Organic & biodynamic 2

Organic & Biodynamic Agustina Besada -­‐Isaac Tannenbaum -­‐ Kristin Pederson -­‐ Veronika Kazakova

A. DEFINITION 1. Organic Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which seeks to promote and enhance agro-­‐ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and biological soil activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of inputs, taking into account regional conditions which require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by combining tradition, innovation and science in utilizing agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods and materials, as opposed to synthetic or engineered methods and materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system.1 The primary principle of organic farming is that chemical fertilizers and pesticides are prohibited, as are genetically modified crops and ingredients (GMOs). The reasoning behind this is that the use of artificial chemicals to fertilize the soil often only provides crops with the three basic elements that they need to grow (nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium), rather than providing them with all the nutrients they need for optimal health. Regarding pesticides, in traditional (industrial) farming, when a farmer plants the same crop in one field year after year (known as mono-­‐culture), the pests and diseases that attack the crop increase in strength and number year after year, making them more dependent on pesticides to deal with this.2 One method at the heart of organic farming, which allows farmers to avoid the use of these prohibited ingredients, is "rotation". This involves planting alternate groups of crops (roots, brassicas, legumes, etc.) to increase fertility and prevent pests and diseases. Organic farmers also add compost, green manure and, on occasion, selected minerals. This provides all the nutrients needed, while most fertilizers only provide basic elements. This also reduces environmental pollution, as it avoids the use of chemical fertilizers that are fossil fuel intensive to produce and transport, and which may cause eutrophication in nearby water systems. Finally, organic farmers incorporate rest periods for individual fields, where only grass or clover is planted for a season or more. This gives the field a chance to rejuvenate on its own, increasing fertility, pest prevention, and the health of the soil and food.3 “Organic Certification” is a certification process for producers of organic food and other organic agricultural products. In general, any business directly involved in food production can be certified, including seed suppliers, farmers, food processors, retailers and restaurants. In some countries, organic standards are formulated and overseen by the government. The US, EU, Canada and Japan have comprehensive organic legislation, and the term may be used in marketing materials only by certified producers. Certification is intended to protect consumers from misuse of the term, and make buying organic products easy and reliable. In countries without organic laws, government

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FAO, 1999 http://base.dnsgb.com.ua/files/book/Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture.pdf [http://www.soilassociation.org] 3 [http://www.soilassociation.org] 2

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guidelines may or may not exist, while certification is handled by non-­‐profit organizations and private companies.4 Internationally, equivalency negotiations are underway, and some agreements are already in place, to harmonize certification between countries, facilitating international trade. There are also international certification bodies, including members of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) working on harmonization efforts. Where formal agreements do not exist between countries, organic products for export are often certified by agencies from the importing countries, which may establish permanent foreign offices for this purpose.5 2. Biodynamic Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming originally developed by Austrian philosopher and social reformer, Rudolf Steiner in the 1920’s in response to farmers’ concerns regarding the future of agriculture and land degradation. Steiner’s methodology is based on sustainably managing a farmstead with an awareness of the relationship between the pedosphere, ecosphere and atmosphere.6 The central tenet of biodynamic agriculture is that the farm as a whole is viewed as an organism and should, therefore, be largely self-­‐sustaining, producing its own manure and animal feed. Plant or animal disease is seen as a symptom of an underlying problem in the whole organism. Steiner also suggested timing agricultural activities such as sowing, weeding and harvesting to utilize the influences of the moon and planets on plant growth; as well as the application of natural materials to the soil, compost and crops, with the intention of engaging elemental forces.7 In this way, biodynamic agriculture aims to create a sustainable and closed-­‐loop agricultural system which maintains farm health and surrounding landscape conditions. Crop varieties are methodically chosen to serve specific ecological purposes, only breeding plant types that are conducive to maintaining the biodiversity of local ecosystems and that contribute to soil function.

Thus, biodynamic farms often produce native crops and practice companion plantings that take the surrounding biosphere into consideration.8 However, there are some distinct differences between biodynamic and organic farming. For example, animals are a crucial element of a biodynamic farm. In addition to their obvious contribution to a farm’s fertility, their care and welfare are given extensive consideration. In addition, a distinguishing feature of biodynamic agriculture is the use of nine “preparations” made from herbs, mineral substances and animal manures that are utilized in field sprays and compost inoculants applied in minute doses, similar to how homeopathic remedies are used for humans.9 Except, in this sense, biodynamic agriculture originally consisted of a mystical or spiritual practice, and was, therefore, considered an unscientific, alternative approach to agriculture. Nonetheless,

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_certification Ibid.

6 http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1338&context=scripps_theses 7 Paull, John (2011) "Biodynamic Agriculture: The Journey from Koberwitz to the World, 1924–1938", Journal of Organic Systems, 2011, 6(1):27–41.

8 http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1338&context=scripps_theses http://base.dnsgb.com.ua/files/book/Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture.pdf 9 [[http://www.demeter-usa.org/downloads/Demeter-Farm-Standard.pdf].

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some biodynamic practices are scientifically testable and have been shown to result in improved soil and plant health parameters.10 Today, it is practiced in limited locations, primarily Germany.

3. Question The key question is if these methods of agriculture are more sustainable in the long-­‐term according to environmental, social and economic performance. It this paper we will analyze the pros and cons of Organic and Biodynamic farming methods as well as, consider the opportunities and challenges.

B. LITERATURE REVIEW 1. Organic & Biodynamic in the US Organic production has been practiced in the United States since the late 1940s. From that time, the industry has grown from experimental garden plots to large farms with surplus products sold under a special organic label. Food manufacturers have developed organic processed products and many retail marketing chains specialize in the sale of "organic" products. This growth stimulated a need for verification that products are indeed produced according to certain standards. Thus, the organic certification industry also evolved.

More than 40 private organizations and state agencies (certifiers) certified organic food, but their standards for growing and labeling organic food differed. For example, some agencies permitted or prohibited different pesticides or fertilizers in growing organic food. In addition, the language contained in seals, labels, and logos approved by organic certifiers differed. Thus, by the late 1980’s, after an attempt to develop a consensus of production and certification standards, the organic industry petitioned Congress to draft the Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA) defining the term organic.11 Nowadays, The USDA certifies organic products in the US under the National Organic Program (NOP), which enforces regulations ensuring that organically labeled products meet consistent national standards. According to the USDA, “organic is a labeling term that indicates that the food or other agricultural product has been produced through approved methods that integrate cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity. Synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, irradiation, and genetic engineering may not be used.”12 There are also certification agencies for biodynamic products, although most are members of the international biodynamic standards group, Demeter International. To receive certification as a biodynamic farm, the farm must meet the certain sustainable standards, such as agronomic guidelines, greenhouse management, structural components, livestock guidelines, and post-­‐ harvest handling and processing procedures.13 10

[http://puyallup.wsu.edu/~Linda%20ChalkerScott/Horticultural%20Myths_files/Myths/Biodynamic%20agriculture.pdf] 11 http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/torg.html 12 http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop 13 http://escholarship.org/uc/item/5k657745

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2. Biodynamic vs. Organic vs. Traditional It is important to recognize when researching this topic that much of the research which contrasts biodynamic with conventional agriculture does not separate biodynamic “preparations” from organic practices. Similarly, when researchers compare biodynamic and organic farms with conventional farms, by and large they do not note the differences between them, although both are noted as different than conventional farms.14 Nonetheless, some critics have opined that biodynamic agriculture should not contribute altogether to the development of alternative or sustainable practices on the basis of a strong lack of scientific evidence of Steiner's beliefs (e.g. "cosmic forces’" influencing crops). In a 2004 overview of biodynamic agriculture, Linda Chalker-­‐Scott, a researcher at Washington State University, characterized biodynamic agriculture as pseudoscience, and asserted that Steiner did not use scientific methods in formulating his theory.15 Others point out that the way biodynamic “preparations” are supposed to be implemented was formulated solely on the basis of Steiner's "own insight".16 Brian Dunning writes: "The best way to think of biodynamic agriculture would be as a magic spell cast over an entire farm. Biodynamics sees an entire farm as a single organism, with something that they call a life force."17 In fact, Steiner himself characterized it as "spiritual science" as part of the larger anthroposophy movement.18 However, multiple scientific studies have compared the soil health of industrial farming plots to those using biodynamic methods and found that Steiner’s system promotes better quality soil (higher microorganism count). For example, a study conducted in Australia, by Terrence Foreman in 1981 examined biodynamic and conventional plots in the Breeza Plains of New South Wales.

Both the biodynamic and conventional plots used consistent farming techniques for over seven years to ensure steady soil structure. Results showed that the biodynamic farm had higher organic matter, the decomposition of which improves the biological, chemical, and physical properties of soil. Such organic matter also introduces a plethora of nutritional substances to the soil, which are absorbed by the root systems. Additionally found in this plot was a high amount of phosphorus, considered one of the three primary elements necessary for crop growth.

John Reganold, professor of soil science and agroecology at Washington State University, has investigated biodynamic agriculture techniques for over fifteen years. On the North Island of New Zealand, Reganold compared seven biodynamic farms that were each compared to one or two conventional farms in the same area. The farms included vegetable plots, orchards and livestock-­‐ intensive areas. Reganold found that the soil structure, or the way that particles are arranged within a soil sample to shape the aggregate pores, was better on the biodynamic farms, which allows for better water drainage and retention. Case studies such as these suggest that biodynamic farming may be a viable solution to soil degradation problems such as erosion and loss of biodiversity, which are known consequences of industrial agriculture practices.

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See Apendix 1 http://puyallup.wsu.edu/~Linda%20ChalkerScott/Horticultural%20Myths_files/Myths/Biodynamic%20agriculture.pdf 16 http://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false 17 http://skeptoid.com/episodes/4026 18 http://base.dnsgb.com.ua/files/book/Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture.pdf 15

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Interestingly, the comparison between organic and biodynamic soil quality remains largely unexplored. Nevertheless, soils that have undergone biodynamic “preparations” have been limitedly analyzed for effectiveness in comparison to organic, in order to justify the continued use of biodynamic agriculture today. Some studies show better soil quality on biodynamic farms as compared with organic farms, while many studies have found no trend that differentiates organic from biodynamic. Thus, the results are seemingly inconclusive and do not indicate a preferable farming methodology.19 It should be noted that, nowadays, almost all the mythically or spiritually oriented procedures of biodynamic farming has been transformed into a scientific and cultural approach, based on local community crop diversification, the avoidance of chemical soil treatments (and off-­‐farm inputs generally), decentralized production and distribution, and the consideration of measurable celestial and terrestrial influences on biological function. Nonetheless, the spiritual component is still presented as a goal or ideal to globally improve humanity.

2. Organic/Biodynamic and Sustainability The desire for a sustainable agriculture system is almost universal, although there is no common agreement on how to achieve it. The concept of sustainable agriculture has been used for many years and has been considered in relation to organic farming -­‐ a sector that is growing rapidly in many countries. If organic agriculture is to present the answer to the sustainability problem, it has to be adapted to local farming, social, geographical and climatic factors.20 Other very important factors are the role of regulation, the desired degree of reliance on agricultural systems, and the scale of production and trade in agricultural goods.21 Organic agriculture is the fastest growing agriculture-­‐based industry in the world. 22 The land devoted to organic agriculture worldwide has increased over the past decade from 15.8 million hectares to 37.2 million hectares, exhibiting a compounding rate of growth of 8.9% per annum as of 2011. Growth over the past decade is presented for 71 countries, which together account for 35.3 million organic agricultural hectares, or 94.8% of the total global organic agriculture area.

Globally, this total has multiplied by 2.3 in the decade from 2001 to 2011, but has varied greatly by country. By way of contrast, Denmark has barely increased (with a hectares-­‐multiplier of 1.07), while China and India rank in the top ten countries for both of the indices of organics growth; namely, the ‘decadal organic hectares increase’ and the ‘decadal organic hectares-­‐multiplier.’23 Because sustainable farming systems, such as organic farming, are now seen as a potential solution to the continued loss of biodiversity in Europe and the US, the industry receives substantial support in the form of subsidies and national government legislation. In general the sustainable approach of both organic and biodynamic agriculture is mainly based on the necessity of both crops and livestock on a farmstead to create an independent nutrient cycle; the use of 19

http://puyallup.wsu.edu/~Linda%20ChalkerScott/Horticultural%20Myths_files/Myths/Biodynamic%20agriculture.pdf 20 http://base.dnsgb.com.ua/files/book/Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture.pdf 21 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521X00000603 22 See Image 1 23 See Image 2 and Image 3. http://orgprints.org/19517/; http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/organic-farming-ineurope-surface-area-by-country_ee07

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manures and composts, local production and distribution systems and, in the case of biodynamic, use of the astrological planting calendar. Thus, some have argued that organic farming and sustainable agriculture are synonymous, while others regard them as separate concepts that should not be equated.24 However, the term sustainable agriculture has expanded to include the full organic and biodynamic supply chain from inputs to final manufactured goods, as well as cultural and social aspects of the movement, not just the on-­‐farm production aspects.25 c. Fertilization and Pesticide Principles In order to maintain soil health, systematic rotations of crops are essential to biodynamic and organic farming systems. The use of cover crops and intentional crop plantings enable farmers to fix nitrogen and incorporate additional nutrients into the soil without industrial fertilizers. The recomendations for the sustainable fertilization are: -­‐ All certified biodynamic farms must grow legumes for nitrogen-­‐fixing green manure, which can also be used for animal feed.

-­‐ Natural plant and manure-­‐based fertilizers are an essential component of soil health maintenance.

-­‐ Similar to small-­‐scale organic agriculture, biodynamic farmers utilize intensive manure and composts in varying forms to produce maximum nutrient outcomes.

Diverse methods of fertilization are used depending on the crop needing nutrient enhancement.

For example, potatoes are given manure as fertilizer, while other vegetables are sprinkled with “well rotted composts”. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1338&context=scripps_theses In addition, in 2003, the EPA issued final guidance on labeling pesticide products under the NOP as well. d. Ecological impacts.

The increasing industrialization of agriculture has resulted in continuois ecological problems, illustrating the necessity of a new farming methodology. Commercial farming systems create environmental disasters such as pollution, loss of biodiversity, and soil degradation. The organic movement was created as an alternative to this system. However today corporations that manage extensive organic operations also employ methodologies that deplete soil nutrients, disregard the ecological importance of crop rotation, and surrounding ecosystems. Biodynamic agriculture presents a method that ensures a closed nutrient cycle, limits resource use and cannot operate successfully under unsustainable conditions. In this way, the Demeter certification system provides a solution to the environmental problems posed by conventional and industrial organic agriculture.

-­‐ Erosion is an example of an externality not internalized by industrial farming corporations, which causes enormous environmental damage. According to Marc Ribaudo of the United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, erosion due to monocultures has caused 24 25

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521X00000603 http://base.dnsgb.com.ua/files/book/Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture/Organic-Agriculture.pdf

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billions of dollars of damages including polluted water and destruction of natural habitats.

However, these costs are not calculated as part of a farmer’s expenses and farmers are not held accountable for environmental damage caused by erosion.

-­‐ Long-­‐distance shipments, increased processing and storage time of natural foods, and use of machinery on a large-­‐scale cause more fossil fuel emissions, which ultimately leads to atmospheric pollution.

-­‐ Small organic farming systems in this case are more healthy and oppose globalization as they use nonchemical fertilizers and crop rotation.

3. Economic, Social and Political Overview a. Economic benefits Biodynamic agriculture offers a solution to the problem of the affordable methods of farming development, efficient systems, and local economies. This methodology internalizes environmental externalities and presents a solution to the problematic economic system that is industrial agriculture (Demeter International). Each year taxpayers spend about $659 million dollars to support subsidies for industrial agriculture—much of which is misused. Subsequently, industrial agriculture has become extremely expensive for both the government and taxpayers.

Biodynamic and organic agriculture offers an economically viable system because it takes environmental and health externalities into consideration. Demeter certification presents a way for farmers to maintain small-­‐scale organic farms that are based on sustainable ideology, which in turn saves money. Industrial agriculture actually proves less efficient than small-­‐scale organic.

Although corporate farming is seemingly more productive and beneficial for a growing economy, this is not necessarily the case. A study conducted in 1989 by the U.S. National Resource Council examined whether industrial food production is more efficient than alternative methods.

The study found out that: -­‐ Well-­‐managed farming systems use less synthetic chemical pesticides, fertilizers, and antibiotics per unit of production than conventional farms.

-­‐ Reduced use of these inputs lowers production costs and lessens agriculture’s potential for adverse environment and health effects.

-­‐ Farms smaller than twenty seven acres are more than ten times as productive than conventional agriculture zones and farms four acres or less are over 100 times more productive.

-­‐ The statistics demonstrated that variability each year did not change as much for biodynamic farms. This indicated a correlation between biodynamic practices and economic stability, which is extremely important in such a volatile domain as agriculture. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1338&context=scripps_theses b. Social influence.

Although soil and ecosystem health are vital to biodynamic farming, there is an importance of social issues as well. Biodynamic agriculture argues against working solely towards economic gain and conceptualized agriculture as a living system in which humans, organisms, and landscape 7

make up a cohesive habitat. Therefore, maintaining human relationships is essential. An example of this can be seen in the unique concept of land-­‐ownership presented on modern biodynamic farms. Today, biodynamic farms are often not considered private property, but are instead owned by charitable businesses or community-­‐supported organizations. Farms such as these might provide a space of rehabilitation therapy for people serving parole and those with mental or physical handicaps. These opportunities allow for citizens to take part in the farming process and learn important skills within a supportive community. Wholesome and social, this component distinguishes biodynamic agriculture from conventional organic farming. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1338&context=scripps_theses 4. ESG Risks -­‐ climate (environmental protection, natural recources management, climate change factors) -­‐politics (community and stakeholders participation, regulations) -­‐ management (technology development -­‐ R&D and improved techniques, workforce investment -­‐ better skills better production, safe workign environment). Managing risks to make a profit can include -­‐ products (health safety -­‐ genetic engineering, pricing, real estate rates for the farmland) Smaller, organic organizations are dealing with threats of consolidation. An example of this can be seen in the progression of Whole Foods Market, which bought out ninety-­‐five stores including Bread and Circus, Fresh Fields, Mrs. Gooch’s and many other small manufactures (Klonsky 240).

Businesses such as Whole Foods Market put pressure on small farmers because they are often unable to compete with these large markets.

Biodynamic and organic agriculture presents a solution to consolidation and increasing import and export trends by emphasizing a localized economic system, often through barter and trade.

Because of an overarching disapproval of the modern economic system, biodynamic farming communities aim for self-­‐sufficiency, with a goal to support only farms they believe to be sustainable and ethically run. A reorganization of the social structure within these small communities helps to support local agriculture and other businesses. One biodynamic farmer from Ireland explained that her local community structure keeps her from becoming connected to material goods, which she considers unsustainable, spiritually unhealthy, and detrimental to the local economy. Economic growth that promotes materialistic ideals is opposed in biodynamic communities where farmers emphasize societal reorganization value local economy. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1338&context=scripps_theses

To avoid ESG risks it is recommended by Demeter International that: -­‐ the individual design of the land "by the farmer, as determined by site conditions, is one of the basic tenets of biodynamic agriculture.

-­‐ minimum of ten percent of the total farm acreage be set aside as a biodiversity preserve, -­‐ diversity in crop rotation and perennial planting is required -­‐ no annual crop can be planted in the same field for more than two years in succession.

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-­‐ bare tillage year round is prohibited so land needs to maintain adequate green cover -­‐ humans have a responsibility for the development of their ecological and social environment which goes beyond economic aims and the principles of descriptive ecology.

-­‐ crops, livestock, and farmer, and "the entire socioeconomic environment" form a unique interaction, which biodynamic farming tries to "actively shape ...through a variety of management practices.

-­‐ the prime objective is always to encourage healthy conditions for life": soil fertility, plant and animal health, and product quality.

-­‐ disease and insect control are addressed through botanical species diversity, predator habitat, balanced crop nutrition, and attention to light penetration and airflow.

-­‐ weed control emphasizes prevention, including timing of planting, mulching, and identifying and avoiding the spread of invasive weed species. http://donlotter.net/lotter_organicag.pdf http://www.demeter-­‐usa.org/downloads/Demeter-­‐Farm-­‐Standard.pdf C. MARKET ANALYSIS

Biodynamic agriculture is now practiced on 142,482 hectares in about 8,000 certified farms 50-­‐53 countries -­‐ mostly in Europe, Asia and Australia, but also growing in North America.

Germany accounts for 45% of the global total production, the remainder average 1750 ha per country. http://orgprints.org/18860/1/Paull2011OlympiadJSDS.pdf The product rage varies from wine production in France, cotton production in Egypt to silkworm breading in China. Ecological degradation and economic inefficiencies associated with conventional and industrial organic farms play an important role in a farmer’s choice to implement biodynamic farming methodology.

The Market Implications of Organic/Biodynamic Agriculture

While organic and biodynamic methods represent only a portion of practices labeled as sustainable agriculture in different contexts, and only a small fraction of total agricultural output, their history of regulation makes it possible to tease out certain aspects of markets and development pertaining to these methods in particular. Using such standards, however, largely limits an examination to those practicing modern, certifiable techniques. Regulations differ slightly by various organic bodies or by nation, but principally specify which practices and inputs are forbidden and which are required for outputs to be considered organic or biodynamic. This differentiates this type of agricultural system from traditional agricultural methods and agriculture still conducted in parts of the developing world with limited access to today’s conventional synthetic inputs, where most of food productions has been conducted via low input, chemical-­‐free methods, but not always with concerns for sustainability in terms of preserving water quality and soil fertility (Rigby, 2001).

The Organic/Biodynamic Market: Supply and Demand 9

Worldwide

Traditionally, many who became organic or biodynamic farmers did so as the embrace of a lifestyle or certain set of values rather than for a driving economic motivation (Rigby, 2001). In terms of farm profitability, evidence of whether organic or conventional systems fare better overall has been mixed. Organic farmers often do experience lower yields, and have higher labor costs, but those can be offset by price premiums and, in some countries, government interventions to support organic farming (OECD, 2003). Because food produced in this manor has received price premiums for the past few decades, less ideologically motivated farmers have begun, in some cases, to convert all or part of their lands to production by these methods (Rigby, 2001). Yet it remains difficult to compare profitability across systems, as there are factors that are difficult to account for, such as unpaid family labor on farms or environmental externalities such as water pollution (OECD, 2003).

Additionally, the pool of those who purchase organic goods has also increased and diversified. Purchase of organic and biodynamic produce used to be largely restricted to specialized outlets or direct-­‐from-­‐the-­‐farm sales (Greene, Dimitri, Lin, McBride, Oberholtzer, & and Smith, 2009). Three out of four grocery stores in the U.S. now offer some selection of organic food (USDA, 2014), though some retailers, such as Whole Foods Markets in the U.S. and U.K., have done more to associate their brands with organic and biodynamic options (Whole Foods Market, 2014). Consumers are purchasing more organic goods in spite of higher prices. Islam (2013) found that retail prices for consumers of organic goods in Canada were 22 to 100 percent higher than similar conventional goods.

Trade is also an important part of worldwide organic agriculture. For instance, in 2001, the UK’s embrace of organic had led to a doubling of certified farmland between 1999 and 2000. Yet, the nation was still importing 70 percent of its organic produce, often from as far away as east and southern Africa or other parts of the southern Hemisphere (Rigby, 2001). In fact, organic production is growing both in the developed and developing world (Greene, Growth Patterns in the U.S. Organic Industry, 2013).

In the. U.S.

As of the most recent reports by the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service on June 12, 2014, the national average retail price for an organic gallon of milk was $4.99 vs. a conventional advertised gallon of milk being $3.20. Organic producers of fruits and vegetables, cereals and meats also receive premiums in the U.S. when selling their organic goods. And here as well, in spite of higher price tags, demand for organic foods in the U.S rose from $3.6 billion in 1997 to $21.1 billion by 2008, with as much as 28 percent of consumers purchasing organic products on a weekly basis and two-­‐thirds purchasing organic goods sometimes (Greene, Dimitri, Lin, McBride, Oberholtzer, & and Smith, 2009). This rate of growth has been slowed since the financial crisis of 2009, but total sales have continued to increase (Greene, Growth Patterns in the U.S. Organic Industry, 2013).

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The U.S. is also involved in trade in organic goods. Many of our organic imports are items such as coffee, chocolate or bananas that are tropical or subtropical and which we therefore cannot produce in large quantities. However, the U.S. does also import a significant amount of organic soybeans, due to demand continuously exceeding supply, as well as rice, wheat and other staple crops (Greene, Growth Patterns in the U.S. Organic Industry, 2013).

Research and Development

In spite of an overall wariness of the technologies celebrated on the development path of conventional agriculture, from synthetic fertilizers to genetically modified organisms and irradiated food, organic and biodynamic agriculture is benefiting from current technological innovation in a number of ways.

Natural Fertilizers

Chemical fertilizers created since the discovery of the Haber-­‐Bosh process have made nitrogen much more readily available to farmers, but have contributed to some negative consequences such as the nutrient enrichment of nearby waters and loss of soil biodiversity. They also promote the release of greenhouse gasses that contribute to climate change through the release of nitrox oxides and during their energy-­‐intensive manufacturing process (Payne, 2012).

Because traditional chemical fertilizers are banned under organic farming regulations, farmers have a need for natural fertilizers and amendments that can be accepted under the standards.

Traditionally, this need has been met with manure, cover crops and compost, though not with human waste in the form of sewage sludge, which is also banned under U.S. organic standards (Greene, Dimitri, Lin, McBride, Oberholtzer, & and Smith, 2009). However, this is an active area for research and development. For example, New Zealand company BioDiscovery uses a proprietary method to discover naturally occurring microorganisms that can improve nutrient utilization in plants, as well as tolerance for disease and drought conditions (BioDiscovery New Zealand Limited, 2014). Plant Health Care offers products based on harpin proteins, which originate in plant pathogens and cause plants to increase their metabolic rate, increasing photosynthesis and the uptake of necessary nutrients and promoting growth (Payne, 2012).

Natural Pest Control

Traditional pest management practices on organic and biodynamic farms have revolved around crop rotation, biological pest control at the organism level, often in the form of supporting or adding to natural pest enemies, or biologically-­‐based pesticides such as pyrethrins, which come from chrysanthemums (citation needed). Options for additional biocides that are safer, more narrowly-­‐focused, and quicker to break down than traditional chemically synthesized pesticides and that can be used in organic agricultural systems are increasing in recent years (Thakore, 2006).

As of 2010, biocides made up only $1 billion of the $50 billion global pesticide market, but that represented an increase from 0.2 percent in 2000 and is part of a projected trend to continue 11

making significant gains in the market. Companies making strides in this area include AgraQuest, which, before having been acquired by Bayer CropScience, had developed beneficial fungal and bacterial applications that spread within the root areas of crops and protect them from soil pests and pathogens. Eden Research pioneered new delivery systems for terpenes, naturally occurring compounds produced by plants in times of stress. The company Exosect has developed a powder based on a food-­‐grade wax that can be used to deliver biocontrol agents as it becomes charged and adheres to insects that walk on it. Since all of these are based on biological agents, they could per permitted under organic guidelines. SemiosBIO is a Candian company that has a product, semiosNET that allows producers to measure pest levels and weather conditions through a cloud-­‐ based hardware/software package that involves monitoring of pest traps by cameras. They are also designing alternative organic pesticides based on pest pheromones and substances used in communications (Payne, 2012).

However, time will tell whether organic proponents will find these new products more within the fundamental idea of organic than nanotechnology or genetically modified organisms, which are banned under U.S. and Canadian organic guidelines.

Precision Irrigation

Besides inputs, technological development in implements and information systems used for farm management have the possibility to enhance sustainability and profitability for organic and biodynamic farmers, as well as for conventional farmers. One example of this is improved irrigation technologies, such as those offered by firms AquaSpy, DripTech and PureSense Environmental Inc. All offer farmers ways to cut the cost of irrigation, through better management by water sensor (AquaSpy and PureSense) or through cheaper drip irrigation technology (DripTech) (Payne, 2012).

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Works Cited BioDiscovery New Zealand Limited. (2014, January 1). Home Page. Retrieved June 13, 2014, from BioDiscovery New Zealand Limited: http://www.biodiscovery.co.nz/

Greene, C. (2013, October 13). Growth Patterns in the U.S. Organic Industry. Retrieved June 12, 2014, from USDA Economic Research Service: http://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-­‐waves/2013-­‐ october/growth-­‐patterns-­‐in-­‐the-­‐us-­‐organic-­‐industry.aspx#.U53t5q3qd-­‐Q

Greene, C., Dimitri, C., Lin, B.-­‐H., McBride, W., Oberholtzer, L., & and Smith, T. (2009). Emerging Issues in the U.S. Organic Industry. USDA, Economic Research Service. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture.

Islam, S. (2013, February). Retail price differential between organic and conventional foods.

American Society of Business and Behavioral Sciences Annual Conference , 537-­‐545.

OECD. (2003). Organic Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets & Policies. Organization for Economic Co-­‐operation and Development. Washington, DC: CABI Publishing.

Payne, S. (2012). Latest Agricultural Technology Innovation: Companies and breakthroughs most likely to help the world produce more food with less. Kachan & Co. San Francisco: Kachan & Co.

Rigby, D. a. (2001). Organic farming and the sustainability of agricultural systems. Agricultural Systems , 21-­‐40.

Thakore, Y. (2006). The biopesticide market for global agricultural use. Industrial Biotechnology.

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Appendix 1:

Other biodynamic preparations include plant-­‐based composting methods. Mixtures made from medicinal plants that are fermented in animal organs such as intestines and bladders are sprayed on plants during specific cosmic cycles. Not only do these composts ensure plant health, but they can also be used as natural herbicides and pesticides: The compost preparations consist of herbs such as chamomile, nettle, oak bark, yarrow or valerian, most of which are filled into particular animal organs, hung in the summer sun or placed in the soil for some months where they collect cosmic forces during this time (Demeter International). http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1338&context=scripps_theses

Briefly, two of the 8 "preparation" steps are described by packing cow manure or silica into cow horns, then buried for a number of months before the contents are swirled in warm water and then applied to the field. Cow horns are utilized as antennae for receiving and focusing cosmic forces, which are transferred to the materials inside. The other six compounds are extracts of various plants either packed into the skulls or organs of animals or into peat or manure, where they are aged before being diluted and applied to compost. The chemical elements contained in these preparations were said to be carriers of “terrestrial and cosmic forces” and would impart these forces to crops and thus to the humans that consume them. http://puyallup.wsu.edu/~Linda%20Chalker-­‐ Scott/Horticultural%20Myths_files/Myths/Biodynamic%20agriculture.pdf

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