondlargest religion in the UK, with estimates of almost 3 million Muslims, which accounts for 4.4% of the total population of the country according to the 2011 Census records. The multiple waves of Muslim mass migration and the early sailor recruits of the East India Company multiplied the population of Indian subcontinent Muslims in Britain exponentially. As the number of Muslims in Britain continues to grow, it is critical to understand the sacral architectural needs surrounding places of worship and how different cultural styles have united and merged under the homogenous global umbrella of religion.
Opposite - Figure 2: Open Iftar - Ramadan Tent Project, London (RTP, 2019)
11
WHAT IS A MOSQUE?
“Every Nation has its spiritual shrines, centres of belief they are centres of national heritage and tradition, focal points for the pride and dignity of a people” (Conti, F. and Creagh, P. 1979, Centres of Belief, p6). For the estimated 1.8 Billion Muslims around the world (almost 25% of the world population), these centres are known as Masjid or a Mosque. The Arabic word ‘masjid’ translates to a “place of prostration” to God. In literal terms, a mosque refers to a place of worship for Muslims. The act of worship carried out within a space qualifies that space to be a mosque regardless of the type of building. Shahed Saleem, an architect, author and at present a lecturer at the University of Westminster makes mention that “A mosque has an exceptionally simple programme, needing only an open space that is clean, in which people can face Mecca and offer their prayers. Along with running water for ritual ablution before prayer, there is no other spatial, liturgical or sacred requirement. This means that every formal and architectural representation of the mosque we see beyond this is a cultural accretion accumulated across time and culture.” (Saleem, 2012) … courtesy of Architects journal. This statement by Saleem implies that the archetype of a mosque is unrestricted and almost limitless. In theory, a mosque can take any architectural form and visual language as there is no ‘one’ style or form to it. Looking back at Islamic history, the Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh) mosque in the city of Medina was a simple construction of Opposite - Figure 3: Home Prayer Space, Birmingham, (Albakar Mukadam, 2021)
13
clay walls, palm leaves, and clay roof, supported by palm trunks. This mosque in principle reflected the definition of a ‘masjid’ – a place of prostration and supports Saleem’s statement. It also supports Saleem’s claims of any architectural forms, ornamental designs, and styles we see in today’s Islamic world are all ‘cultural accretion accumulated across time and culture.’ It is when looking back at the earliest mosques that we can gather the understanding that mosques aren’t necessarily limited to a particular style or form. The statement made by Salem does not however mean that mosques cannot be architectural masterpieces or follow a particular regional cultural style or archetype.
14
Opposite - Figure 4: Dome of the Rock, Palestine, (Albakar Mukadam, 2019)
IMAGE OF PRAYER SPACE
Figure 5: Mosque archetypes, (Stegers & Baumann, 2010)
16
MOSQUE ARCHETYPES
To understand the architectural language of mosques, we must draw inspiration from historic mosque types. Rudolph Stagers makes mentions in his book, ‘Sacred Buildings: A Design Manual, that throughout history, “four basic types of mosques have arisen in the Muslim world: The Arab Hypostyle, the Persian Four-iwan, the Indian Three Dome, and the Turkish Central Dome mosque.” (Stagers, 2008). If we were to subtract all of the regional and cultural external architectural characteristics from these four historic mosque types, we are left with one common feature – “an open space that is clean, in which people can face Mecca and offer their prayers.” (Salem 2012) The four types mentioned also share another common feature, a Sahn (courtyard) - open spaces either towards the entrance or the center of the complex. These open spaces are often accompanied by a small water pool or fountain which is commonly used for wudu, the cleansing ritual before prayer (Petersen, 1996).
As we proceed inside a mosque, they all share a mutual theme - a clean open prayer space orientated towards the Qiblah (direction of prayer) with numerous amenity spaces within proximity. Within the main prayer hall itself, a mihrab (niche) is positioned in the centre of the Qiblah wall. To the right of the mihrab a mimbar (raised deck) is placed. This acts as a pulpit or a raised platform for the Imam to stand on and, deliver sermons and reminders. To a Muslim worshipper, a mosque is more than just a 17
place of worship. It is a place of refuge, a place of relief, a place where one is considered more spiritually connected to God than anywhere else. Beyond the essence of spirituality, a mosque is one of the most important and sacred buildings in the Islamic world – it is a symbol of Islam. “The Muslim world is spread out like a gigantic wheel with Mecca as the hub, with lines drawn from all the mosques in the world forming the spokes. These lines converge on a city and within that city on a point. The city is Mecca, and the point is the Ka’ba at its centre.” (Dickie. J, 1978) All around the world, mosques are architectural masterpieces not only for Muslims but also for non-Muslims. From the plethora of domes of the Ottoman Era, soaring minarets from the North African and Mughal period to the detailed carpets of the middle eastern styles, purposebuilt mosques are a sight of wonder to behold all around the globe. Beyond their regional and cultural styles, they all offer the same principle – a clean place of prayer, regardless of their architectural differences, they all observe under the homogenous umbrella of Islam. This project aims to outline the impact of migration on the evolution of mosques within Muslim migrant communities in the UK and the birth of a homogenous British mosque style.
18
Opposite - Figure 6: Doorway of Grand Mosque, Paris, (Albakar Mukadam, 2019)
MUSLIM MIGRATION TO BRITAIN
The earliest presence of Muslims in Britain can be dated far back as the 16th century. Muslim diplomats, businessmen, musicians, and translators were present in the city of London from various countries from North Africa, Central Asia, and the Middle East. The exact number of Muslims during the 16th century was not noted, nor was it clear if they were residents in England or merely here for a short period for work purposes. The 18th century saw the first significant number of Muslims migrate to England as Lascars (sailors) from the Indian subcontinent and the Bengal region. The sailors were recruited by the East India Company (EIC) to work on the ships, some of whom settled down and took local wives (Fisher. M H, 20). These early sailor communities were found in port towns, due to accessibility and movement. As the decades went by, the number of sailors visiting the country began to increase. It was noted that by the beginning of the first world war, there were an estimated 51,000 South Asian sailors working on British Ships, the majority of whom were from the East Bengal region (Ansari, H. 2004). The 1932 survey of ‘all Indians outside of India’ carried out by the Indian National Congress reported an estimated 7,128 Indians were residing in the United Kingdom. “Muslims have lived in Britain for hundreds of years; however, it was not until the 1960s that a visible Muslim presence could be observed.” (Hussain. S. p859. 2010) The first mass Muslim migration to the UK took place soon after the Second World War, as a direct result of the damage 20
caused by the war. The Muslim migrant workers were brought over from former British colonies, predominantly the Indian subcontinent to rebuild what the Second World War had destroyed (La Barbera. 2014). These migrant workers settled in Britain, leading to a chain migration network where the immigrants follow their relatives and friends to the new location, influenced by cultural comfort and association. Through this network, pockets of new migrant communities and cultures were being formed in British towns, leading to an established framework of postwar British Muslim culture and architecture that followed in the decades to come.
Figure 7: 3 Lascars, (Waterline Collection, 1929)
21
So, where exactly did the Muslim migrants settle and why? And how did this impact the typologies of mosques found in Britain? Migrants from the mid 20th century settled in urban areas. This was heavily influenced by the employment opportunities during the 50s and 60s. Subsequently, Muslim communities emerged in Britain’s main industrial conurbations such as the capital London, the West Midlands, and parts of Yorkshire and Lancashire. By taking a look at the census data from 2011, we can identify that Muslims can be found all across the country, however, the above-mentioned locations have a higher threshold compared to other cities. The settlement patterns emerged in these areas as a result of association and social comfort; social support, shared linguistic and cultural and religious traditions. (explain why or how these patterns occurred?) As the Muslim population and migrant communities continued to grow, the need for a place of congregational worship became more apparent. The early migrants would dedicate a space within their homes as a ‘worship space’. Due to the lack of funding and poor cash flow, the early first-generation migrant communities did not have the financial means nor the support to build a purposebuilt mosque. This is where the House Mosque typology became widely used.
22
Figure 8: Distribution of Muslims across England, Census 2011
23
THE 3 MAIN MOSQUE TYPOLOGIES IN BRITAIN Before we progress into the first mosque in Britain, it is important to understand the three different mosque typologies: 1. House conversion mosques are former houses, generally terraced typology that has undergone some internal and occasionally exterior changes to create better use of space – removal of walls, doors, or even corridors. 2. Similarly, non-domestic conversions are mosques that have replaced former warehouses, halls, churches, and even pubs. The extent of building work and changes vary according to the previous use of the building. Some require minimal work, whereas other conversions may involve extensive changes to the floor plans. 3. The purpose-built mosque is one that has been designed and constructed from the ground up as a completely new building - a mosque. As there is no official database nor a collective that accurately lists all of the mosques in Britain, “the best estimate is in the region of 1,500. Of which, approximately 200 are purpose-built, the rest being either converted houses or other non-residential conversions”. (Saleem, 2012-2018).
24
According to the findings above from Shahed Saleems book, “The British Mosque, an architectural and social history”, it is suggested that from the estimated 1500 mosques in Britain, approximately 16% are purpose-built. Whereas the remainder are converted, of which more than half are house mosques. The question that arises then is, ‘why are converted mosques so popular in Britain till this day, even with a rapidly growing Muslim population?’ In order to find a reasonable answer to the question, we must look at the history of mosques in Britain.
Opposite - Figure 9: Approx proportion of mosque typologies in Britain.
25
Figure 10: Abdullah Quilliam (1856 - 1932)
26
THE FIRST MOSQUES IN BRITAIN
FIRST: CONVERTED HOUSE MOSQUE ABDULLAH QUILLIAM MOSQUE, LIVERPOOL (1889) The first mosque in Britain was established in a Georgian terrace house in Liverpool in 1889. Slight to the contrary, the Liverpool Muslim Institute Mosque was not founded by the Muslim migrant sailors of the late 19th century, but rather by a group of British reverts led by a distinguished local layer, Abdullah William Quilliam. Following his visits to Morocco, William Henry Quilliam along with his countrymen embraced Islam. Upon his return to Britain, Quilliam founded the Liverpool Muslim Institute Mosque. Very much like the majority of mosques in Britain at present, the Liverpool Muslim Institute Mosque was a conversion of an existing building rather than a purpose-built place of worship. As part of the conversion, a mihrab and a mimbar were added (fig11). The terrace conversion meant there was no capacity for any external application of an Islamic visual identity nor character. The internal changes were also limited, however they adopted and merged traditional Moroccan and Victorian beautification (fig 12). The Abdullah Quilliam Mosque highlighted how easy and effective it is to convert any building into a place of worship - into a mosque by simply adding a mihrab, an additional platform for a mimbar, and a place of purification before worship. This conversion process being considerably cost effective, quicker and easier than building a newly designed purpose-built mosque proved to be very popular 27
within the (poorer) migrant Muslim communities. This rather cost effective and swift process of converting houses into mosques allowed the early migrant Muslim communities to establish a dedicated place of worship for formal congregational salaah (5 daily prayers) relatively quickly. To this day, this method of converting not only houses, but also warehouses, factories and even churches and pubs into mosques is a popular and preferred option within the less established communities. Once established, the mosque committee will then proceed to amass funds to either renovate the existing buildings towards a more purpose-built place of worship or in some cases even seek to obtain new land and build a new purpose-built mosque.
Figure 11: Abdullah Quilliam Mosque Interior, Liverpool
28
Figure 12: Abdullah Quilliam Mosque Exterior, Liverpool
29
THE FIRST MOSQUES IN BRITAIN
FIRST: PURPOSE-BUILT MOSQUE SHAH JAHAN MOSQUE, WOKING (1889) The first purpose-built mosque in Britain and Northern Europe was commanded by Dr Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner, a Hungarian Jewish linguist who spent the majority of his working life from 1864 in Lahore (then part of India). Upon his return to Britain, Leitner was eager to establish an educational center in Europe that would celebrate and educate on the culture and history of India as well as the Islamic world. Fortunately for Leitner, the site of the former Royal Dramatic College became available in Woking during the 1880s. Leitner purchased the land and the idea of a mosque and an educational institution was born. The mosque was funded by the female ruler of the Indian princely state of Bhopal, the Sultan Shah Jahan Begum and the design was produced by the Victorian architect, William Isaac Chambers in the architectural language echoing that of British India and the Mughal era. Built from Bath and Bargate stone, the traditional orientalist design houses an onion dome, miniature minarets, a sahn courtyard as well as geometric Arabic patterns and calligraphic decorations surrounding the entrance as well as the internal coverage of the onion dome (fig 16). The mosque also took the language of the Mughal architectural styles in a rather Gothic style within the portico’s ogee archway and the trefoil arch over the main doorway (fig 13). Another typical Mughal addition is the inclusion of the smaller green domed cupola turrets (fig 14).
Opposite - Figure 13: The main entrance, Shah Jahan Mosque, Woking
31
Figure 15: Shah Jahan Mosque view from the street, Woking
Figure 16: Shah Jahan Mosque Dome Interior, Woking
Opposite - Figure 14: Shah Jahan Mosque, Woking
33
THE FIRST MOSQUES IN BRITAIN
NON DOMESTIC CONVERSION MOSQUE BRISTOL JAMIA MOSQUE, BRISTOL (1968) There are numerous mosques in Britain that fall under the category of nondomestic conversions. Nearly 40% of the mosques in Britain occupy this statistic, converting from warehouses, pubs, churches and synagogues. Bristol Jamia Mosque is a great example that demonstrates the reuse of existing sacral buildings by new religious communities. The Bristol Jamia Mosque committee was founded in 1967 and went on to purchase a former church building in the following year. It wasn’t until 1978 that any external alternations took place (Bristol City Council, 1978). Proposals were made to replace the existing pitched roof of the church with a flat roof, adorned by a dome, the rection of a minaret and slight modifications to the windows to make them less gothic and more towards the typically arched Mughal architectural style (fig18). These changes did not include any modifications to the internal spaces at the initial application phase. This suggests that the primary objective of the mosque was to reinscribe the building’s visual identity from a church to a symbolic mosque. This non domestic conversion allowed the Muslim community of Bristol to show-off the identity of a mosque through the addition of features that are attached to mosques all around the globe, and to represent the presence of Islam in Bristol during the 1970s.
Opposite - Figure 17: Jamia Mosque, Bristol
35
Figure 18: West and North Elevations of the former Church and the proposed alterations (Drawings based on Bristol City Council application, 1978)
36
37
QUILLIAM’S UNBUILT VISION
LIVERPOOL CATHEDRAL MOSQUE (1990s) Buoyed by the rising success of the Liverpool Muslim Institute as well as the rising numbers of reverts to Islam during the late 19th century, Quilliam arranged plans for a purpose-built ‘cathedral mosque’ to be built in the city. This proposed mosque would have space to accommodate 1,500 worshippers at any given time, including a private space for women as well as printing works to publish journals (Geaves, R. 2010). The 1890s elevation drawing of the then proposed mosque shows a three-storey building drawing inspiration from the traditional North African architectural style, through its dome, short minaret, and stepped battlements (fig 19). It was evident that Abdullah Quilliam’s design and architectural style behind the visionary purpose-built mosque were acquired from his travels in Morocco. This proposal is a good example of cultural architectural influence on the design of mosques not only in Britain but rather all around the globe. Every geographical location and time period have their distinctive architectural styles, not necessarily in mosque architecture, but in general use and design application Whether it be the type of materials that may be common to a geographical region, or the application of those materials, to the ornamental detail and aesthetical appearance of the exterior and interior spaces. The 1890s proposed purpose-built cathedral mosque was an early indication of the Islamic as well as the cultural architectural influence on mosque architecture that has been established within the mosques in Britain. It was also a great example of how migration and movement 38
of people within different geographical locations has an impact on architectural styles. This effect of globalization allows for the application of cultural aesthetics as well as creating homogenous architecture under the umbrella of religion, Islam.
Figure 19: Quilliams unbuilt proposed Cathedral Mosque, Liverpool Records
39
THE IMPORTANCE OF PURPOSE-BUILT
Abdullah Quilliam’s plans to gather funds to build a brand new larger purpose-built facility to accommodate a collective of different functions is the same transitional methodology the migrant Muslims communities shadow – migrate to a new geolocation, convert a building into a place of worship, accumulate funds, then expand or build new a facility. Although in most cases, converted mosques and places of worship tend to be adequately functional and serve their purpose (providing a clean place of worship), the desire for a more bespoke and purpose-built mosque is always attached within the communities. One of the driving motives for a new bespoke purposebuilt place of worship in the form of a mosque tends to be driven by ‘community pride’. Each migrant community desires a momentous landmark building that will represent their established community and also bring a sense of pride and joy in calling the new building ‘our mosque’ – an understandable human inclination of association and affiliation towards a landmark. Another reason for a purpose-built space is to allow for efficient use of space within the main prayer hall. This is informed by the orientation of the buildings. Most buildings are not naturally orientated towards the Qiblah, which is a compulsory requirement for the Muslim worshippers to face towards the Qiblah during prayer. The prayer mats are adjusted to face the Qiblah direction which tends to generate ‘dead space’, awkward room bearings, and hinder the circulation within the prayer spaces as they are rotated against the axis of the building (fig 20).
40
Figure 20: Typical orientation in purpose-built and converted mosques.
By the mid 20th century, there were still very few purposebuilt mosques across Britain. Since Shah Jahan Mosque was already built and in use, why did this Woking mosque not become a model for the new purpose-built mosques which were being built towards the mid and latter part of the 20th century? The main reason for the inability to replicate the orientalist Woking mosque were socioeconomics and lack of wealth. Unlike the majority of the mosques in Britain, the Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking was funded by the ruler of Bhopal, India. As the Muslim migrants arrived in Britain seeking work to provide for their families back home, financial stability was not common during the early days. 41
GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD OF MOSQUES IN BRITAIN The population of Muslims in Britain has doubled every 15 years. As the Muslim population increases, so do the number of mosques in Britain. Based on the census data (2011) and the data gathered by Saleem (2012-2018), we can identify that Muslims and mosques cover almost every corner of the country, with some areas having a higher density than others (fig 8). We can also identify a pattern within the dispersion and density of the Muslim populationshows that the Northern and industrial cities (in Lancashire, London, and in the Midlands) have a higher population of Muslims. In effect, this also leads to a higher number of mosques, of which also a higher percentage are purpose-built. (fig 21).
Figure 21: Comparison of mosque types across key towns, (Saleem, 2012)
42
Some Northern cities have between 30-40% purposebuilt mosques, higher than the nationwide average of 16%. Leeds, Bradford, Blackburn, Preston, Dewsbury, and Rochdale all occupy this statistic. The population of Muslims within these cities is also greater than the national average. There are numerous social, geographical, cultural origin, socio-economics, and settlement patterns that have had an impact on the number of purposebuilt mosques around the country, particularly within the northern region. Census data suggests that the majority of the Muslims in the northern region originate from the Indian subcontinent, particularly from the Gujrat state of India. The geographical and cultural origin of the Muslim population of Manchester and Birmingham, however, is from the Pakistan region of South Asia. This differentiation in geographical origin has an influence on the number of purpose-built mosques within these cities through social means. Representatives of the Gujrati communities within Britain suggest that their community was highly organized as a self-supporting social network and that the establishment of a mosque and communal facilities was an important cooperative towards which resources were readily channelled (Saleem, 2018). The northern region has a well-established Pakistani and a majority Gujrati Indian community. According to findings from Saleem’s book (2018), Gujrati communities tend to show the importance and a sense of urgency for a tailored purpose-built mosque not only to carry out the daily prayers but also to create institutional establishments for Islamic and sharia education known as darul-uloom or a madrassa or Islamic school. One may argue that Manchester, Birmingham and London 43
have a higher and dense population of Muslims, including Muslims from the Gujrat region too – so how do these cities differ in the number of purpose-built mosques? The 3 mentioned cities also have a higher concentration of the area of deprivation and lower socio-economics within the communities. This hinders the financial capabilities of the communities to purchase land and build a bespoke purpose-built mosque.
Figure 22: Mosques locations across Birmingham overlaid with density of Muslim population, Saleem (2012)
Figure 23: Mosques locations across Birmingham overlaid with levels of deprivation, Saleem (2012)
44
MOSQUES IN BIRMINGHAM
For this paper, I will look at the spread of mosques over the areas of deprivation within Birmingham to support the points made previously. It is evident that Birmingham has a large and ever-growing Muslim population from various parts of Europe, Africa, and predominantly from South Asia, such as Bangladesh and Mirpur of Pakistan. The total number of individuals who identify themselves as Muslims equates to over 20% of the population of Birmingham (Census 2011), which is above the national average of 4%. It also has the second largest population of mosques within a city followed by London from which the majority are house conversions. The data on the maps (fig 22 & 23) indicate that mosques are concentrated in areas of high Muslim population density which are concentrated mostly in inner-city areas where there are also high levels of social deprivation. These settlement patterns occurred as the post war Muslim migrants settled in such areas due to the employment opportunities available. The mosques that were established within these areas embedded within and serve very local communities.
45
FIRST MOSQUES IN BIRMINGHAM
FIRST: CONVERTED HOUSE MOSQUE ZAWIYA MOSQUE (1942) “1st Ever Mosque Established in Birmingham, UK. A very simple mosque with amazing people. Situated in the heart of Birmingham, The Zawiya Mosque opened its doors to the public since 1942 and continues to fulfil its promise.” (Zawiya Mosque, Google) The first mosque in Birmingham, just like the majority of the earliest mosques in almost every city was a conversion of a terraced house on Edward Road in Balsall Heath named Zawiya Mosque. The terraced conversion mosque was founded by the Yemeni sailor community who resided in Birmingham following some communities settling in Cardiff and Liverpool during the same period of the late 1930s and early 1940s. As the quote from the Zawiya mosque mentions, it is a simple mosque regarding its architectural features. Externally, the only visual mark of a mosque is the signage that reads the name of the mosque in Arabic and English. The exterior blends in comfortably with the terraced typology of the road without any Islamic architectural features. In theory, the mosque meets the objectives and requirements of a space to qualify it to become a place of worship, to become a masjid. It does not however have any real character to represent a particular style to the origin of its people. It simply falls under the umbrella of a converted place of worship – a converted mosque.
46
Figure 24: Zawiya Mosque, Balsall Heath, Birmingham (Google Maps)
47
FIRST MOSQUES IN BIRMINGHAM
FIRST: PURPOSE-BUILT MOSQUE BIRMINGHAM CENTRAL MOSQUE (1975) As the Muslim population continued to grow and more migrant Muslims carried on settling in Birmingham, the need for a larger communal prayer space was developed by the local Muslims during the 1960s. Birmingham Central Mosque became the first purpose-built mosque in Birmingham, opening its doors in 1975 as the largest mosque in Western Europe with a vast capacity to accommodate up to 6000 worshippers. The Central Mosque incorporated conventional motifs and features taken from Islamic architecture. Externally, the mosque is a prominent building and is seen as a landmark structure with its minarets and central dome, representing the Islamic architectural styles and features throughout history. Internally, the mosque is somewhat plain and unadorned. The main internal feature being the circular beam and a chandelier representing the central dome from within (fig 25). The lack of beautification within the interior reflects the origin, culture, and beliefs of the founding people of the mosque – the Deobandi. Deobandi is an Islamic revivalist movement within Sunni Hanafi Islam that formed around the Darul Uloom Islamic seminary in the town of Deoband in India, where the movement inherited its name from (Comins, 2009). The movement does not pay homage to any adornments or additional features of beautification within the architectural realm. It is considered as almost a simple way of life. In religious terms, the Deoband movement 48
opposes the Sufi practices and additional celebratory events within the Islamic world and are strong adherers of the Quran and Hadith, without any additional cultural practices. These elements of belief and understanding are translated in the muted design of the interior with its lack of adornments influenced from the Islamic architectural history.
Figure 25: Central Mosque Interior, Birmingham (2017)
Figure 26: Central Mosque, Birmingham (2020)
49
FIRST MOSQUES IN BIRMINGHAM
CENTRAL JAMIA MOSQUE GHAMKOL SHARIF (1996) The Ghamkol Sharif mosque community began just like every other migrant Muslim community, through a converted house mosque during the 1960s. As the community grew and gained recognition and popularity for its Tariqa (Sufi order), the need for a larger space was essential for its people. In 1990, the committee members sought an opportunity in acquiring land off the local council on Golden Hillock Road which consisted of 35 derelict houses. Once the land was purchased, the committee appointed a Luton-based practice, John Manning Partnership, who had already designed a few mosques, to design the Ghamkol Sharif mosque which opened its doors to the congregation in 1996, four years following the beginning of construction. The mosque which is now the heart of the Sufi Tariqa consists of the main prayer space on the first floor, with a women’s gallery and a central dome forming a grand feature. The walls within the main prayer hall are lined in onyx and the Qiblah wall is adorned with photographs of the Haramain (Holy mosques in Mecca and Medina) and Arabic calligraphic text proclaiming the Islamic declaration of faith. This eloquence in design equated to the expressiveness of Love for God and his messenger (fig 27). The architecture of the mosque combines Islamic architectural forms and features along with local materials. The hexagonal minaret, arched windows, and a central dome all add to the influence of the Islamic world (Saleem, 50
2018). Brick-faced walls and tiled pitched roofs represent the local materiality as well the local craftsmanship. The determination of the migrant community to grow from a converted house into a landmark mosque shows the influence of migrant styles not only in the architectural language but also in the practices and forms of worship carried out with the mosque and the place of worship.
Figure 27: Ghamkol Sharif Mosque Interior, Birmingham (2019)
Figure 28: Ghamkol Sharif Mosque, Birmingham (2019)
51
CONTEMPORARY BRITISH MOSQUE ERA
Fast forward to the contemporary period, the recent mosques designed since the 2000s have all recognized that the British mosque is no longer a mosque influenced by Pakistani origin, or Gujrati, Indian culture, but rather it is a collective of the British Muslim identity in a cohesive and diverse nation. It is also important to understand that the term ‘Islamic architecture’ does not refer to Islam as a religious connotation, but rather represents the architectural styles, features, and archetypes of the Islamic World. Therefore, domes, minarets, calligraphic art, and curved windows and doors are not an Islamically religious necessity within mosques but rather an architectural language that has long been affiliated with Islamic sacral architecture and thus migrated all over the world within mosques and Islamic places of worship. Each Muslim dominant geographical region has its adaptations to these features, so it is only appropriate to understand the evolution of sacral architectural needs and features of the rapidly growing British Muslim population.
Opposite - Figure 29: Timber Mihrab, Cambridge (Albakar Mukadam, 2020)
53
CAMBRIDGE CENTRAL MOSQUE (2019) One recent notable project which stands out and has addressed the change in establishing the ‘Contemporary British Mosque typology’ is the Cambridge Mosque by Marks Barfield Architects. Arguably, the mosques around the world have engaged the culture and vernacular of the location they are in, the Cambridge mosque, however, bridges two cultures, British and Muslim while taking into consideration the neighbours around the building. The mosque design carefully integrated common features from the mosque archetypes from around the globe through the sahn, with flowing water at the heart of it (fig 30). The design also takes into consideration the modernday environmental and sustainability factors with the inclusion of rainwater harvesting, photovoltaics, natural ventilation, passive cooling, and naturally lit spaces, all of which are unheard of for a sacral archetype, especially within an Islamic place of worship. In a recent television series, the Imam of the Mosque made mention of an important belief in Islam regarding light. He quoted the Holy Book of God, “Allahu noorus samawati wal ard” (Quran, 24:35), which translates to “God is the Light of the heavens and the Earth”. He went on further to explain “God is the source of light... Guidance is spoken as light and misguidance as darkness. Light comes from above and into the space and into our heart” (Art of Architecture S2, E2, Cambridge Central Mosque, 2021). One of the emphasis within the of the Cambridge mosque was the utilisation of natural light flooding the prayer hall to increase the level of spirituality (fig 32). The Cambridge mosque is certainly the beginning of the Contemporary British Mosque archetype. It is a wholesome Opposite - Figure 30: Sahn, Cambridge (Albakar Mukadam, 2020)
55
project which takes into account, not just a clean space to pray in, but also it’s surrounding, the environment, the use of natural light, water and most importantly the future of the British Muslim generation by combining migrant Islamic, cultural and sustainable styles to create a new language of Mosque design under the homogenous umbrella of Islam.
Figure 31: Qiblah Wall, Cambridge (Albakar Mukadam, 2020)
56
Opposite - Figure 32: Interior, Cambridge (Albakar Mukadam, 2020)
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we can gather that mosques are common across Britain through house conversions, non-domestic conversions, and purpose-built with one common theme to offer an open space that is clean, in which people can face Mecca and offer their prayers. Conversion mosques have become the popular type and a community favorite due to the time efficiency and low costs surrounding the purchase of land, planning applications, architectural fees, and decorations. The communities with the financial means to design and build bespoke purpose-built mosques tend to translate their traditional geo-cultural as well as their theological approaches through the architecture. The Deoband movements approach is that of simplicity and lack of adornments (Birmingham Central Mosque), whereas the Sufi/Barelwi design approach would see expressive aesthetics and decorations (Ghamkol Sharif Mosque). With the introduction of the Cambridge mosque, it is evident that a new architectural style for mosques in Britain is underway – a combination of architectural influences from the Islamic world, religious functionality, the British Muslim demographic, and the environmental consideration. In the decades to follow, the new generation of British Muslims will slowly adapt and evolve the architectural styles, bridging them under a homogenous umbrella of British Islamic Mosque typology. This study is a very simplified version due to the wordcount of the submission. There are still several areas to be researched and complexities to be explored within both the theological religious views and the mosque typologies. 58
Understanding the influence of the Sunni/Shia sect of Islam, the Salafi movement, and the differences these theological ideologies propose on the typology of mosques and their architectural language. Another addition is the exploration of further attachments to mosques in the form of madrassa, schools, markets, community halls, assembly spaces and recreational facilities for families and children.
59
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ansari, H., 2004. The “infidel” within: The History of Muslims in Britain. London: C. Hurst, p.37. Art of Architecture S2, E2, Cambridge Central Mosque. 2021. [film] Sky Arts. Commins, D., 2009. The Wahhabi mission and Saudi Arabia. London: I.B. Tauris, p.247. Conti, F., 1978. Centers of belief. HBJ Press, Boston. Fisher, M., 2008. Counterflows to colonialism. Delhi: Permanent Black, pp.111–9, 129–30, 140. Geaves, R., n.d. Islam in Victorian Britain. p.91. Grube, E., Dickie, J., Grabar, O., Sims, E., Lewcock, R., Jones, D., Petherbridge, G. and Michell, G., 1978. Architecture of the Islamic world. pp.65-79. Hecht, R., Biondo, V. and Hussain, S., 2010. Religion and everyday life and culture. 3rd ed. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger, p.859. La Barbera, M., 2014. Identity and Migration in Europe: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Springer Science+Business Media, p.230. Petersen, A., 1996. Dictionary of islamic architecture. London: Routledge, p.247. Saleem, S., 2018. The British mosque. Historic England, pp.16-18, 63-67, 120, 259,. Saleem, S. and Saleem, S., 2012. A history of mosques in Britain. [online] The Architects’ Journal. Available at: <https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/ archive/a-history-of-mosques-in-britain> [Accessed 15 February 2021].
60
REFERENCES
FIGURES: Figure 1: Prostration Source: https://www.prayerinislam.com/fatwas-rulings/prolonged-supplicationin-the-final-prostration-permissible/ Figure 2: Open Iftar - Ramadan Tent Project, London Source: https://www.ramadantentproject.com/ Figure 3: Home Prayer Space, Birmingham Source: Albakar Mukadam (2021) Figure 4: Dome of the Rock, Palestine Source: Albakar Mukadam (2019) Figure 5: Mosque Archetypes Source: Stegers, R., Baumann, D. (Eds.), 2010. Sacred buildings: a design manual, A de sign manual. Birkhäuser, Basel. Figure 6: Doorway of Grand Mosque, Paris Source: Albakar Mukadam (2019) Figure 7: 3 Lascars Source:https://www.ourmigrationstory.org.uk/oms/the-lascars-britains-colonialera-sailors Figure 8: Distribution of Muslims across England Source: Albakar Mukadam. (Adapted from illustration by Shahed Saleem 2012) Figure 9: Approx proportion of mosque typologies in Britain Source: Albakar Mukadam. (dapted from illustration by Shahed Saleem 2012) Figure 10: Abdullah Quilliam Source: http://www.abdullahquilliam.org/about-abdullah-quilliam/ Figure 11: Abdullah Quilliam Mosque Interior Source: http://www.abdullahquilliam.org/during-abdullah-quilliams-life/ Figure 12: Abdullah Quilliam Mosque Exterior Source: http://www.abdullahquilliam.org/present-exterior/ Figure 13: The main entrance, Shah Jahan Mosque, Woking Source: https://www.migrationmuseum.org/grade-i-status-conferred-on-britishmosque-with-extraordinary-history/ © Heritage England
61
Figure 14: Shah Jahan Mosque, Woking Source: https://www.migrationmuseum.org/grade-i-status-conferred-on-britishmosque-with-extraordinary-history/ © Heritage England Figure 15: The Shah Jahan Mosque view from the street, Woking Source: https://www.migrationmuseum.org/grade-i-status-conferred-on-britishmosque-with-extraordinary-history/ © Heritage England Figure 16: Shah Jahan Mosque Dome Interior, Woking Source: https://www.migrationmuseum.org/grade-i-status-conferred-on-britishmosque-with-extraordinary-history/ © Heritage England Figure 17: Jamia Mosque, Bristol Source: http://museums.bristol.gov.uk/narratives.php?irn=2806 Figure 18: West and North Elevations of the former Church and the proposed alterations Source: (Drawings based on Bristol City Council application, 1978) Figure 19: Quilliam’s unbuilt proposed Cathedral Mosque Source: http://www.abdullahquilliam.org/during-abdullah-quilliams-life/ (iverpool Records) Figure 20: Typical orientation in purpose-built and converted mosques Source: Albakar Mukadam Figure 21: Comparison of mosque types across key towns Source: Shahed Saleem (2012) Figure 22: Mosques locations across Birmingham overlaid with density of Muslim population Source: Shahed Saleem (2012) Figure 23: Mosques locations across Birmingham overlaid with levels of deprivation Source: Shahed Saleem (2012) Figure 24: Zawiya Mosque, Birmingham Source: Google Maps (2021) Figure 25: Central Mosque Interior, Birmingham Source: https://www.business-live.co.uk/economic-development/birminghamcentral-mosque-hidden-parts-10649704 (2017) Figure 26: Central Mosque, Birmingham Source: https://centralmosque.org.uk/resources/gallery/ (2020)
62
Figure 27: Ghamkol Sharif Mosque Interior, Birmingham Source: Shahed Saleem (2018) Figure 28: Ghamkol Sharif Mosque, Birmingham Source: http://www.faithuk.org/listing/ghamkol-sharif-birmingham/ (2019) Figure 29: Timber Mihrab, Cambridge Source: Albakar Mukadam (2020) Figure 30: Sahn, Cambridge Source: Albakar Mukadam (2020) Figure 31: Qiblah Wall, Cambridge Source: Albakar Mukadam (2020) Figure 32: Interior, Cambridge Source: Albakar Mukadam (2020)
63
