Glory in the Roman Britain Campaign. Michael Gobeil, Concordia

Glory in the Roman Conquest of Britain

Michael Gobeil, Concordia

Abstract

This essay is intended as an analysis of the Roman Conquest of Britain, initiated by Julius

Caesar in 55-54 BCE, and continued by the emperors Claudius, Nero, Vespasian, and Domitian,

as well as the general Agricola. The broad strokes of the Roman Conquest of Britain, as well as

early Roman contact with Ireland, will be discussed herein. This article will examine the question

of whether the purpose of the Roman emperors of the period was to seek glory through their

campaigns, or to maintain control over their province in the British Isles. The term ‘glory’ is used

here in the sense of creating a reputation among the Roman people, that is, the reputation of an

important figure in the Roman consciousness. Ultimately, the true purpose of the Roman

campaigns in Britain varied according to the reigning emperor, as each had their own ambitions

and objectives. Many of the emperors involved in the campaigns held personal goals of glory,

which they hoped to demonstrate through their ability to maintain control over the British Isles.

Further, this article proposes that Roman success in Britain was significantly dependent upon the

relative ambition of the reigning emperor.

Introduction

The Roman Empire was well known for campaigning on its frontiers and

expanding its control outside of Italy. One such example is the Roman Conquest of Britain,

initiated by Julius Caesar in 55 BCE and continued by Claudius beginning in 43 CE. After

Claudius, a series of Roman emperors inherited an obligation to advance the Britain campaign,

with the end result being a newly established Roman province in the British Isles. This article

proposes that the Roman Conquest of Britain can be seen as geopolitical expansion used as a

means for Roman emperors to gain glory. The original intention of the conquest of Britain was

to pursue the Gauls taking refuge in the British Isles, as well as to prevent the Britons from

aiding the Gauls during Caesar’s Gallic Wars. Later generations of Roman emperors, for example

Claudius and Domitian, had more varied objectives in mind for the conquest of Britain. For

them, the campaign was primarily a means of seeking accolades, achievements, and glory through

the expansion of Roman influence to the British and Celtic peoples. The events and

accomplishments of each emperor will be examined and discussed, beginning with Julius Caesar’s

initial invasion of the British Isles, followed by Claudius’ renewal of the campaign, then its

continuation by Nero, Vespasian, and finally Domitian, along with the aid of the general

Agricola. Each individual will be examined in terms of their contributions and accomplishments

relevant to the Roman Conquest of Britain. In addition, an attempt will be made to reconstruct

each individual’s intentions and goals in regard to the campaign, and to evaluate their respective

successes and failures toward such goals.

Caesar’s Initial Invasions of the British Isles

After the partial subjugation of Gaul, desiring to achieve more fame and prestige, Julius

Caesar began a campaign in Britain to further extend his action in the field. 27 Caesar had

information that Gaulish nobles were in exile in Britain as guests of their allies, the Druids,

providing him with a strong motivation to mount a campaign against Britain. 28 Britain was seen

as a new world by the Romans, and therefore its exploration and conquest had the potential to

27 Barri Jones, David Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain: The Conquest and Garrisoning of Britain (Oxbow Books 1990): 64. 28 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64.

bring glory to the Roman Empire. 29 Another idea was that the invasions carried out by Caesar

were not primarily intended as a means to earn glory, but to help persuade the Romans to

perceive the Britons as a common enemy, possibly reducing class strife in Rome. 30

Caesar first sent scouts to search for a landing zone, and after a failed a diplomatic

mission, his landing forces met resistance from the Britons. 31 After the Romans had established a

foothold in Britain, it was recorded that some local British tribes paid tribute to the Romans as

punishment for their initial resistance against Caesar. 32 Despite this early success, an equinoctial

gale destroyed most of Caesar’s ships, giving the Britons an opportunity to renew their assault on

the Romans. 33 The Romans managed to initially defend against the Britons, but fled back to Gaul

as soon as the opportunity became available. 34

In his second campaign, Caesar returned with a larger army, and this time his landing

forces met no resistance from the Britons. 35 A battle took place later, possibly near the River

Stour near Canterbury, at the eastern tip of County Kent (Fig. 1), about 19 km away from the

landing site. 36 The Romans were victorious over the Britons and laid siege to a nearby hillfort,

likely Bigbury Fort in County Kent (Fig 1.), but were forced to delay their pursuit in order to

repair their fleet, which had once again suffered significant storm damage. 37 Once repairs were

finished, Caesar met King Cassivellaunus in a two-day skirmish and pitched battle, resulting in

the defeat of the Britons in the field. 38 The Britons were then pursued across the River Thames

just west of London (Fig. 1), where the Romans encountered the renegade British kings. 39 Caesar

29 P.C.N. Stewart, “Inventing Britain: The Roman Creation and Adaptation of an Image” (Britannia, Vol. 26 (1995)): 6. 30 Stewart, “Inventing Britain”, 6. 31 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64. 32 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64. 33 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64. 34 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64. 35 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64-65. 36 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64-65. 37 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64-65. 38 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64-65. 39 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64-65.

was assaulted by the four Kings of Kent, and managed to successfully defend against them.

However, the depletion of his soldiers forced him to depart the islands once again, concluding

his campaign in Britain. 40

Renewal of the Conquest of Britain by Emperor Claudius

It was not until 43 CE that the next invasion of Britain would take place. While

Emperor Claudius’ immediate predecessors had contact with Britain, it was mostly through trade

and communications. 41 Claudius’ motives for reinitiating the conquest of Britain were varied. He

may have begun the campaign to gain political glory, while also reinforcing his military

reputation. 42 Another possibility is that he reinitiated the campaign due to the growing power of

King Cunobelinus of the Catuvellauni/Trinovantes tribal federation, who was a relative of British

princes in exile in Rome. 43 Claudius may have wished to reinstate pro-Roman client kings in the

hope of increasing Roman influence in the British Isles. 44 After arriving in Britain at the

beachhead of Chichester, northeast of the Isle of Wight (Fig 1.), divisions of Claudius’ forces

fought a resistance group at the Battle of Medway, pursuing the enemy to the banks of the River

Thames, west of London. 45 With little to no resistance left from the Britons, the coalition of

eleven kings surrendered to Claudius, who received their submission at Colchester (Fig. 1). 46

40 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 64-65. 41 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 65. 42 Raoul McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland: Rethinking the Campaign by Gnaeus Julius Agricola (AD 77-83)” (Classics Ireland, Vol. 21-22 (2014-2015): 119. 43 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 65. 44 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 65. 45 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 65-66. 46 J.G.F. Hind, “Claudius’ ‘Durbar’ in Britain, AD-43-Roman Chelmsford?” (Greece & Rome, Vol. 21, No 1 (April 1974): 68-9; Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 66.

Figure 1: [Map of British Isles used in the context of Roman positions and movements.]

(Rimmer, Sandra. “Maps of Britain and Ireland’s Ancient Tribes, Kingdoms and DNA”.

Abroadintheyard.com (2019))

With the eleven British kings in submission, Claudius ordered the conquest of the rest of

the British Isles. 47 Roman control of the British Isles fluctuated as territory was gained and lost,

with British tribes breaking away from Roman influence and being pacified in a consistent cycle.

Before his replacement, Aulus Platius, governor of the new province, was ordered to limit the

area of expansion in the British province and establish a frontier. 48 By 47 CE, Ostorius Scapula

had taken Platius’ place as governor. 49 The campaign against the Decangi/Deceangli of North

Wales had begun, yet was interrupted by an attack from the Brigantes. Scapula pierced through

the Cheshire Plain south of Lancashire (Fig.1), east of Chester, and into South and Central Wales.

This led to a conflict with Caratacus, in which the British king was defeated. Caratacus’ revolt

against Scapula was most likely caused by the betrayal of Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes, as

she had not only attended Claudius’ triumph in Rome, but, according to Tacitus, surrendered

Caratacus to the Romans in order to increase the wealth and power of her own regime (Tac.,

Hist. 3.45.1, 3). 50 Scapula’s garrisons in South Wales came under pressure of attack, leading to the

construction of defenses. 51 By 52 CE, Scapula had perished, and was replaced by Didius Gallus.

Gallus had intended to go on the offensive, but this was prevented due to Queen Cartimandua’s

request for aid against her husband, Venutius, who planned to attack her regime. Roman forces

were sent twice to protect her, but the offensive never began. 52 In 54 CE, Claudius was

murdered. 53

47 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 66. 48 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 66. 49 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 66. 50 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 66. 51 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 66-67. 52 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 67-68. 53 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 68.

Claudius’ Contribution to the Conquest of Britain

During his campaign in Britain, Claudius managed to assert Roman influence and

dominance over the Britons, despite the attempts of the Britons to resist the Roman conquest

and the romanization of British territory. Through the submission of the British kings, Claudius

had added to his stature as an emperor of the Roman Empire, since the Britons were considered

to be a culture that did not falter easily. Chelmsford, located north of London in County Essex

(Fig 1.), was known in Roman times as Caesaromagus, a reference to the Caesarian lineage and

specifically to Claudius. 54 There were now lands in Britain that were named after the line of

Caesars, suggesting that the Roman emperors who dominated this foreign province desired

recognition and glory, as well as territorial gains. Another way that Claudius managed to obtain

glory was through the minting of coins, for example didrachms . 55 Since coins were an integral tool

of economic exchange during the period, having one’s name on the currency was a great display

of power in Rome and elsewhere. Inscriptions were displayed on these didrachms , detailing the

methods by which Claudius managed to subjugate the people of Britain, a people thought to

have never before been conquered. 56 From this, it seems clear that Claudius’ domination and

subjugation of the British people was part of a narrative meant to establish him as a ruler of

unprecedented accomplishment. 57

Adoption of the Campaign by Nero

After Claudius’ death in 54 CE, his adopted son, Nero, took his place as emperor.

54 Hind, “Claudius’ ‘Durbar’ in Britain, AD-43-Roman Chelmsford?”, 69. 55 Stewart, “Inventing Britain”, 8. 56 Stewart, “Inventing Britain”, 8-9. 57 Stewart, “Inventing Britain”, 9.

At first, Nero did not want to continue the campaign in Britain, but eventually decided to do so

out of the desire to avoid sullying his father’s work (Suet., Ner. 18.1). Nero ordered the expansion

of Roman rule in Britain, instating Suetonius Paullinus as the latest governor of Britain. 58

Paullinus had completed two previous campaigns in North and South Wales (Fig 1.), a sea

invasion of the Island of Anglesey at the northernmost point in Wales , and was in the process of

setting forth on a campaign into Snowdonia from his base at Rhyn Park, southwest of Chester,

near Chirk. 59 However, the Snowdonia campaign was pushed aside as the Boudican Revolt broke

out after the victory at Anglesey. When Paullinus learnt of the Boudican Revolt, he chose to

respond by marching through enemy territory into London (Fig 1.) and Verulamium (St. Albans),

establishing bases in those territories (Tac., Ann. 14.33.1, 3). Paullinus’ forces consisted of the

14th Legion and part of the 20th Legion, along with auxiliaries, totaling 10,000 men (Tac., Ann.

14.34.1). In preparations for the anticipated conflict against Boudicca, Paullinus chose an open

field in order to avoid difficult terrain and any possibilities of an ambush (Tac., Ann. 14.34.1).

With both sides having given their speeches for inspiration before the battle, the forces of

Paullinus and Boudicca met on the field. The Romans fired a barrage of projectiles while

assaulting the Britons using a wedge formation of defiles , auxiliaries, and cavalry (Tac., Ann.

14.37.1-2). The Britons lost 80,000 men, while the Romans reported only 400 casualties (Tac.,

Ann. 14.37.2). Boudicca committed suicide by poison after suffering the loss of her failed revolt

(Tac., Ann. 14.37.3).

This victory surely brought glory to the Romans. After the victory against Boudicca,

pacification measures were established and the process of quelling revolts and subduing the

58 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 68-69. 59 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 69.

British people began anew; their integration into the Roman routine had begun. 60 Still seeking

accolades, Nero would replace Gallus with Petronius Turpilianus as governor of Britain in order

to introduce an expansionist policy. 61 With Turpilianus and M. Trebellius Maximus in Britain, the

Roman expansion began with the establishment of forts. 62 However, due to a lack of

campaigning as a result of the fort building, as well as Nero’s shift of resources to the Caucasus

region, the campaign and the expansion of Roman influence deteriorated. By 68 CE, Nero had

committed suicide.

Nero’s Contribution to the Conquest of Britain

While unsure at first, Nero had continued one of his late adoptive father’s goals,

managing to bring glory to both himself and the Roman Empire through his campaigns in the

British Isles, especially in regard to the Roman victory against Boudicca and the Iceni rebels. In

fact, when Paullinus was recalled to Rome to celebrate this victory in a formal triumph, Nero

participating in the event in the place of honour as if the emperor himself had won the victory

and brought glory to Rome. 63 By replacing Classicianus with Paullinus in Britain, Nero brought

tolerance rather than violence to Britain, generating an increase in Roman cultural influence. 64 By

replacing Classicianus with Turpilianus, Nero returned to a campaign of military domination,

establishing new forts that allowed for further control of the British Isles. By hand-picking two

successful governors of Britain, each with polarized missions and methods, Nero succeeded in

gaining the glory and accolades that he had intended. However, Nero showed little preference as

to the means chosen to achieve his desire to gain a glorious reputation, whether it be through

60 Gil Gambush, “To Rule a Ferocious Province: Roman Policy and the Aftermath of the Boudican Revolt” (Britannia, Vol. 43 (2012): 7; Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 71. 61 Gambush, “To Rule a Ferocious Province”, 10. 62 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 71. 63 Gambush, “To Rule a Ferocious Province”, 6. 64 Gambush, “To Rule a Ferocious Province”, 6.

war or cultural influence. This serves as a demonstration of the way in which the Roman

Conquest of Britain was used as a means for Roman emperors to gain personal glory, and not

just a means to increase Roman territory.

Vespasian Continues the Conquest of Britain

After Galba, Otho, and Vitellius reigned as emperors of Rome, Vespasian was next in

line, having completed his military service. Compared to the emperors discussed thus far,

Vespasian's campaign in Britain does not appear to have been heavily motivated by a desire for

glory, but rather by a desire to fix issues caused by the previous three emperors, as well as to

combat the ongoing Brigantian incursion. 65 Due to the power struggle in Rome, Roman control

of Britain had decreased. During this period, Venutius had managed to usurp power from Queen

Cartimandua. After attempting to help her regain the throne, the Romans had found that they

lacked the strength to remove Venutius from power. When Vespasian became emperor, he

promptly dispatched Leg. II Adiutrix, and within fifteen years the conquest of Britain had been

completed. 66 Alongside the general Agricola, the new governor, Petillius Cerialis, managed to

successfully subjugate the Brigantian Kingdom, operating from the North Midlands (Fig 1.), and

into South and East Yorkshire, possibly crossing the Strainmore Pass in the area of Cumberland

and Northwest Carlisle. 67 The next governor, Julius Frontinus, took all of Wales. 68 Vespasian also

received Cogidubnus as a client kingdom during this period. 69 Through his campaigns, Vespasian

secured England and Wales under Roman control.

65 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 71. 66 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 71-72. 67 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 72. 68 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 72. 69 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 72.

The Influence of Agricola During the Conquest of Britain

After gaining military experience in Britain and serving under Cerialis as legate , Agricola

would be appointed the next governor of Britain by Vespasian. During his time as governor,

Agricola managed to earn glory in the name of the Roman Empire through his many

accomplishments. At the end of his first summer season, Agricola had sent detachments of

multiple legions and small forces of auxiliaries to prepare against the Ordovices (Tac., Agr.

18.1-2). The Ordovices refused to leave the hills, which forced Agricola to order his forces to

storm through their defenses and nearly destroy the tribe, though some managed to escape to

the Island of Mona at Anglesey (Fig 1.). Without any ships, Agricola managed to pursue them

across the water by constructing a bridge and sending auxiliary units who were adept swimmers.

Taking notice of Agricola’s determination and competence, the Ordovices surrendered the island

(Tac., Agr. 18.2-3). With the Ordovices subdued, Agricola began to establish a Roman way of life

among the Britons. He introduced the Ordivices and Britons to the Roman liberal arts,

constructed marketplaces, temples, and houses, and propagated the teaching of Latin (Tac., Agr.

21). Agricola essentially gave Roman civilization to the Britons.

After taking steps to introduce Roman influence in local British culture, Agricola moved

on to the estuaries of Forth-and-Clyde. He constructed a 64 km border along the isthmus,

cordoning off an entire section of Britain and effectively separating Caledonia from Britannia

(Fig. 2). This was seen as an expression of power, a statement to the Britons to not provoke

violence with the Romans. 70 Agricola then marched south of the new Forth-Clyde Line, towards

Galloway (Fig 2.), encountering the Novantae tribe and adding further forts to the Forth-Clyde

Line. Agricola and his forces then reached the Antrim Coast (Fig 1.), a shortcut to Ireland of

70 McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland”, 127.

only 19 nautical miles, an approximate three-hour sea journey. 71 Agricola’s plan was likely to send

troops to the Island of Mull in Western Ireland (Fig 2.), as the island projects westward and faces

Ireland, allowing for excellent surveillance of the Irish Sea. Besides surveying the sea, these

troops had the potential to be used as a conquering force in Ireland, or to defend against

attackers from either side travelling between Ireland and the British Isles. 72 However, this plan

did not come to fruition due to the sudden death of Emperor Titus in 81 CE, and also due to

the pressure caused by the incoming Caledonians encroaching on the Forth-Clyde Line. 73

Agricola had sent his naval force to Girvan (Fig 2.), north of Wigtown, and his invasion force to

the northern Highlands. 74 This prevented the Caledonians from reaching the Forth-Clyde Line,

leaving them cornered. Surrounded by waves and rocks, the Caledonians had no possible escape

route. 75 Agricola had split his army into three groups, and at nightfall the Caledonians attacked

the weakest of these three (Tac., Agr. 25.2, 26). However, Agricola’s scouts were able to alert the

other two armies, who initiated a flanking maneuver against the Caledonians’ side and rear (ibid.

26). The Caledonians were broken, with only a few escaping (Tac., Agr. 25.2, 26). The

Caledonians gathered more troops, totaling 30,000 soldiers (Tac., Agr. 29.2). They attacked the

Romans at Mon Graupius, between Iverness and Aberdeen (Fig 1.), but were repelled by

Agricola and his army (Tac., Agr. 37.3-4, 38). Twenty-thousand Caledonians managed to escape. 76

In 84 CE, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian and praised (Tac., Agr. 40.3, 42).

Agricola perished in 93 CE (Tac., Agr. 44). It would seem that all the work he had done in the

field as governor of Britain was considered to be the accomplishment of Domitian, since the

archives which held the reports and accounts of Agricola’s work were destroyed in a process of

71 McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland”, 127. 72McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland” , 131-132. 73 McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland” , 132. 74 McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland” , 133. 75 McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland” , 133. 76 McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland”, 136.

historical erasure known as damnatio memoriae , carried out by the Roman Senate against Domitian

after the emperor’s death. 77

Figure 2: [Map of the British Isles during Roman conquest.] (McLaughlin 2014, 120.)

77 McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland”, 136.

Agricola’s Contribution to the Conquest of Britain

With the accomplishments achieved by Agricola during his time as governor of Britain

under Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, he successfully increased Roman influence

within the British Isles, and partly into Ireland. However, Agricola’s motivation to achieve such

success does not seem to have been fueled by ambitions of glory for himself, but rather for the

Roman Empire, and possibly for Vespasian, Titus, and his family (Tac., Agr. 44.3). The Roman

historian Tacitus describes Agricola as a humble and virtuous man, and elaborates how the spirit

of Agricola belonged in the place where virtuous spirits rest: “I f there is a place for virtuous

spirits; if, as the wise are pleased to say, great minds are not extinguished with the body, rest in

peace, and recall us, your family, from childish longing and womanish lament to the

contemplation of your virtues,…” (Tac., Agr. 46.1). Agricola’s humble and virtuous demeanor

was expressed during the times of peace between the Romans and the Britons, something not

many other Roman governors had achieved, as they were usually on the offensive (Tac., Agr. 21).

Through these acts, Agricola managed to display Roman culture to the Britons, and established

many Romanized cultural institutions (Tac., Agr. 21). In this accomplishment, Agricola brought

glory to Rome and not to himself, but brought glory nonetheless. Agricola’s peaceful actions in

Britain were likely not the orders of the reigning Roman emperor, since the emperors did not

have a tight reign over Agricola during his governorship, allowed the governor and general to

resolve issues as he saw fit. 78 Overall, his actions during his governorship were intended to bring

glory to his Empire, to successfully complete his campaign, and to resolve issues left behind by

previous governors in Britain. However, the chief source of this account is the historian Tacitus,

his own son-in-law, and given the relation, the facts of Agricola’s true personality, goals, and

78 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 74.

reputation may have been subordinated to familial worship and aggrandizement. It must be

noted that this record of Agricola’s benevolent behaviour was likely manipulated in order to suit

Tacitus’ desire to portray his father-in-law in the best possible light.

Emperor Domitian’s Contribution to the Britain Campaign

In the case of Emperor Domitian, the most well-known accomplishment that he

managed to achieve was taking credit for Agricola’s work after recalling the governor to Rome.

Having grown jealous of his achievements, Domitian stole credit from Agricola and denied him a

governor’s salary (Tac., Agr. 39.2, 42). After Agricola returned to Rome, Domitian sent a

replacement governor, forcing Agricola to retire and preventing the governor from outshining

the emperor. Domitian had pursued the Britain campaign with the desire for glory, but only

achieved it through theft. Such actions resulted in the dishonorable removal of Domitian’ s legacy

from history through a process known as damnatio memoriae , where archives, records, mounments,

and artwork associated with that individual were defaced, removed and or destroyed. 79

The Mismanagement of the Britain Campaign

The key to the success of an emperor’s participation in the conquest of Britain was their

resource management. In the case of Nero, detachments of Roman forces were recalled from

Britain in order to divert them to the Caspian Gates to combat the Albani, thus weakening

Roman strength and influence over the Britons (Tac., Hist. 1.6.2). In another example, Domitian

had postponed his campaign in the British Isles due to the need to focus his resources on

79 McLaughlin, “The Roman Plan to Conquer Ireland”, 136.

campaigns in Gaul. 80 This is also seen with later emperors, for example Hadrian establishing his

fortified wall between Northumberland and Carlisle (Fig 1.), in order to protect the border. 81 The

Antonine Wall, in Sterling (Fig 1.), was constructed to glorify Emperor Antoninus and serve as

another border. However, due to a lack of resources and military strength, the Romans eventually

lost control of the Antonine Wall. 82 Though they managed to retake it, control did not last, and

they were forced to fall back to Hadrian’ s Wall. 83 The management of resources of each

emperors’ campaign was a vital factor determining whether they were able to accomplish their

ambitions for glory.

Conclusion

The Roman Conquest of Britain, initiated by Julius Caesar after his successes in Gaul,

eventually became a legacy of shifting territorial control, spreading Roman influence to Britain

and Ireland. Britain had been targeted after offering refuge to the Gauls, and eventually became a

sustained source of conflict and glory for Roman emperors of the period. The original intent of

the campaign in Britain was to subdue the Gauls and remove their safe haven in the British Isles,

along with the threat of the Britons themselves. One view of the Emperor Claudius’ attitude

toward the endeavor is that he continued the campaign in Britain out of an interest to earn

political glory. Another possibility is that Claudius continued the campaign to secure established

communication and trade networks in the area, to which the Britons had become a threat.

Whatever his true motivation, during his campaign in Britain, Claudius managed to find ways to

obtain glory that were not initially anticipated. Emperor Nero, while unsure at first, decided to

80 Michael Fulford, “Territorial Expansion and the Roman Empire” (World Archaeology, Vol. 23, No 3, Archaeology of Empires (February 1992): 302. 81 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 109. 82 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 120-121, 126. 83 Jones, Mattingly, An Atlas of Roman Britain , 126.

continue his father’s campaign, but eventually saw it as a way to earn glory for his own reign.

Emperor Vespasian, after dealing with political issues left behind by Galba, Otho, and Vitellius,

did not intentionally seek glory in Britain but received it through his British governor Agricola,

who distinguished himself among other governors by bringing glory to the Roman Empire.

Among the previously mentioned emperors, Julius Caesar, Vespasian, and the governor Agricola

appeared to be individuals who did not seek glory in Britain, while it is clear that Claudius, Nero,

and Domitian exploited Britain as a means to gain political and military accolades, achievements,

and glory during their reign.

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