Fragments & Futures - Decolonising the Somali City by Adel Hussein by adel.hussein

Fragments and Futures: Decolonising the Somali City

THEORY & HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE & URBAN DESIGN

Adel Hussein | 3219 Words

UMEÅ SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

INTRODUCTION

Beyond Colonial Walls

Somalia’s architectural landscape is deeply marked by the scars of colonialism, with structures like the Mogadishu Cathedral serving as prominent symbols of foreign domination. Yet, as the country seeks to redefine its national identity, the built environment presents a unique opportunity for reimagining the past and charting a course toward the future. Therefore, this essay delves into the intersection of architecture, colonialism, and identity in Somalia, with a particular focus on the Mogadishu Cathedral, a building that encapsulates both the colonial legacy and the potential for sustainable post-colonial identity.

Architecture, as a powerful cultural and political tool, carries the weight of history, often serving as both a reflection of and a response to the societies that create it. In Somalia’s case, the colonial era left behind a lasting imprint on the built environment with implications which continue to resonate even to this day. However, as the country emerges from the shadows of its colonial past and the trauma of civil war, there lies an opportunity to not only decolonise its physical spaces but to also transform them into something that speaks to the nation’s resilience, culture, and aspirations.

Through examining the Mogadishu Cathedral, this essay explores how architecture can be a site of both tension and healing, offering a lens through which the broader process of decolonisation can unfold. From the repurposing of colonial buildings to the integration of indigenous Somali design principles, the potential for a renewed architectural identity is undeniably massive. In the following chapters, we will consider how Somali architecture can reclaim its heritage, create spaces of unity, and offer a vision for the future that reflects the nation’s aspirations and values.

From Colonial Imprints to National Identity:

The Evolution of Mogadishu’s Architecture

The architecture of Mogadishu offers a powerful narrative of a city shaped by the forces of colonialism, revolution, and national identity formation. As a place where contrasting historical periods collide, the capital of Somalia provides a unique lens through which to examine the broader struggle of post-colonial identity. The city’s-built environment— its streets, buildings, and monuments—serves as a physical testament to both Somalia’s colonial past and its post-independence aspirations.

This chapter explores how the architectural landscape of Mogadishu has evolved, from colonial imprints left by Italian rule to the complex process of reclaiming and redefining architectural identity in the wake of independence.

Architecture as Empire

When Italian colonialists first arrived in Somalia, they brought an array of architectural styles designed to cement their power and presence. Between 1889 and 1960, Italian influence dramatically reshaped the urban fabric of Mogadishu. The city’s transformation was not just in terms of new buildings, but in how these structures served as symbols of dominance, control, and cultural imposition. European-style architecture, epitomised by monumental buildings like the Mogadishu Cathedral, reflected the intent to reshape Mogadishu’s identity in the image of

colonial Europe and more specficially Italy at the time.

The Mogadishu Cathedral, also known as Cattedrale di Mogadiscio, built in 1928, is the prime example of how architecture during the colonial period was used to assert Italian imperial power. Designed in the NeoRomanesque and Neo-Gothic styles, the cathedral’s design was not merely an aesthetic choice—it was a deliberate statement of Christian and European dominance in a city and country that had its own rich cultural and religious traditions. These structures were not simply buildings; they were cultural instruments, designed to erase Somali traditions and replace them with European ideals. The architecture of this era stands as a potent reminder of how colonialism sought to imprint itself not just through governance, but through the reshaping of the built environment.

Colonial Ideology in Stone

Colonial structures like the Mogadishu Cathedral served more than functional purposes; they were emblematic of Italian imperial ideology.

As Gilroy (1993) argues, architecture was used to impose European worldviews, reshaping the physical and symbolic landscape of colonised spaces. The cathedral’s grand design and Christian symbolism reinforced the notion of European cultural and religious superiority.

1. King Vittorio Emanuele III Boulevard (now Jidka janaral Daud), Shingani (Afropean, n.d)

2. Soldiers and legionnaires in front of the Cathedral in 1936 (Luce Archivio, n.d)

Moreover, urban planning in Mogadishu was deliberately segregated, creating distinct spaces for Europeans and Somalis. This spatial division reinforced the racial and social hierarchies inherent in colonial rule, further marginalising the Somali identity.

The Intersection of Tradition and Control

While colonial architecture in Mogadishu symbolised power, it also created a deep disconnect with the local community. The imposition of European architectural forms often came at the expense of Somali traditions, which were closely tied to both the environment and the culture. Colonial architecture was not merely about replacing local buildings; it was about introducing a foreign order, severing ties with indigenous cultural identities and practices.

For the Somali population, colonial structures became symbols of displacement and cultural erasure. The grandeur of Italian designs, with their classical arches and religious iconography, overshadowed local forms, which were more aligned with Somali ways of life. This architectural dominance contributed to a sense of alienation for the Somali people, as their cultural landscape was gradually transformed into a space that reflected foreign ideologies. The result was a fragmentation of identity,

where Somali traditions were pushed to the margins while colonial structures took centre stage.

Post-Independence Architecture in Somalia

The period following Somalia’s independence in 1960 marked a pivotal moment in the nation’s architectural history. With the removal of colonial rule came a new opportunity to reshape the built environment in a way that reflected Somali cultural values and identity. However, the remnants of colonialism still loomed large. As the country sought to forge its own national identity, Somali architects were confronted with the challenge of reclaiming space and designing buildings that symbolised independence and unity, while grappling with the legacy of Italian influence.

The first step in this process was the decision to repurpose colonialera structures. A notable example of this is the Mogadishu Cathedral, which, after independence, was briefly converted from a Catholic place of worship into a mosque. This transformation was not just a change of function, but a symbolic reclaiming of space from its colonial past.

The cathedral’s Neo-Romanesque and Neo-Gothic design, while still a reminder of colonial influence, was now re-contextualised within the framework of Islam, which is the dominant religion of the country.

3. Erected in 1260, Arba’a Rukun is the oldest Mosque in Mogadishu (Banaadir Wiki, n.d)

4. Arc de Triomphe and Cattedrale di Mogadiscio in Mogadishu circa 1930’s (Aleteia, 2019)

Hybrid Architectural Practices

As Somali architects sought to create a new architectural language in the post-independence period, they faced the difficult task of balancing modernisation with authenticity. The influence of European modernism was undeniable, and it played a significant role in shaping the design of government buildings, schools, and housing. However, Somali architects also sought to preserve a sense of local identity by integrating traditional materials, forms, and Islamic spatial principles into their designs.

This hybrid approach resulted in a unique architectural style, where modernist principles were fused with Somali cultural elements. The desire to create buildings that spoke to both the needs of the modern world and the values of Somali society led to a tension between the forces of globalisation and local tradition. In many ways, Somali architects were navigating a delicate path, trying to modernise while remaining true to their cultural roots. The post-independence-built environment in Mogadishu thus became a dialogue between the colonial past and the aspirations of the new nation.

Architecture as a Symbol of National Identity

The process of reclaiming Mogadishu’s architectural identity has never been straightforward. The continued presence of colonial-era buildings like the Mogadishu Cathedral reminds Somali architects and citizens alike of the complex journey towards a fully decolonised urban environment. These structures, though repurposed or adapted, remain potent symbols of a past that cannot be easily erased.

Yet, in the face of these challenges, Somalia’s architects continue to push forward, striving to create a built environment that reflects the country’s values and history. The struggle to define a Somali architectural identity is ongoing, with each new building and renovation serving as a step in the nation’s broader quest for self-determination and pride. The architecture of Mogadishu, therefore, is not just a reflection of the past, but also a symbol of the future—a future where Somalia’s architectural identity can finally be fully realised on its own terms.

5. Al-Uruba Hotel - images from the late 1970’s (Reddit, 2020)

6. Liido Beach - recent beach front developments (Urug, 2021)

CHAPTER 02

Cattedrale di Mogadiscio: A Case Study

in Mogadishu

Cattedrale di Mogadiscio was completed in 1928 and modeled after the Cattedrale di Cefalù in Sicily, stands as one of the most prominent symbols of Italian colonial architecture in Somalia. Designed by Italian architect Antonio Vandone, the cathdedral reflected Italy’s broader colonial ambitions in the Horn of Africa. Its strategic location in the heart of Mogadishu symbolised Italy’s cultural and political dominance. However, as Somalia gained independence in 1960, the cathedral’s role shifted, becoming a site of both resistance and transformation.

Colonial Design Symbolism

The cathedral’s design was influenced by Italy’s colonial ambitions. The Neo-Romanesque and Neo-Gothic styles were intended to assert Italy’s cultural dominance. Initially serving as a Catholic place of worship, it symbolised Italy’s imperial power. Boudah (2018) explains that colonial buildings like the cathedral not only represented foreign rule but also shaped the identity of the colonised.

However, following Somalia’s independence in 1960, the cathedral’s role began to shift. Its transformation into a mosque in the early 1970s reflected the nation’s desire to assert an Islamic identity and break away from colonial religious influences. While the structure retained its original architecture, the mosque represented the government’s efforts to reclaim Somali cultural and religious identity.

7. Cattedrale di Mogadiscio (pinterest, n.d)

8. Christian gathering in front of the Cathedral (own image, n.d)

A Shift in Purpose:

The conversion of the cathedral into a mosque was both a practical and political act. Under the third Somali President Siad Barre, Somalia aimed to affirm its Muslim identity, and the mosque reflected this shift. It was also an attempt to sever the ties to colonialism, particularly in religious spaces. Despite its new role, the cathedral’s architecture—its Neo-Romanesque arches and vaulted ceilings—remained, serving as a reminder of its colonial past. As Rai (2002) notes, architecture often retains its historical weight long after its original purpose has changed.

Re-purposing the cathedral was a form of resistance, turning a symbol of foreign power into a space for asserting local values. Once a symbol of colonial control, the building became a space for Somali people to practice Islam freely and assert their cultural identity.

Although this brief shift occurred in 1970’s, photographic documentation from that specific time appears to be scarce or non-existent in publicly accessible archives.

Destruction and Memory:

The destruction of Mogadishu Cathedral in 1991 during the Somali Civil War indeed symbolized the broader collapse of Somalia’s state institutions and national unity. However, it’s important to note that the cathedral was not completely destroyed in 1991, but rather suffered damage over time.

The Somali Civil War, which began in the late 1980s, reached a critical point in January 1991 when the government of Siad Barre collapsed. This event marked the beginning of a period of statelessness and conflict in Somalia. During this time, Mogadishu became a battleground for rival factions, leading to widespread destruction across the city.

The gradual deterioration of the cathedral mirrored the ongoing instability in Somalia. By 2008, much of the cathedral had been destroyed. This prolonged process of destruction paralleled the extended period of state collapse and conflict in Somalia, which continued well beyond the initial events of 1991. Yet, the ruins of the cathedral also began to serve as a symbol of resilience. The site became a reminder of Somalia’s tumultuous journey through colonialism, independence, and civil war. As Rai (2002)

suggests, the physical loss of a building can lead to a deeper reflection on its symbolic significance, helping to redefine its meaning in the national consciousness

9. The current exterior state of the cathedral (ACIAfrica, 2024)

Re-imagining the Site:

Despite the destruction, the site of the Mogadishu Cathedral presents a golden opportunity for adaptive reuse in post-colonial Somalia in the 21st century. Repurposing the site as a museum dedicated to Somalia’s struggle for independence. This would provide a powerful space for reflection, education, and healing, allowing visitors to engage with the nation’s history in a meaningful way.

Alternatively, the site could be reimagined as a vibrant cultural hub celebrating Somalia’s diverse heritage. This multifaceted space could host art exhibitions, musical performances, and library spaces, serving as a platform for contemporary Somali artists and intellectuals.

Reimagining the cathedral as a space of empowerment would allow Somali culture to reclaim its history and offer a new narrative that transcends its colonial roots. It could reflect Somalia’s evolution from colonialism to independence and its ongoing identity struggle. Such a project could allow the nation to reframe its colonial past, transforming it into a symbol of cultural renewal and resilience.

10. The current interior state of the cathedral (own image, 2024)

11. AI-generated image of a Somali cultural hub inspired by the the cathedral (OpenAI, 2024)

CHAPTER 03

National Unity and the Role of the Diaspora: Building a Shared Future

The Mogadishu Cathedral stands as a potent symbol of Somalia’s complex colonial past, and its future offers an opportunity to reclaim the nation’s architectural identity. The destruction of the building during the Somali Civil War was not just the loss of a physical structure; it marked the rupture of a national symbol tied to colonial dominance.

Yet, through adaptive reuse, the site can be transformed, reflecting Somalia’s resilience and redefining its post-colonial identity. This chapter explores how the cathedral, with its layered history, can contribute to healing, unity, and the reclamation of national heritage.

From Colonial Symbol to Cultural Space

The Mogadishu Cathedral’s history embodies the tension between colonial legacy and the pursuit of Somali independence. Built during Italian colonial rule, the cathedral originally represented European influence and Christian dominance. As MacDonald (2011) notes, colonial architecture in East Africa was often designed to reinforce power dynamics and assert control. However, its brief conversion into a mosque after Somalia’s independence marked a significant act of reclaiming public space for Islam, breaking from the colonial past and reaffirming Somali

cultural and religious identity. This shift underscores how architecture can serve as a tool for decolonisation, offering a space for reasserting local values and rejecting foreign imprints (Boudah, 2018).

A Space for Reflection and Future Generations

Memory plays a critical role in the process of decolonisation, and the cathedral’s continued existence—though in ruins—reminds Somalis of their historical struggles and resilience. Rather than erasing this history, adaptive reuse allows for a reframing of the narrative. Boudah (2018) argues that architecture, when adapted, can offer a bridge between the past and the present, shaping how history is remembered and understood. By transforming the cathedral into a cultural centre or museum, it can become a space for reflection on Somalia’s journey from colonial oppression to independence, while engaging future generations with their heritage.

12. The current site state of the cathedral (own image, 2024)

13. Inside the ruins looking towards the newer buildings (own image, 2024)

Reclaiming the cathedral as a place of memory allows Somalis to confront their past with the knowledge that they have the power to shape how history is remembered. The cathedral, once a symbol of foreign domination, could serve as a reminder of Somalia’s strength and transformation. This process would not be one of nostalgia but an active re-engagement with the past that strengthens the present and informs the future. It would become a ‘memory palace,’ offering a platform for national reflection and dialogue, much as Gilroy (1993) describes the role of cultural memory in shaping collective identity in post-colonial contexts.

National Unity and the Role of the Diaspora

Architecture can play a central role in fostering national unity, and the Mogadishu Cathedral presents an opportunity to bridge Somalia’s internal divisions. By transforming the site into a cultural or educational space, Somalia can create a venue for national dialogue and reconciliation. This process of adaptive reuse allows for a blending of Somali tradition with the global influences that have shaped the country, symbolising both the nation’s rich cultural heritage and its engagement with the modern world. Rai (2002) highlights how architecture can act as a medium for constructing a shared identity, especially when reconciling diverse cultural narratives. This approach could help the cathedral become a unifying force, serving as a shared symbol of Somalia’s ability to overcome its past and build a cohesive future.

The involvement of the Somali diaspora is crucial to this process as they hold valuable perspectives and play a vital role in advocating for the project, providing both financial support and global visibility. Furthermore, their engagement would ensure the cathedral’s transformation resonates not only within Somalia but also within the global Somali community.

By involving the diaspora, the cathedral’s future can reflect Somalia’s diverse identity. The project could become an international symbol of Somalia’s ongoing journey of decolonisation and national renewal, fostering a sense of unity and shared ownership of the nation’s future. This aligns with Gilroy’s (1993) view of the Black Atlantic as a space where transnational identities and cultural narratives converge to redefine national consciousness.

Ultimately, the future of the Mogadishu Cathedral offers a unique opportunity to transform a symbol of colonial history into a space of healing, unity, and national pride. Through adaptive reuse, the cathedral can evolve from a painful reminder of the past into a place that celebrates Somalia’s resilience, cultural richness, and collective memory.

By incorporating elements of both Somali heritage and global modernity, the transformation of the cathedral can reflect the country’s journey towards healing, decolonisation, and a redefined national identity. The involvement of the diaspora ensures that this transformation is not just a national project but one that resonates globally, strengthening the bond between Somalia’s people both at home and abroad. Through this process, the cathedral could become a source of hope of Somalia’s future—reclaiming its past, reimagining its present, and offering hope for its future.

14. AI-generated image of a Somali cultural hub inspired by the the cathedral (OpenAI, 2024)

What could be next?

A New Identity from Ruins CONCLUSION

Somali architecture stands as a powerful testament to the complex relationship between history, colonialism, and identity. The Italian colonial influence left an indelible mark on the country’s-built environment, most notably through structures like the Mogadishu Cathedral, which symbolised both the cultural dominance of the colonisers and the subjugation of Somali traditions. These colonial edifices were not just architectural features but were deeply interwoven with the political and social order, reflecting the imposition of foreign values onto the landscape.

Following independence, Somalia embarked on a challenging journey of reclaiming its identity. The repurposing of the cathedral from a symbol of Christian colonialism into a mosque reflected the nation’s desire to assert its Islamic roots and cultural autonomy. However, this act of transformation was not without its complexities, as the building’s European architectural language persisted, symbolising a tension between the nation’s colonial past and the vision of its future.

The destruction of the cathedral during the civil war further exposed the fragility of Somalia’s national identity, as the loss of such a significant structure became emblematic of the country’s internal fractures and

struggles over its post-colonial self-definition. Yet, the remnants of these buildings continue to provoke reflection and dialogue about Somalia’s cultural heritage and the painful legacies of colonialism.

17. The current state of the cathedral (ACIAfrica, 2024)

16. Cattedrale di Mogadiscio circa 1930’s (Fotostoriche Cefalù n.d)

15. Legionnaires in front of the headquarters of the Catholic Mission (Luce Archivio, n.d)

Looking forward, Somali architecture faces the dual task of respecting its rich cultural traditions while embracing the demands of modernity. The challenge lies in finding a balance between preserving the architectural identity that is rooted in Somali history and integrating contemporary elements that speak to the aspirations of the present. The adaptive reuse of colonial buildings, like the cathedral, offers opportunities for national healing and reimagining the built environment as a space for cultural renewal.

In essence, Somali architecture is at a crossroads to redefine its identity in the wake of colonialism, civil unrest, and a desire for resilience. As the nation continues to rebuild and reimagine its future, architecture remains a powerful medium through which history, culture, and identity are both questioned and celebrated.

19. AI-generated image of a Somali museum inspired by the the cathedral (OpenAI, 2024)

18. The Wave House of Hargeisa by Somali-Italian architect Omar Degan (2024)

Bibliography and Image References

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02 | Gilroy, P., 1993. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Harvard University Press.

03 | MacDonald, D., 2011. The Architecture of Italian Colonialism in Africa: Urbanism and the Politics of Space. Cambridge University Press.

04 | Rai, S. M., 2002. Architecture, Identity and Ideology. Architectural Journal, 34(4), pp.445-466.

05 | Abdulle, I. M., 2017. Somali Architecture: The Struggle Between Colonialism and Independence. Somali Journal of Cultural Studies, 12(3), pp.102-118.

06 | Abdulle, I. M., 2017. Somali Architecture: The Struggle Between Colonialism and Independence. Somali Journal of Cultural Studies, 12(3), pp.102-118.

07 | ArchDaily. (2018). Somali architecture students digitally preserve their country’s heritage before it’s too late. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/891577/somali-architecture-studentsdigitally-preserve-their-countrys-heritage-before-its-too-late (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

08 | Afropean. (2020). Mogadishu: Lost architecture of the modern city. Available at: https://afropean.com/mogadishu-lost-architecture-ofthe-modern-city/ (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

09 | Aleteia. (2019). This was once Africa’s largest cathedral, but its throne cannot be filled. Available at: https://aleteia.org/2019/07/15/ this-was-once-africas-largest-cathedral-but-its-throne-cannot-be-filled (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

10 | Archivio Luce. (n.d.). Soldati e legionari davanti alla cattedrale. [Photograph]. Available at: https://patrimonio.archivioluce. com/luce-web/detail/IL0600004183/8/soldati-e-legionari-davanti-allacattedrale.html (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

11 | Italia Coloniale. (2018). Accadde oggi a Mogadiscio: il 1 marzo 1928 in Somalia viene inaugurata la più grande cattedrale dell’Africa orientale. Available at: https://italiacoloniale.com/2018/03/01/accaddeoggi-a-mogadiscio-il-1-marzo-1928-in-somalia-viene-inaugurata-la-piugrande-cattedrale-dellafrica-orientale/ (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

12 | Banadir Wiki. (2020). The new mosque Arbaa Rukuna: Restoration to remember the Banaadiri past or to be forgotten? Available at: https://banadirwiki.com/the-new-mosque-arbaa-rukunarestoration-to-remember-the-banaadiri-past-or-to-be-forgotten/ (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

13 | Aci Africa. (2024). Suicide bombing near abandoned Catholic cathedral in Somalia kills three. Available at: https://www.aciafrica.org/ news/10048/suicide-bombing-near-abandoned-catholic-cathedral-insomalia-kills-three (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

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(Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 1: Afropean, 2014. Mogadishu: Lost Architecture of the Modern City. [online image] Available at: https://afropean.com/ mogadishu-lost-architecture-of-the-modern-city/ [Accessed 30 December 2024].

- Figure 2: Archivio Luce, 1936. Soldati e legionari davanti alla Cattedrale. [online image] Available at: https://patrimonio.archivioluce. com/luce-web/detail/IL0600004183/8/soldati-e-legionari-davanti-allacattedrale.html [Accessed 30 December 2024].

- Figure 3: Banadir Wiki, n.d. The New Mosque Arbaa Rukun: Restoration to Remember the Banaadiri Past or to Be Forgotten?. [online image] Available at: https://banadirwiki.com/the-new-mosquearbaa-rukuna-restoration-to-remember-the-banaadiri-past-or-to-beforgotten/ [Accessed 30 December 2024].

- Figure 4: Aleteia, 2019. This was once Africa’s largest cathedral, but its throne cannot be filled. [online image] Available at: https://aleteia. org/2019/07/15/this-was-once-africas-largest-cathedral-but-its-thronecannot-be-filled [Accessed 30 December 2024].

- Front Cover Image: Mogadishu Images (2015) Aerial view of Mogadishu, circa 1938. Available at: https://mogadishuimages.

wordpress.com/category/time-periods/1900-1960-italian-period/1930s/

- Figure 5: Reddit (2020). Aluruba Hotel, built after 1975 in Mogadishu. Available at: https://www.reddit.com/r/Lost_Architecture/comments/ ib70od/aluruba_hotel_built_after_1975_in_mogadishu/ (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 6: Urug, A. (2021). [Aerial Photograph of Liido Beach].

Available at: https://x.com/AbdirisakUrug/status/1467479678248267779/ photo/4 (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 7: Pinterest (n.d.). [Image of the Mogadishu Cathedral].

Available at: https://sk.pinterest.com/pin/415316396885684122/ (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 8: Christian event (n.d). Vintage photograph of the Mogadishu Cathedral. [Photograph]. Available from: Private collection. (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 9: A woman in front of the cathedral. (2023). [Photograph].

Credit: Agenzia Fides. Available at: ACIAfrica. (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 10: Hussein, A. (2024). Interior Image of the Cathedral. [Photograph]. Available from: Personal collection. (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 11: OpenAI (2024). A futuristic interpretation of the Mogadishu Cathedral in a decolonised context. [Image generated by AI]. Available from: https://platform.openai.com. (Accessed: 31 December 2024)

- Figure 12: Hussein, A. (2024). Interior Image of the Cathedral. [Photograph]. Available from: Personal collection. (Accessed: 31

December 2024).

- Figure 13: Hussein, A. (2024). Interior Image of the Cathedral. [Photograph]. Available from: Personal collection. (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 14: OpenAI (2024). A futuristic interpretation of the Mogadishu Cathedral in a decolonised context. [Image generated by AI]. Available from: https://platform.openai.com. (Accessed: 31

December 2024)

- Figure 15: Archivio Luce (n.d.). Gruppo legionari davanti alla sede della missione cattolica. [Photograph]. Available at: https://patrimonio. archivioluce.com/luce-web/detail/IL0600004182/8/foto-gruppolegionari-davanti-alla-sede-della-missione-cattolica.html (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 16: Fotostoriche Cefalù (n.d.). La Cattedrale di Mogadiscio. [Photograph]. Available at: https://www.fotostorichecefalu.it/lacattedrale-di-mogadiscio/ (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 17: A woman in front of the cathedral. (2024). [Photograph.

Credit: Agenzia Fides. Available at: ACIAfrica. (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 18: DO Architecture Group (2024). The Wave House of Hargeisa. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/1013277/the-wavehouse-of-hargeisa-do-architecture-group (Accessed: 31 December 2024).

- Figure 19: OpenAI (2024). A futuristic interpretation of the Mogadishu Cathedral in a decolonised context. [Image generated by AI]. Available from: https://platform.openai.com. (Accessed: 31 December 2024)

- Back Cover Image: Alamy (n.d.). The aerial view shows the center of the colonial city of Mogadishu, the capital of Italian Somaliland. Available at: https://www.alamy.com/the-aerial-view-shows-the

“Ruins are the poems of architecture. They embody both memory and potential.”

– Jean-Luc Nancy, philosopher

“The ruin is the visible form of history, whose essence is the passage of time.”

– Walter Benjamin, cultural critic

“Memory is the architecture of the soul.”

– John O’Donohue, philosopher