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SYMBOLS ARE UNIVERSAL
A symbol is a drawing or sign that represents a concept or idea. It is a simple way of figuratively representing an abstract notion. The word is derived from the Greek sumbolon, a combination of two root words meaning ‘to throw’ and ‘with’, suggesting ‘to join’, ‘to bring together’ or ‘to compare’. In ancient Greece, a sumbolon was a shard of pottery broken into two pieces by two people when sealing a contract or bond. Subsequent showing of the two perfectly matching parts served as evidence and acknowledgement of the abstract decision or action. Moreover, a symbol is a figurative representation of an idea that cannot be materialized. Thus, an animal can represent a virtue, a flower can express a feeling, a geometric figure can illustrate a spiritual concept, and so on. Symbols were used at the dawn of human history, long before the appearance of writing, as a simple way of communicating complex ideas. Some very rudimentary ones, such as the circle, cross, spiral, triangle, and star, are found in all traditions, although their meanings can vary. Sacred symbols Cave paintings, showing the silhouettes of hands or animals, and prehistoric tombs are evidence of the use of symbols to express a form of spirituality or veneration of the dead. The link between stylized and symbolic drawings and religious sentiment or magical 9
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practices became clearer with the emergence of the first civilizations, particularly those of Mesopotamia and Egypt. These early symbols, such as the eye of Horus in ancient Egypt, often tell of origin myths, superstitions and beliefs. They allowed humans to explain the world as they perceived it, with its deities, cycles, mysteries and social organization. The Judeo-Christian tradition is where symbols are most widely used, as illustrated by the cross, the fish and the dove. However, it should be kept in mind that most Christian symbols have their origin in the pagan beliefs that preceded Christianity. Religious art, particularly in medieval Romanesque and Gothic architecture, made extensive use of all kinds of symbols as a means of communicating with and teaching a largely illiterate population. Romanesque bestiaries (such as the lion, lamb, dragon or snake) and the vocabulary of sculpture (rosettes, foliage, flowers) conveyed coded ideas. Likewise, numbers and colours corresponded to Christian spiritual concepts linked to doctrine (Trinity, good and evil). In religious iconography, representations of Christ, Mary or the saints are always accompanied by attributes, which are objects used to represent their virtues (the white lily for Mary’s purity, for instance), suffering (the purple robe of Christ during the Passion) or martyrdom (the wheel of Saint Catherine of Alexandria). Secular symbols Symbols of a secular nature are just as important as religious ones. This is seen in their use as emblems, such 10
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which symbols are interpreted throughout the world provides an anthropological insight into beliefs and myths. It gives us an understanding of the way in which societies are organized and how they operate. It is also very intriguing to know how ancient traditions, which in all likelihood never came into contact, were able to attribute the same symbolic meanings to the same objects. The ancient Greeks, for example, saw the butterfly as a personification of the soul and of resurrection, whereas in a very distant land and at a later time, the Aztecs likened it to the soul of women who died in childbirth. This therefore leads us to wonder if there is a collective and universal imagination that governs the similar interpretation of the same symbols.
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SPIDER
Patience, cunning, balance, femininity, wisdom, the soul
The symbolism given to the spider is based on the patience and creativity necessary for spinning its delicate web, and the intelligence and cunning it employs as it waits motionless for its prey. The apparent fragility of the silken trap and the fact that it is spun at night also make the spider a symbol of the moon and of femininity. But as the females of certain species devour the male after fertilization, it is sometimes associated with a voracious or even castrating form of femininity. Because it has eight legs, the spider is also associated with balance. It also represents wisdom, a quality that is respected among certain African ethnic groups, such as the Bamum people of Cameroon, who attribute powers of divining to the animal. The Bambara people of West Africa also give the title of ‘spider’ to wise men gifted with mystical intuition. Elsewhere, such as among the Altaic peoples of Central Asia and the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of southern Vietnam, the spider is still perceived as the soul of a dead person, which explains why it is frowned upon to kill it. Likewise, for the native Chibcha people of Colombia, spiders were believed to carry the souls of the dead to the afterlife. In modern-day psychoanalysis the spider represents a negative maternal image, symbolizing a mother taking the place of the father, and her possessive maternal love. 22
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BAMBOO
Spiritual elevation, fertility, fidelity, modesty, strength
The symbolic dimension of bamboo is strongest in Buddhism. Zen, one of the Japanese variants of this religion, interprets its straightness, simplicity and its reaching towards the sky as an image of spiritual elevation. And it sees the hollow bamboo stem as embodying the fullness of the inner emptiness that must be attained in order to find Enlightenment. In Japan, bamboo is also an emblem of uprightness and resistance, flexibility and strength: it bends to the wind but does not break. It illustrates the need to be able to make concessions in order to regain strength. It perfectly represents the principle of non-resistance which underlies the practice of certain martial arts, such as judo and aikido. Because the bamboo flower bears both male and female reproductive organs, it also represents marital fidelity and fertility. In China, bamboo is associated with Guan Yin, the goddess of mercy, who is considered a divine mother. Its empty heart has led it to become a representation of modesty.
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BLUE
Immortality, purity, truth, nobility
Since time immemorial, blue – the colour of the boundless sky – has been associated with the intangible and the divine, and identified with supreme purity. The ancient Egyptians also saw it as a symbol of truth and immortality. Christian imagery, on the other hand, traditionally depicts God surrounded by a golden aura and enthroned in an azure blue sky. In the eleventh century, the Virgin Mary began to be represented wearing a blue mantle, which made blue the Marian colour. At the same time, King Philip II of France made blue his colour, and it was adopted by his successors. They would be imitated by many aristocrats, which definitively made the colour a symbol of nobility. And nobility is also equated with having ‘blue blood’. In the Middle East and in almost every Mediterranean country, blue is a lucky colour that protects against curses. Its symbolic importance is also found in Asian cultures. For instance, Krishna, the heroic incarnation of Vishnu for the Hindus, and Vairocana, the central Buddha figure of Tibetan mandalas, are represented with blue skin. In terms of everyday life, blue is designated the coldest colour by the graphic arts. This is why cold water taps have a blue dot.
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All images are from the Éditions du Chêne private collection, except p. 25, 75 © British Library/ Kharbine-Tapabor; p. 35, 71 © Jean Vigne/ Kharbine-Tapabor; p. 41, 143, 155 © Coll. IM/ Kharbine-Tapabor; p. 61 © Coll Jonas/ Kharbine-Tapabor; p. 83 © Yeshe Karma/ Kharbine-Tapabor ; p. 121 © Coll. Kharbine-Tapabor. Book cover: front © akg-images; back © Les Arts Décoratifs, Paris/ Jean Tholance/ akg-images. For the original edition: © 2015 Éditions du Chêne – Hachette Livre For the current edition: Editorial Director: Flavie Gaidon with the collaboration of Franck Friès Editor: Fanny Martin Art director: Claire Mieyeville with the collaboration of Sabine Houplain English Edition: Ariane Laine-Forrest Translation © Papier Cadeau – Hachette Livre, 2020 English translation and proofreading by John Ripoll and Laura Gladwin for Cillero & de Motta Published by Papier Cadeau (58, rue Jean Bleuzen, 92178 Vanves Cedex) Printed in May 2020 ISBN 978-2-37964-106-0 1310155
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