AN INTRODUCTION TO MAJAPAHIT TERRACOTTA ARTIFACTS The Majapahit Kingdom, which flourished for approximately two and half centuries (13th-16th century AD), left us a substantial and varied artistic heritage, which, to a great extent, can still be admired today. There are physical artworks produced by fine artists (silpin) and works of literary art written in kawi (Old Javanese script), by poets or mpu (intellectuals with specific literary or artistic skills). There were literary texts also meant for the performing arts, but corresponding evidence for the Majapahit era is still very scant. Thus, we have to rely mainly on actual physical objects, i.e. on archaeological data. This brief essay does not discuss the general evidence of arts during the Majapahit era but rather focuses on a first selection of artworks PAC I F I C O C E A N available at present for scientific study. Of course, the art forms that developed during the Majapahit period were deeply inspired by Hindu-Buddhist traditions that thrived during the previous eras: firstly, Singhasari (13th century AD) and Kadiri (12th century AD), as well as when the power hubs were active in the eastern part of Java in the late 10th century AD.
Nagor Lengkasuka Keda Lamuri Lwas
Jere
Kalanten
SOUTH CHINA SEA
Tringgano
Samudra
Solot
Dungun
Parllak Tumihang Teba Barus
Berune
Pahang
Kelang
Hujung Medini
Panai
Tumasik
Mandahiling
Sambas
Karitang
Malayu
Darmmacraya
Nusa Tanjungnagara
Kapuhas Samedang Sukadana Tanjung Puri
Kanjab
Jambi
Pakuan
Sunda
Galuh
Lasem Pajang
Jawadwipa
Sakasanusa
Tabalung
Luwu
Banjar Katingan
J AVA S E A
Gowa
Makassar
Tuban Madura Hujung Galuh Kahuripan Daha Bali Lumajang
Sran
Sawaku
Sampit
Kalapa
INDIAN OCEAN
Banggawi
Kuta Waringin
Kuta Lingga
Lampung
Maloko Tanjung Kutei
Swarnadwipa Palembang
Udamakatraya
Sedu
Landa
Niran
Siyak Minangkabwa
SEA OF S U L AW E S I
Malano
Pakamuar
Bedahulu
Butun
Gurun
B A N DA S E A
Salaya Dompo
Lombok Mirah
Ambwan Wandan
FLORES SEA
Bima Sapi
Trowulan Majapahit Lwagajah
Hutan Kadali
Wanin
Timur
Taliwang Saksak
The artworks' roots can be traced further back to the Old Classical period (8th-10th century), which left behind many important artifacts, especially in central Java. As Boisselier stated: «The modest village of Majapahit had been transformed in the fourteenth century, according to the Pararaton,1 into a vast city girt by imposing brick walls. Little of this survives apart from a few rather unpretentious ruins in the immediate vicinity of the village of Trowulan which has been identified on the site of the former capital. […] If the Singhasari period suddenly comes to an end, while its art enters a particularly brilliant phase and acquires fresh originality, the Majapahit period appears, fortunately, as its real continuation. The permanence of these traditions can no doubt be explained by the fact that Gaja Mada, “the real founder of the kingdom of Majapahit”, presented himself as the direct continuer of the work of Kṛtanagāra, the last king of Singhasari, and that the foundations which he built to further the glory of the late monarch were to remain, for this very reason, faithful to that inspiration, while of course reflecting a natural evolution» [1989: 5]. Among the surviving artworks of the Majapahit era, it is the terracotta figures that are still the most poorly researched. Many of these highly formal sculptures were unquestionably fashioned following precise templates, concerns, and concepts; in the past, some were wrongly interpreted, but mistakes happen, and are now being corrected by further and growing expertise. Terracotta Majapahit sculptures should be carefully documented in order to safeguard against them being broken, scattered, or destroyed. At the Trowulan site, the former city of Majapahit, a large number fragments of terracotta figures depicting humans, animals and natural landscapes were found as well as thousands of other various forms.
Legend Majapahit capital city Core realm of Majapahit Majapahit vassal states Sea under Majapahit influence Extent of Majapahit naval expedition
10
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 10-11
1. “Book of the Kings”, a prose written in “middle Javanese” sometime after 1481 [Boisselier, 1989: 5]. See also References: Kriswanto, 2009.
320 km
«The site had already yielded various fragments of tuff bas-relief—the remains of vanished temples—and interesting terra-cotta figurines, which, while recalling a tradition which had doubtless emerged in the kingdom of Kadiri, also showed that “intimiste” and profoundly human feeling which were happy to discover in the larger statues» [Boisselier, 1989: 7].
11
01.08.23 15:09
AN INTRODUCTION TO MAJAPAHIT TERRACOTTA ARTIFACTS The Majapahit Kingdom, which flourished for approximately two and half centuries (13th-16th century AD), left us a substantial and varied artistic heritage, which, to a great extent, can still be admired today. There are physical artworks produced by fine artists (silpin) and works of literary art written in kawi (Old Javanese script), by poets or mpu (intellectuals with specific literary or artistic skills). There were literary texts also meant for the performing arts, but corresponding evidence for the Majapahit era is still very scant. Thus, we have to rely mainly on actual physical objects, i.e. on archaeological data. This brief essay does not discuss the general evidence of arts during the Majapahit era but rather focuses on a first selection of artworks PAC I F I C O C E A N available at present for scientific study. Of course, the art forms that developed during the Majapahit period were deeply inspired by Hindu-Buddhist traditions that thrived during the previous eras: firstly, Singhasari (13th century AD) and Kadiri (12th century AD), as well as when the power hubs were active in the eastern part of Java in the late 10th century AD.
Nagor Lengkasuka Keda Lamuri Lwas
Jere
Kalanten
SOUTH CHINA SEA
Tringgano
Samudra
Solot
Dungun
Parllak Tumihang Teba Barus
Berune
Pahang
Kelang
Hujung Medini
Panai
Tumasik
Mandahiling
Sambas
Karitang
Malayu
Darmmacraya
Nusa Tanjungnagara
Kapuhas Samedang Sukadana Tanjung Puri
Kanjab
Jambi
Pakuan
Sunda
Galuh
Lasem Pajang
Jawadwipa
Sakasanusa
Tabalung
Luwu
Banjar Katingan
J AVA S E A
Gowa
Makassar
Tuban Madura Hujung Galuh Kahuripan Daha Bali Lumajang
Sran
Sawaku
Sampit
Kalapa
INDIAN OCEAN
Banggawi
Kuta Waringin
Kuta Lingga
Lampung
Maloko Tanjung Kutei
Swarnadwipa Palembang
Udamakatraya
Sedu
Landa
Niran
Siyak Minangkabwa
SEA OF S U L AW E S I
Malano
Pakamuar
Bedahulu
Butun
Gurun
B A N DA S E A
Salaya Dompo
Lombok Mirah
Ambwan Wandan
FLORES SEA
Bima Sapi
Trowulan Majapahit Lwagajah
Hutan Kadali
Wanin
Timur
Taliwang Saksak
The artworks' roots can be traced further back to the Old Classical period (8th-10th century), which left behind many important artifacts, especially in central Java. As Boisselier stated: «The modest village of Majapahit had been transformed in the fourteenth century, according to the Pararaton,1 into a vast city girt by imposing brick walls. Little of this survives apart from a few rather unpretentious ruins in the immediate vicinity of the village of Trowulan which has been identified on the site of the former capital. […] If the Singhasari period suddenly comes to an end, while its art enters a particularly brilliant phase and acquires fresh originality, the Majapahit period appears, fortunately, as its real continuation. The permanence of these traditions can no doubt be explained by the fact that Gaja Mada, “the real founder of the kingdom of Majapahit”, presented himself as the direct continuer of the work of Kṛtanagāra, the last king of Singhasari, and that the foundations which he built to further the glory of the late monarch were to remain, for this very reason, faithful to that inspiration, while of course reflecting a natural evolution» [1989: 5]. Among the surviving artworks of the Majapahit era, it is the terracotta figures that are still the most poorly researched. Many of these highly formal sculptures were unquestionably fashioned following precise templates, concerns, and concepts; in the past, some were wrongly interpreted, but mistakes happen, and are now being corrected by further and growing expertise. Terracotta Majapahit sculptures should be carefully documented in order to safeguard against them being broken, scattered, or destroyed. At the Trowulan site, the former city of Majapahit, a large number fragments of terracotta figures depicting humans, animals and natural landscapes were found as well as thousands of other various forms.
Legend Majapahit capital city Core realm of Majapahit Majapahit vassal states Sea under Majapahit influence Extent of Majapahit naval expedition
10
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 10-11
1. “Book of the Kings”, a prose written in “middle Javanese” sometime after 1481 [Boisselier, 1989: 5]. See also References: Kriswanto, 2009.
320 km
«The site had already yielded various fragments of tuff bas-relief—the remains of vanished temples—and interesting terra-cotta figurines, which, while recalling a tradition which had doubtless emerged in the kingdom of Kadiri, also showed that “intimiste” and profoundly human feeling which were happy to discover in the larger statues» [Boisselier, 1989: 7].
11
01.08.23 15:09
◊ Some images, being sacred in nature, are very likely to have been used in religious rituals as statues of worship, such as those of Shiva, Nandi, and Hariti, among others. Their abundance in the remains of the capital would be a consequence of the centralization of important rituals and ceremonies. ◊ The statues depicting a woman with tilted bun are very likely to refer to a specific individual female character. This personage, apparently highly respected by the people of Majapahit, was perhaps a princess or even the wife of Hayam Wuruk, the fourth king of Majapahit. In the book Pararaton, it is stated that the Sundanese princess Dyah Pithaloka Citrarasmi died in PasundaBubat in 1279 Saka/1357 AD [Kriswanto 2009: 108-109]. It is very possible that the princess Citrarasmi’s beauty was greatly admired not only by Hayam Wuruk himself but by the people of Majapahit itself, and that her hairstyle became a model which inspired other female portraits and female court fashion. Many surviving works and subjects of Majapahit terracotta art have not yet been discussed, even though they are obviously important, given their frequency in the Trowulan archaeological compound. Many objects seem to be permeated with explicit religious inspiration, fulfilling cultic needs. If this is true, the terracottas should be viewed against a wide, all-encompassing religious background, including Hindu-Shivaite scenarios, Mahayana Buddhism, or pervasive fusions among these spheres. Several terracotta artifacts, indeed, seem to reflect and express various aspects of Hindu-Buddhist religious life, such as avatars and vehicles (vahana) of deities, fragments of myths and religious narratives, or material symbols of important templates and founding religious concepts. However, one cannot exclude that other images, distinguished by vivid, immediately realistic traits, may only depict ordinary human figures and objects belonging to real environments and daily activities. To use again the words of Boisselier: «The engaging artistic production of Majapahit prompts us to raise more questions than to offer firm conclusions. But we cannot but place these works alongside others which are just as enigmatic and are of the same age: the glazed statuettes produced by the workshops of Sukhothai and the terra-cottas of Ayuthya. Both of these adopted much the same subjects, although Sukhothai preferred to treat them with a touch of humor. Now we know the close trading relations between Sukhothai, and even of Ayuthya, and Java. There is certainly matter for research here, and perhaps even for the first steps along a road which may lead to the explanation of a number of fascinating, but still mysterious works» [Boisselier, 1989: 8].
REFERENCES Boisselier, Jean, 1989. Majapahit. Paris: Beurdeley & Cie. Bernet Kempers, A.J., 1959. Ancient Indonesian Art. Amsterdam: C.P.J. van der Peet. Kriswanto, Agung, 2009. Pararaton: Alih Aksara dan Terjemahan. Jakarta: Wedatama Widya Sastra. Muller, H.R.A., 1978. Javanese Terracottas: Terra Incognita. Lochem: Uitgeversmaatschappij de Tijdstroom B.V. Pojoh, Ingrid H.E., 1990. "Terracotta from Trowulan Site, Mojokerto Regency, East Java." In Edi Sedyawati et al. Monument: Presentation for Prof. Dr. R. Soekmono, pp. 219–45. Scientific Publishing Series No. 11. Special Edition. Depok: Faculty of Letters, Universitas Indonesia.
14
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 14-15
15
01.08.23 15:09
◊ Some images, being sacred in nature, are very likely to have been used in religious rituals as statues of worship, such as those of Shiva, Nandi, and Hariti, among others. Their abundance in the remains of the capital would be a consequence of the centralization of important rituals and ceremonies. ◊ The statues depicting a woman with tilted bun are very likely to refer to a specific individual female character. This personage, apparently highly respected by the people of Majapahit, was perhaps a princess or even the wife of Hayam Wuruk, the fourth king of Majapahit. In the book Pararaton, it is stated that the Sundanese princess Dyah Pithaloka Citrarasmi died in PasundaBubat in 1279 Saka/1357 AD [Kriswanto 2009: 108-109]. It is very possible that the princess Citrarasmi’s beauty was greatly admired not only by Hayam Wuruk himself but by the people of Majapahit itself, and that her hairstyle became a model which inspired other female portraits and female court fashion. Many surviving works and subjects of Majapahit terracotta art have not yet been discussed, even though they are obviously important, given their frequency in the Trowulan archaeological compound. Many objects seem to be permeated with explicit religious inspiration, fulfilling cultic needs. If this is true, the terracottas should be viewed against a wide, all-encompassing religious background, including Hindu-Shivaite scenarios, Mahayana Buddhism, or pervasive fusions among these spheres. Several terracotta artifacts, indeed, seem to reflect and express various aspects of Hindu-Buddhist religious life, such as avatars and vehicles (vahana) of deities, fragments of myths and religious narratives, or material symbols of important templates and founding religious concepts. However, one cannot exclude that other images, distinguished by vivid, immediately realistic traits, may only depict ordinary human figures and objects belonging to real environments and daily activities. To use again the words of Boisselier: «The engaging artistic production of Majapahit prompts us to raise more questions than to offer firm conclusions. But we cannot but place these works alongside others which are just as enigmatic and are of the same age: the glazed statuettes produced by the workshops of Sukhothai and the terra-cottas of Ayuthya. Both of these adopted much the same subjects, although Sukhothai preferred to treat them with a touch of humor. Now we know the close trading relations between Sukhothai, and even of Ayuthya, and Java. There is certainly matter for research here, and perhaps even for the first steps along a road which may lead to the explanation of a number of fascinating, but still mysterious works» [Boisselier, 1989: 8].
REFERENCES Boisselier, Jean, 1989. Majapahit. Paris: Beurdeley & Cie. Bernet Kempers, A.J., 1959. Ancient Indonesian Art. Amsterdam: C.P.J. van der Peet. Kriswanto, Agung, 2009. Pararaton: Alih Aksara dan Terjemahan. Jakarta: Wedatama Widya Sastra. Muller, H.R.A., 1978. Javanese Terracottas: Terra Incognita. Lochem: Uitgeversmaatschappij de Tijdstroom B.V. Pojoh, Ingrid H.E., 1990. "Terracotta from Trowulan Site, Mojokerto Regency, East Java." In Edi Sedyawati et al. Monument: Presentation for Prof. Dr. R. Soekmono, pp. 219–45. Scientific Publishing Series No. 11. Special Edition. Depok: Faculty of Letters, Universitas Indonesia.
14
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 14-15
15
01.08.23 15:09
[002]
Material – terracotta Size – 105 x 38 cm General condition – heavily fragmented, restored with gaps
[002]
A miniature temple When compared to the similar artifact of No. 1, the elegant miniature temple No. 2 is more slender. Like other similar artworks, it could have been the ekagrata (the aim of worship) during religious ceremonies, or, in contrast, used as a kapuradani (incense burner). Many fragments of similar temple miniatures found in Trowulan are now stored in the Majapahit Information Center Museum.
20
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 20-21
21
01.08.23 15:09
[002]
Material – terracotta Size – 105 x 38 cm General condition – heavily fragmented, restored with gaps
[002]
A miniature temple When compared to the similar artifact of No. 1, the elegant miniature temple No. 2 is more slender. Like other similar artworks, it could have been the ekagrata (the aim of worship) during religious ceremonies, or, in contrast, used as a kapuradani (incense burner). Many fragments of similar temple miniatures found in Trowulan are now stored in the Majapahit Information Center Museum.
20
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 20-21
21
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[005]
Material – terracotta Size – 49 x 30 cm General condition – well preserved, with partially worn surface and minor damage
[005]
A royal couple A couple (man and woman) sit on a cube-like base embellished with spirals and tendrils. Below this base is a rather wide pedestal. The couple sit at a distance; the woman's right hand holds the man's waist, and the man's left arm is wrapped around the woman's shoulder, in a sign of intimacy and confidence. Their heads and upper bodies are slightly tilted towards each other. Such a sitting posture seems to be a variant of maharajalilasana, where the bodies are arched in a relaxed manner and both legs hang down, touching the pedestal. Similar sitting positions are usually displayed by kings and their consorts. Their clothes and jewelry are quite luxurious. The man wears a crown in the form of a cone, commonly called a kiritamukuta, Vishnu’s crown. Originally the lower edge was lavishly decorated, but the patterns are now worn and somewhat hard to see. The man's long hair is gathered in a small bun at the back of his head and he wears a complete jewelry set: an elaborate metal necklace, the cord placed obliquely on the chest, indicating membership of the two upper castes, as well as two armlets, double bracelets, a breast-belt and a belt, and a rich leg strap above a paridhana (sarong) with geometric decorations that reaches to his feet. His consort shows off the same attire and jewels, but not the crown, which is replaced by a small headband decorated with rows of triangles. She wears a sarong decorated with a long blooming flower motif, which also reaches down to her feet. On the female figure there is only one decorative rope crossing the legs instead of two.
26
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 26-27
27
01.08.23 15:09
[005]
Material – terracotta Size – 49 x 30 cm General condition – well preserved, with partially worn surface and minor damage
[005]
A royal couple A couple (man and woman) sit on a cube-like base embellished with spirals and tendrils. Below this base is a rather wide pedestal. The couple sit at a distance; the woman's right hand holds the man's waist, and the man's left arm is wrapped around the woman's shoulder, in a sign of intimacy and confidence. Their heads and upper bodies are slightly tilted towards each other. Such a sitting posture seems to be a variant of maharajalilasana, where the bodies are arched in a relaxed manner and both legs hang down, touching the pedestal. Similar sitting positions are usually displayed by kings and their consorts. Their clothes and jewelry are quite luxurious. The man wears a crown in the form of a cone, commonly called a kiritamukuta, Vishnu’s crown. Originally the lower edge was lavishly decorated, but the patterns are now worn and somewhat hard to see. The man's long hair is gathered in a small bun at the back of his head and he wears a complete jewelry set: an elaborate metal necklace, the cord placed obliquely on the chest, indicating membership of the two upper castes, as well as two armlets, double bracelets, a breast-belt and a belt, and a rich leg strap above a paridhana (sarong) with geometric decorations that reaches to his feet. His consort shows off the same attire and jewels, but not the crown, which is replaced by a small headband decorated with rows of triangles. She wears a sarong decorated with a long blooming flower motif, which also reaches down to her feet. On the female figure there is only one decorative rope crossing the legs instead of two.
26
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 26-27
27
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[017]
Material – terracotta Size – 64 x 36 cm General condition – fragmented, but almost entirely restored; only few fragments are missing
[017]
Hariti In the Javanese Hindu-Buddhist culture of the 8th-15th century AD, people worshipped
Devi Hariti, a goddess who loves and takes good care of children. In this image, Hariti stands on a round pedestal embellished with geometric designs and is surrounded by children: two are held under her arms, while others play in front and behind her body. The goddess looks like a mature woman, short of stature and fat, wearing earrings and a thick coiled necklace. In this and in the following statues, such ornaments might represent collars of precious metal or, in contrast, a thick rope of soft silk, from which an elaborate cast pendant hangs. Bare-chested, she wears a paridhana (sarong), which falls from waist to feet. On top of her head is what remains of a concave container, now broken, possibly a oil lamp.
48
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 48-49
49
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[017]
Material – terracotta Size – 64 x 36 cm General condition – fragmented, but almost entirely restored; only few fragments are missing
[017]
Hariti In the Javanese Hindu-Buddhist culture of the 8th-15th century AD, people worshipped
Devi Hariti, a goddess who loves and takes good care of children. In this image, Hariti stands on a round pedestal embellished with geometric designs and is surrounded by children: two are held under her arms, while others play in front and behind her body. The goddess looks like a mature woman, short of stature and fat, wearing earrings and a thick coiled necklace. In this and in the following statues, such ornaments might represent collars of precious metal or, in contrast, a thick rope of soft silk, from which an elaborate cast pendant hangs. Bare-chested, she wears a paridhana (sarong), which falls from waist to feet. On top of her head is what remains of a concave container, now broken, possibly a oil lamp.
48
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 48-49
49
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[032]
Material – terracotta Size – 58 x 26 cm General condition – broken, but well restored by reconstructing the fragments; a gap remains in the neck
A young girl The image depicts a young girl on her knees, presumably a posture of reverence in front of an older or respected person. Being fully dressed and heavily adorned, the young female seems to be upper class, perhaps a princess or the daughter of an aristocratic family, although one cannot exclude the representation of a celestial being from a mythical narrative. The hair is neatly fashioned, with curls on the left temple and other, larger ones at the front; on the right, it is embellished by a large, round floral pattern. The coiled necklace, apparently suggesting precious metal, holds a large rhomboidal pendant. She also wears two heavy bangles. Her chest is covered with a sarong falling over her knees. From the waist, a kind of shawl falls between her legs and onto her right thigh. The figure is kneeling on a round base, embellished by triangular patterns and flower buds.
68
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 68-69
Material – terracotta Size – 51 x 32 cm General condition – although the artifact was broken in several parts, it has been reconstructed well; there is a hole in the neck
[033]
A young girl kneeling The image depicts a young girl on her knees, with a sweet expression. The head is slightly tilted to the left, with the left arm raised to the right forearm, presumably a posture of reverence in front of an older or respected person or deity. Because of its fleshy traits and self-absorbed expression, the face is similar to that of the previous statue, but the characterization is that of a younger lady. Fully dressed and heavily adorned, this girl also seems to be upper class, perhaps a princess or the daughter of an aristocratic family, although one cannot exclude the representation of a celestial being from a mythical narrative. The hair is neatly fashioned, with curls on the left temple and other, larger ones at the front; on the right, it is embellished by a large, round floral pattern. The coiled necklace, apparently suggesting a precious metal, holds a large rhomboidal pendant. She also wears two heavy bangles. Her chest is covered with a sarong falling over her knees. From the waist, a kind of shawl falls between her legs and onto her right thigh. The figure is kneeling on a round base, embellished by triangular patterns and flower buds.
69
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[032]
Material – terracotta Size – 58 x 26 cm General condition – broken, but well restored by reconstructing the fragments; a gap remains in the neck
A young girl The image depicts a young girl on her knees, presumably a posture of reverence in front of an older or respected person. Being fully dressed and heavily adorned, the young female seems to be upper class, perhaps a princess or the daughter of an aristocratic family, although one cannot exclude the representation of a celestial being from a mythical narrative. The hair is neatly fashioned, with curls on the left temple and other, larger ones at the front; on the right, it is embellished by a large, round floral pattern. The coiled necklace, apparently suggesting precious metal, holds a large rhomboidal pendant. She also wears two heavy bangles. Her chest is covered with a sarong falling over her knees. From the waist, a kind of shawl falls between her legs and onto her right thigh. The figure is kneeling on a round base, embellished by triangular patterns and flower buds.
68
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 68-69
Material – terracotta Size – 51 x 32 cm General condition – although the artifact was broken in several parts, it has been reconstructed well; there is a hole in the neck
[033]
A young girl kneeling The image depicts a young girl on her knees, with a sweet expression. The head is slightly tilted to the left, with the left arm raised to the right forearm, presumably a posture of reverence in front of an older or respected person or deity. Because of its fleshy traits and self-absorbed expression, the face is similar to that of the previous statue, but the characterization is that of a younger lady. Fully dressed and heavily adorned, this girl also seems to be upper class, perhaps a princess or the daughter of an aristocratic family, although one cannot exclude the representation of a celestial being from a mythical narrative. The hair is neatly fashioned, with curls on the left temple and other, larger ones at the front; on the right, it is embellished by a large, round floral pattern. The coiled necklace, apparently suggesting a precious metal, holds a large rhomboidal pendant. She also wears two heavy bangles. Her chest is covered with a sarong falling over her knees. From the waist, a kind of shawl falls between her legs and onto her right thigh. The figure is kneeling on a round base, embellished by triangular patterns and flower buds.
69
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[046]
Material – terracotta Size – 72 x 23 cm General condition – reconstructed, in good condition
[046]
A demoniacal character, perhaps the dwarf giant Sukrasana This rare image, perhaps the only one ever to have survived from the Majapahit era, gives life to a standing demoniacal character with a bald head. Since the wayang stories of the traditional puppet-theater play of the island of Java feature a dwarf giant named Sukrasana, this statue might represent him, or another, similar wild being. The creature has the frightening, wrinkled face of a giant, with bulging eyes and a large nose, with the mouth disclosing a row of teeth. His gaze is fixed as if hallucinating. In addition to the animal-bell necklace, he wears bangles on his hands and anklets on his feet. To emphasize his uncivilized nature, two wide leaves, fixed with a string bearing another bell, cover the genitals and buttocks.
88
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 88-89
89
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[046]
Material – terracotta Size – 72 x 23 cm General condition – reconstructed, in good condition
[046]
A demoniacal character, perhaps the dwarf giant Sukrasana This rare image, perhaps the only one ever to have survived from the Majapahit era, gives life to a standing demoniacal character with a bald head. Since the wayang stories of the traditional puppet-theater play of the island of Java feature a dwarf giant named Sukrasana, this statue might represent him, or another, similar wild being. The creature has the frightening, wrinkled face of a giant, with bulging eyes and a large nose, with the mouth disclosing a row of teeth. His gaze is fixed as if hallucinating. In addition to the animal-bell necklace, he wears bangles on his hands and anklets on his feet. To emphasize his uncivilized nature, two wide leaves, fixed with a string bearing another bell, cover the genitals and buttocks.
88
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 88-89
89
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[050]
Material – terracotta Size – 62 x 31 cm General condition – the artifact was cracked, especially the body, but it has been reconstructed successfully, except for the left arm, which has completely disappeared
[050]
Hanuman As Rama's faithful companion and servant in the Ramayana epic, Hanuman is ordered by Rama to bring a letter and a ring to Sita, Rama’s wife, who was detained by King Ravana of Alengka. This is why, in this image, the right hand of Hanuman carries a letter in the form of a palm-leaf roll. Possibly, his broken left hand originally carried the ring that had to be handed over to Sita.
96
Catalogo_Majapahit_Impaginato_18.indd 96-97
97
01.08.23 15:12
[050]
Material – terracotta Size – 62 x 31 cm General condition – the artifact was cracked, especially the body, but it has been reconstructed successfully, except for the left arm, which has completely disappeared
[050]
Hanuman As Rama's faithful companion and servant in the Ramayana epic, Hanuman is ordered by Rama to bring a letter and a ring to Sita, Rama’s wife, who was detained by King Ravana of Alengka. This is why, in this image, the right hand of Hanuman carries a letter in the form of a palm-leaf roll. Possibly, his broken left hand originally carried the ring that had to be handed over to Sita.
96
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[053]
Material – terracotta Size – 65 x 38 cm General condition – the statue is fragmented, but almost entirely reassembled
[053]
Karttikeya, or Skanda This rare image presumably represents Skanda, or Karttikeya, also known as Bala Subrahmaniya, the god of war and of youth, and the son of Shiva Mahadeva and his wife Parvati. In Hindu mythology, Skanda is considered the younger brother of Ganesha—the god of knowledge and beginnings, who wards off danger—the other son of Shiva and Parvati. The image visualizes Skanda as a fat boy riding a mayura (peacock), his vahana (vehicle). The god is wearing a bird-shaped crown, and his thick curly hair hangs down at the back. He also wears earrings, a necklace and thick bracelets, and a belt. The peacock, too, wears a shell-like crown and a thick necklace. It perches on a cube-like pedestal, the sides of which are decorated with inverted triangles featuring elaborate motifs. Above, two other patterns, in front and behind the peacock, allude to clouds. In fact, the statue might represent the pair as they fly into the sky.
102
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[053]
Material – terracotta Size – 65 x 38 cm General condition – the statue is fragmented, but almost entirely reassembled
[053]
Karttikeya, or Skanda This rare image presumably represents Skanda, or Karttikeya, also known as Bala Subrahmaniya, the god of war and of youth, and the son of Shiva Mahadeva and his wife Parvati. In Hindu mythology, Skanda is considered the younger brother of Ganesha—the god of knowledge and beginnings, who wards off danger—the other son of Shiva and Parvati. The image visualizes Skanda as a fat boy riding a mayura (peacock), his vahana (vehicle). The god is wearing a bird-shaped crown, and his thick curly hair hangs down at the back. He also wears earrings, a necklace and thick bracelets, and a belt. The peacock, too, wears a shell-like crown and a thick necklace. It perches on a cube-like pedestal, the sides of which are decorated with inverted triangles featuring elaborate motifs. Above, two other patterns, in front and behind the peacock, allude to clouds. In fact, the statue might represent the pair as they fly into the sky.
102
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[065]
Material – terracotta Size – 64 x 40 cm General condition – broken and reconstructed; darkened, like some other artworks in this book, from having been buried in the mud of the Brantas river
[065]
Nandisaraja as a Majapahit icon This statue is an extraordinary example of Majapahit’s terracotta art. Worked in the finest detail, it expresses a perfect, formal balance between the fleshy volumes and the intricate ornaments on its surface. The bulky human body, crowned by a bull’s head, sits imposingly in the same asana (ritual position) as Ganesha, so that at first glance the two iconic images appear very similar. Its symmetry is perfect. The supernatural creature is depicted with long hair, made up of twists of matted hair styled into the form of a jatamukuta (tall cap), a hairstyle often adopted by Shiva Mahadeva in ascetic forms. The hair at the back ends in thick curls. On its forehead, a headband is enriched by a row of small gems and a central flower-like element, which takes the place of a tilaka (the auspicious red dot). The horns and ears are rendered in obviously natural forms. All ornaments—necklace, breast-band with a lozenge-like applique, belt and buckle, bangles, anklets—are rendered in the finest detail, with the aim of transmitting the perception of rare and precious, almost otherworldly, jewelry, a level of formal attention usually reserved exclusively for major deities. The statue is depicted sitting on a circular pedestal, decorated with continuous, elegant spiral-like vegetal patterns. In the Majapahit era, the king was often identified as Shiva Mahadeva; when the king was seen as his incarnation, the most important high-ranking official or prime minister, called mahapatih, could symbolically assume the vahana role of Shiva’s bull, or Nandi. Perhaps this rare image was the valuable property of a personage of such a rank.
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[065]
Material – terracotta Size – 64 x 40 cm General condition – broken and reconstructed; darkened, like some other artworks in this book, from having been buried in the mud of the Brantas river
[065]
Nandisaraja as a Majapahit icon This statue is an extraordinary example of Majapahit’s terracotta art. Worked in the finest detail, it expresses a perfect, formal balance between the fleshy volumes and the intricate ornaments on its surface. The bulky human body, crowned by a bull’s head, sits imposingly in the same asana (ritual position) as Ganesha, so that at first glance the two iconic images appear very similar. Its symmetry is perfect. The supernatural creature is depicted with long hair, made up of twists of matted hair styled into the form of a jatamukuta (tall cap), a hairstyle often adopted by Shiva Mahadeva in ascetic forms. The hair at the back ends in thick curls. On its forehead, a headband is enriched by a row of small gems and a central flower-like element, which takes the place of a tilaka (the auspicious red dot). The horns and ears are rendered in obviously natural forms. All ornaments—necklace, breast-band with a lozenge-like applique, belt and buckle, bangles, anklets—are rendered in the finest detail, with the aim of transmitting the perception of rare and precious, almost otherworldly, jewelry, a level of formal attention usually reserved exclusively for major deities. The statue is depicted sitting on a circular pedestal, decorated with continuous, elegant spiral-like vegetal patterns. In the Majapahit era, the king was often identified as Shiva Mahadeva; when the king was seen as his incarnation, the most important high-ranking official or prime minister, called mahapatih, could symbolically assume the vahana role of Shiva’s bull, or Nandi. Perhaps this rare image was the valuable property of a personage of such a rank.
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