Palm Oil Jamin Rivera, Diana McCarthy-‐Bercury, Padma Mahadevan, Agustina F. Besada 1. An Introduction to Palm Oil For many developing nations in tropical climates domestic produce is often considered as a staple ingredient for meals while outside investor simply define these goods as just another crop commodity; palm oil is no exception to this rule. Palm oil is an edible, natural liquid extracted from the fruit or kernel of palm trees. Palm Oil has many uses in both its natural and processed form. The oil is extracted from the fruit of the palm tree, processed and is used as an alternative, and less expensive greasy substance in which to fry foods. Originally, naturally extracted palm oil was primarily used in cooking, lotions and soaps. Traditionally, palm oil was a basic common ingredient in households throughout countries in sub-‐Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia and South America. Over the past few decades’ palm oil has evolved to become a more common ingredient throughout a more broad range of products. Products like processed foods, household cleaners, sweets and more recently palm oil is being tried as biofuel; an alternative to gasoline, diesel and other biofuels. In response to the market demands, many developing nations entered into the exportation palm oil industry. Countries like Indonesia and Malaysia quickly became leaders in the production of palm oil in large quantities. Emerging nations which are advancing steadily have also identified the financial and economic benefits of the palm oil industry and are actively developing their own infrastructure, one example is Brazil. As more nations become palm oil producers the international community has begun weighing the domestic positive benefits with the global negative implications. The overall goal is to find a sustainable balance that is both advantageous for developing countries as well as safe for the existing ecosystems and the global community. 2. Challenges of the Palm Oil Industry 2.1 Economic Factors
There are many economic factors that come into play when discussing the palm oil industry. The majority of countries that harvest palm oil are considered developing nations. These nations rely heavily upon the palm oil for both domestic purposes as well as a source of income from international exports. Approximately thirty-‐five countries export palm oil to the international community, however only a few of these countries dominate approximately 90% of all palm oil exports. The two largest of these countries are Indonesia and Malaysia. Both of these countries are developing nations who economies rely heavily upon the income earned by the production and exportation of palm oil. These countries
depend on the funds generated by the palm oil industries to subsidize economic growth. The palm oil industry provides funding for development of transportation infrastructure, educational systems, healthcare facilities and government agencies. Without the income generated by palm oil exports and tariffs these countries and their government would not be able to afford building new schools, office buildings, medical centers, hospitals and government agencies. 2.1 Social Controversy
There are many social benefits to countries and farmers that grow and export palm oil. Farmers in developing nation have an opportunity to grow an inexpensive crop and, thanks to a lucrative industry, make a sizable income. Since palm oil is heavily relied upon for manufacturing purposes this industry creates and maintains many jobs for farmers, workers, transporters and exporters. Sustainable palm oil efforts could potentially limit nations and their people, ability to continue growing the job market and possibly weaken the economy. Unfortunately due to the destructive impacts of palm oil harvesting the industry has had and will continue to have a significant impact on the environment. With regards to carbon sequestration, palm tree forest act as a large carbon sinks Sustainable Palm Oil could impact the capacity to grow palm in an economically cost-‐effective method which allows for economic growth throughout the country. On the other hand sustainable palm oil would provide education and training for farmers which offer an opportunity to improve their quality of life and maintain the integrity of the lands. Social pressure is not just placed on farmers and nations where palm oil is harvested. Companies that incorporate palm oil in their products also face social challenges from outsiders. Companies that use palm oil compete with local stakeholders like indigenous tribes as well as vulnerable species that inhabit palm tree forests. Companies that produce merchandise which contains palm oil are now facing pressure from consumers and shareholders to use sustainably sourced ingredients. Social demands have nudged the manufacturing industry to move in a sustainable direction and some the largest corporations and users of palm oil have committed to obtaining this ingredient from sustainable sources. For example, according to Ceres, in 2013 the shareholders of the Yum! Brands passed a resolution requesting “that the board of directors adopt and implement a comprehensive sustainable palm oil policy.” Other companies also recognize the value to having a sustainable palm oil supply chain not only from an environmental perspective but also from perspective to preserve sustainable business practice. In addition to the Yum! Brand companies like Unilever, Proctor & Gamble, General Mills, Mars, Nestle, SC Johnson McDonald’s and of course, Wal-‐mart. Companies have responded to consumer desires for products that are produced using sustainable ingredients. This is one example of the positive change as a result of socially responsible investing and purchasing by consumers.
2.2 Political Criticism In addition to social and economic obstacles, the Palm Oil industry has also faced many political challenges with regards to expansion of the industry and the negative impacts on human health, domestic development and the environment effects. Some less than desirable results of palm oil production include health risks, reduction of carbon sequestration, contributions to climate change, farmlands rights, protection of wildlife and influences by outside corporate investors. Nations located in climates where palm trees flourish are being approached by outside investors who are looking to either invest in or purchase acres of lands. Local farmers and plantations are vulnerable to external corporations buying lands, entering into the competitive market and gaining competitive advantage with consumers. The industry also faces criticism with regards to the negative impact that harvesting palm trees has on the environment. Developing nations, who are palm oil producers, are under pressure from the international organizations like as well as The World Wildlife Foundation which formed Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil in 2004. Furthermore, palm, oil industries have come under scrutiny by Greenpeace because palm deforestation reduces the habitats. Deforestation displaces many species, including endangered species whose natural home exists within the palm forest. Tropical forests also play a critical role in maintaining a healthy carbon balance within the atmosphere. Palm forests are an important component in carbon sequestration on the planet. Deforestation has an adverse effect on the planet’s natural process to extract carbon from the atmosphere and trap it. Deforestation has been identified by the United Nations with regards to the Framework Convention on Climate Change as an large contributor to climate change. Pressure to remove or reduce trans-‐fats from consumer products based on the health risks associated with increased risk of heart disease, impaired memory and obesity. (CDC, 2010) Countries and local governments have implemented guidelines regarding the sale and promotions of products which contain trans-‐fat. Governments and health organizations placed pressure no manufacturers to label products to clearly identify the quantity of trans-‐ fats for consumer knowledge. The labelling effort paired with large public awareness campaign to educate the public on the health risks associated with the consumption of trans-‐fats forced manufacturers to come up with a substitute ingredient for artificial trans-‐ fats. Trans-‐fat is a staple ingredient for most products that Americans consumed in the late 80s and early 90’s, at which time trans-‐fats were ubiquitous with processed foods. According to the Center for Disease Control “Foods that may contain artificial trans-‐fat include fried items, savory snacks (like microwave popcorn), frozen pizzas, baked goods, margarines and spreads, ready-‐to-‐use frosting, and coffee creamers.” The United States and other progressive nations have made it a healthier mission to educate consumers on the negative health risks associated with the consumption of trans-‐fats. These nations have come out publicly and stated that due to the health implications “individuals keep trans fatty acid consumption as low as possible”. Such campaigns have placed pressure on manufacturers to replace their artificial trans-‐fats with natural substitutes, such as palm oil. In recent years, there was such a large movement within the food industry to reduce or
remove trans-‐fats from the list of ingredients in products that the demand for palm oil skyrocketed. An increase in demand by international markets and industries players has made palm oil industry more appealing to processed food manufacturers. Ultimately, resulting in Palm oil becoming a reliable income for countries that could produce enough oil to meet demands and provide to both domestic and international markets.
3. Palm Oil Market
The oil palm provides one of the leading vegetable oils produced globally, accounting for one-‐quarter of global consumption and approximately 60 per cent of international trade in vegetable oils (World Bank, 2010) Oil palm is the most productive vegetable oil crop, yielding more oil per hectare than any other major oilseed commodity. (Crutchfield, 2007) Basically, Palm oil is used in at least half of the super market products. According to USDA estimates, 75% of the global palm oil consumption is for food purposes, while ~22% is for industrial/non-‐food purposes. The remaining, though currently, of marginal quantity, is used for biodiesel. (WWF-‐India, 2013) Food Ingredient. Palm oil is used, to a large extent, as a cooking oil, frying fats and a cheaper substitute for butter. It also used as vanaspati/vegetable ghee, margarine and spreads, confection-‐ ary and bakery fats (specialty fats) ice cream, coffee creamers and filled milk, emulsi-‐ fiers, vitamin E supplements among others. (WWF-‐India, 2013) Non-‐Food Ingredient. As a non-‐food ingredient, palm oil finds application in the production of cosmetics, toiletries, soaps and detergents. It is also used in the FMCG market, used in the oleo chemical industry, as a base material for the production of surfactants (washing active substances) for laundry detergents, household cleaners and cosmetics. (WWF-‐India, 2013) As global demand for palm oil is expected to double by 2020, researchers have broadly studied the varying environmental threats arising from increased oil palm production. (GEAS, 2011) 3.1 The Supply Chain The supply chain for palm oil is notoriously complex and lacking transparency. With potential mixing of supplies from different sources at multiple stages in the supply chain, it is often impossible to trace the oil purchased by the end user back to a single source. This is particularly the case for small-‐scale farmers. However, the palm oil industry is changing, and efforts are underway to develop systems to track and trace certified sustainable palm oil at every stage throughout the supply chain. (SPP, 2014) Some of the largest producers of palm oil include Golden Agri Resources (GAR), Wilmar, Cargill and Musim Mas. Wilmar accounts for 45% of the palm oil market and GAR 5%. The two
together have commited half of the world's palm oil being produced in line with sustainability best practices by the end of 2015. However, the other half of the market is yet to make such commitments, with companies such as Cargill and Musim Mas still accused of failing to adequately protect the rainforests and creatures that inhabit it, such as tigers and orangutans. (Shankleman, 2014) Cargill, for example, owns and operates two palm plantations in Indonesia, as well as 12 palm oil refineries across the world which buy, refine, process, and market palm oil products from our own and other plantations. According to their website they have made a commitment that the palm oil products they supply to Europe, United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand will be RSPO certified by 2015 and for all their customers worldwide by 2020. (Cargill, 2014) Consumer companies can be divided in manufacturers and retailers/food producers. According to WWF, some of the largest consumer companies include Unilever, Nestle, Basf, Mondelez, Mc Donalds, Walmart, LÓreal, Procter & Gamble. Major companies are increasing their commitments to fully traceable, deforestation-‐free palm oil supply chains. (Davis, 2014). These include the world’s largest retailer, Walmart, as well as food service companies like McDonalds and Unilever among others. (WWF-‐India, 2013). In conclusion, without pressure from manufacturers (and assurances that extra costs will be covered), suppliers won’t push mills and growers to produce sustainably. By the same token, manufacturers will not push suppliers to source sustainably for their products if they don’t feel their customers will pay increased prices. 3.2 Case Study: Unilever Among the food and consumer goods manufacturers, Unilever is the world’s largest single buyer of palm oil, even though it takes only 4% of the global total. (The Economist, 2010). Unilever is playing a major role in shaping the debate around sustainable palm oil. (WWF-‐India, 2013) In December 2009, Unilever took a public stance against deforestation by suspending future purchases of palm oil from its Indonesian supplier, PT SMART on the grounds of their alleged contribution to destruction and development of peat land (Unilever, 2009). That was only the first step. In 2010, Unilever committed to sourcing 100% of their palm oil from certified, sustainable sources by 2015. They achieved this goal three years ahead of schedule. In 2012, they announced another significant move in its journey to accelerate market transformation towards sustainable palm oil. They commited to, by the end of 2014, have all palm oil they buy globally, sourced by traceable known sources. (Unilever, 2014). Their strategy include the continued engagement with "suppliers, NGOs, governments, RSPO, end users and other industry stakeholders to develop collaborative solutions to halt deforestation, protect peat land, and to drive positive economic and social impact for people
and local communities." (Unilever Press, 2014) Unilever also wants to ensure certified palm oil supplies are not mixing with non-‐certified supplies during milling, transport and use. Therefore, at the end of 2013, they made another effort to trace the palm oil they use by investing in a palm kernel facility in Indonesia. (Unilever Sustainable News, 2014) Focusing on Unilever's motivations, there are three reasons why this makes sense for a commercial organisation such as Unilever, according to Prof. Sodhi from Cass Business School. First, to a large fast-‐moving-‐consumer-‐goods manufacturer with huge sales in environmentally conscious western Europe, a small increase in costs can be easily offset by a large (perceived) increase in revenues. Unilever has already had a positive experience bringing sustainability to its Lipton tea brand in Western Europe. Second, there is the matter of who pays for the cost: the buyer or the supplier? For the adoption of radio frequency identification by retailers, the cost was mostly borne by the suppliers. Finally, the market may or may not have the capacity to provide traceability or sustainable products. The market for palm oil has softened greatly. So if you are supplier of palm oil and a big purchaser like Unilever wants "traceability", you are likely to provide it and at your own cost. (Sodhi, 2014) In conclusion, Unilever, therefore, views sustainability as a key business growth lever, treated at the same level as marketing, HR or supply chain management. In addition, because of palm oil's connection to deforestation, environmentalists are unlikely to reduce the pressure on companies that use it. Therefore, the reputation risk for the company is too high to be inactive at preventing it. 4. Palm Oil – Processing and Technology Advances From arriving in Malaysia in 1897 the oil palm had grown to annual production of 2.8 million tons of palm oil by 1983 (Maclellan, 1983) and was 18.2 million tons in 2012 (USDA, Malaysia: Stagnating Palm Oil Yields Impede Growth, 2012). Palm oil processing is performed in a stepped process as seen in Figure 1. Steps highlighted in this paper are gathering, bunch separation, digestion, pressing, clarification and drying. In accordance with the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil principles (RSPO, 2013): 4.1 Operating procedures are appropriately documented, consistently implemented and monitored 4.2 Practices maintain soil fertility at, or where possible improve soil fertility to, a level that ensures optimal and sustained yield.
Figure 1 Source: Poku, 2002
5.3 Waste is reduced, recycled, re-‐used and disposed of in an environmentally and socially responsible manner.
These principles are being addressed by new technology. Research and advancements have occurred in an effort to optimize the traditional processes while meeting demand and performing so in a sustainable manner. Gathering is the first step in the harvesting process. This is the step when the fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are removed from the trees. This is performed manually by manually cutting the Bunch from the palm and gathering these bunches along the row and bringing them to get the fruit separated. Each FFB contains an average of 1500 fruits. (Wai-‐Lin, 2011) The timing for this harvest is of particular note as it may change the efficiency and nutrition of the oil product. The time of harvest in regards to the maturity impact the vitamins in the final product. (Sau-‐Yee Kok, 2013) The plant does not produce a harvestable bunch until the 3rd year and can continue until the oil palm is 25 years. (USDA, Indonesia: Palm Oil Production Prospects Continue to Grow, 2007) Figure 2 Source: WWF 2012 This is of concern in Malaysia where 26% of the oil palm area is over 20 years. (USDA, Malaysia: Stagnating Palm Oil Yields Impede Growth, 2012) Once the harvest has been gathered and transported to the mill, the next step of separation can occur. This is when the fruit is removed from the bunch. This may happen by manual removal of each fruit or it may happen through mechanical processes typically drums. (Poku, 2002) Due to the manual nature of these first two steps social sustainability measures are to be considered then investing in the Palm Oil manufacturing process. Processing of the separated fruit begins with sterilization and digestion. In small farms this will occur through boiling of the fruit. In larger processes this will occur mechanically through steam in continuous reactors. (Wai-‐Lin, 2011) The sterilization limits the free fatty acids and begins to loosen the oil from the fruit. Digestion involves more heat and continuous stirring to continue the separation process. This process separates the kernel and the fruit. To optimize this process research has been performed using microwaves. This is to reduce the time and link the efficiency
Figure 3
to fruit maturity. (Mazarulhisya, 2009) From the chart it can be seen that the percentage of solids is in direct relation to the temperature. This process also involves water. By using microwaves the water usage can be reduced and the temperature can be regulated to match the desired output. Pressing is the extraction process where the oil is removed. This occurs through a plunger like device that applies pressure to the digested material and oil collection occurs below. This can be performed mechanically using a screw press. (Poku, 2002) The extraction is the key process. While the quality of the material that is being generated may have been determined from the previous processes without this step there is no oil product. Ways to Source: Maclellan 1983 enhance the efficiency of this process has been researched using carbon dioxide. This use of technology is being sought to combine the sterilization and oil extraction while reducing the amount of oil that remains in the fruit fiber. (N.A. Nik Norulainin, 2007). This research needs further investigation for optimization but is an example of how these processes can improve with newer technology. With increased technology there are increased capital costs that may result in limited adoption of the improved techniques. (Yahaya S. Madaki, 2013) Clarification is the process of treating the oil that is extracted. At the end of this process crude oil is produced that is then sent to the respective refiners for processing to food oil or biodiesel. The crude oil and has high viscosity and also includes additional water and fibers from the previous processes. Clarification removes the impurities. Clarification is performed by adding hot water then screening and letting the filtrate settle. In the manual system clarification can be performed by settling in the mechanical system it can be performed by centrifuges. There has been research to advance the clarification process utilizing membranes. It has been found that this technology provided clarification and also reduced the gumming properties of crude oil while maintaining nutritional quality (Sarita Arora, 2006) In fact additional research has identified increased recovery of carotenoids with this process. (Ming Chih Chiu, 2009). This optimization will increase productivity and if it can be further refined has the potential to reduce the amount of hexane used thus requiring less waste water treatment. Each of the processes above can be performed manually as they have been by small producers since the generation of palm oil over 100 years ago or through mechanical processes. The mechanical processes are used to increase efficiency and output which is key when the nature of the land of palm oil growth is a sustainability concern. If the land is in a limited area then this area must be used to its full potential. The fertility of the soil is of concern as 95% of the soil used for oil Palm growth is highly acidic with low levels of nitrogen and phosphorus. (Mutert, 1999) To protect soil fertility legumes can be planted. (K.T. Tan, 2007) There are also waste streams generated during the process. There is the initial tree waste of palm and trunk, the kernel shell waste and the treatment water waste. While the shell and tree portions can enter biomass streams for full cradle to cradle processing the waste water is of particular concern. This water is called palm oil mill effluent or POME (Wai-‐Lin, 2011). There are specific RSPO principles that apply to this waste stream. These principles are being
addressed through research that is heavily backed in high producing areas of Malaysia and Indonesia. Increasing level of stringency with effluent regulations of biological oxygen demand have impacted palm oil production due to compliance with sustainability principles related to POME. POME treatment for zero discharge demonstrates that it can be performed through increased technology and recycled biogas that is generated during the process. (Yahaya S. Madaki, 2013) Ultimately the palm oil process uses the natural fruit, heat, water and pressure to extract crude oil for further refinement to enter into supply streams. As limits are placed on the expansion of land dedicated to palm oil production processes must be enhanced. High producing areas such as Indonesia and Malaysia are leading the efforts however it is also the responsibility of the consumer to encourage the research.
Figure 4
5. Environmental, Social and Governance Risks Palm oil production poses threats to freshwater, soil quality, ecosystem services such as hydrological cycle, loss of biodiversity, deforestation, loss of habitat especially for orangutans (Fitzherbert et al., 2008). Social impacts include land acquisition, land-‐use rights and exploitation of local communities and human rights violation (Colchester, 2010). 5.1 Malaysia: Case Study for ESG risks Palm oil gained significant importance in Malaysia when the Malaysian government in 1960s embarked on a poverty eradication program through agricultural diversification by planting palm oil to complement rubber (Yean, 2012). Currently, Malaysia is a leading producer of palm oil in the world. Malaysia primarily produces palm oil to export and these export contribute significantly to the GDP as shown in the graph below.
Figure 5: Malaysia Palm oil production Data source: FAOSTAT (Refer to Appendix 1 for data) Environmental sustainability can be measured by: land-‐use change, soil quality, biodiversity, water quality impacts (Stichnothe and Schuchardt, 2011). The land use in terms of area harvested for palm oil has gone up significantly from the 1960s to 2012. The graph below shows the drastic increase in area utilized for palm oil with a slight decrease in area for rubber and all other crops. All other crops include vegetables, fruits, cereals, roots and tubers etc. While it is possible that decrease in land area used does not necessarily mean decreased production levels, since production efficiencies could have increased. However, the soil quality could be affected by not rotating crops properly.
Figure 6: Area Harvested Data source: FAOSTAT (Refer to Appendix 1 for data) To make land available for palm oil production, deforestation has been used in Malaysia as shown in the graph below.
Figure 7: Forested area Data source: FAOSTAT (Refer to Appendix 1 for data) From 1990 to 2011, forest area has been cleared to make way for palm oil plantations. The table below shows the reduction in forest area and the increase in palm oil plantation area.
Table 1: Land use from 1990 to 2011
Data source: FAOSTAT (Refer to Appendix 1 for data)33
The expansion of palm oil production has led to land acquisition issues. In Malaysia, in order to attract private investment, the government facilitates a scheme by which a company buys 60% share in a joint venture, communities are allocated a 30% share for contributing the land, and the state acquires 10%. The land is then leased to the joint venture company for 60 years (Colchester, 2010). This has led to many conflicts in communities and human rights violations. Palm oil is also a feedstock for biofuel and has sparked the use of an edible oil for fuel debate in Malaysia. Malaysia in 2006 outlined a policy to use biofuel in transport, industry, for export. There could be a surge in biofuel demand from the developing world as well. (Lam et al, 2009) Given these issues with sustainability of palm oil, a Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RPSO) was established in 2004. RPSO consists of members of investors, palm oil growers, palm oil processors, private companies and NGOs. RPSO provides certification to producing palm oil sustainably. It also outlines 8 principles for growers to be certified including: transparency, compliance to laws, commitment to long term economic and financial viability, use of best practices, environmental responsibility, responsible for new plantings, continuous improvement. (RPSO). The Malaysian Palm Oil Association is a founding member of the RPSO. Though the RPSO tries to address environmental and social issues, there is no enforcement mechanism. 6. Conclusion Palm oil sustainability is critical for food and fuel supply. Sustainable practices need to be incorporated in farming, land acquisition, palm oil production and throughout the supply chain in order to ensure a viable supply of palm oil. Without such measures in place the global community faces not only the inevitablility of climate change but the challenge to gain support from stakeholders to demand industry transformation.
References Affandi, M. S. (2007, 11). Refining and Downstreaming Processing of Palm and Palm Kernal Oils. Retrieved 07 2014, from American Palm Oil: http://www.americanpalmoil.com/publications/process%20of%20PO%20&%20PKO.pdf Colchester M 2010. Land acquisition, human rights violations and indigenous peoples on the palm oil frontier, Forest Peoples Programme and International Land Coalition. Moreton-‐in Mash UK USA Center for Disease Control (2010). The Dietary Guidelines for Americans. CERES. (2013). Yum! Brands Palm Oil. http://www.ceres.org/investor-‐network/resolutions/yum-‐brands-‐palm-‐oil-‐2013 Cargill. (2014). Sustainable and responsible palm oil. Available at: http://www.cargill.com/corporate-‐responsibility/pov/palm-‐oil/ Chris Davis. (2014). How plant seeds sustainable palm oil supply chain. Greenbiz. July 8, 2014. Available at: http://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2014/07/08/how-‐plant-‐seeds-‐sustainable-‐palm-‐ oil-‐supply-‐chain Council, M. P. (2007). American Palm Oil. Retrieved from Malaysian Palm Oil: http://americanpalmoil.com/publications/FactSheetsonMalaysianPalmOil.pdf Enviromarket, W. a. (2012). Palm Oil Investor Review: Investor Guidance on Palm Oil. Retrieved 7 2014, from WWF Global: http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/wwf_palmoil_investorreview.pdf Fitzherbert EB, Struebig MJ, Morel A, Danielsen F, Brühl CA, Donald PF & Phalan B 2008. How will oil palm expansion affect biodiversity? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23(10): 539-‐545 GEAS -‐ Global Environmental Alert Service. (2011). Oil palm plantations: threats and opportunities for tropical ecosystems. UNEP. Dec, 2011. Available at: http://www.unep.org/GEAS/ Jim Crutchfield. (2007). Indonesia: Palm Oil Production Prospects Continue to Grow. USDA; Commodity Intelligence Report. Dec 31, 2007. Available at: http://www.pecad.fas.usda.gov/highlights/2007/12/Indonesia_palmoil/ Jessica Shankleman. (2014). How Golden Agri could help make half of all palm oil sustainable. Greenbiz. March 10, 2014. Available at: http://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2014/03/10/how-‐ golden-‐agri-‐could-‐help-‐make-‐half-‐all-‐palm-‐oil-‐sustainable
K.T. Tan, K. L. (2007). Palm oil: Addressing issues and towards sustainable development. Elsevier -‐ Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews. Lam M, Tan K, Lee K, Mohamed A. 2009. Malaysian Palm Oil: Surviving the food versus fuel dispute for a sustainable future. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13: 1456-‐1464. Maclellan, M. (1983). Palm Oil. JAOCS. Mazarulhisya, S. K. (2009). Effectiveness of sterilisation of oil palm bunch using microwave technology. Elsevier -‐ Industrial Crops and Products. Ming Chih Chiu, C. d. (2009). Carotenoids concentration of palm oil using membrane technology. Elsevier -‐ Desalination. Mutert, E. (1999). Suitability of Soils for Oil Pam in Southeast Asia. Better Crops International. Affandi, M. S. (2007, 11). Refining and Downstreaming Processing of Palm and Palm Kernal Oils. Retrieved 07 2014, from American Palm Oil: http://www.americanpalmoil.com/publications/process%20of%20PO%20&%20PKO.pdf Council, M. P. (2007). American Palm Oil. Retrieved from Malaysian Palm Oil: http://americanpalmoil.com/publications/FactSheetsonMalaysianPalmOil.pdf K.T. Tan, K. L. (2007). Palm oil: Addressing issues and towards sustainable development. Elsevier -‐ Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews. Maclellan, M. (1983). Palm Oil. JAOCS. ManMohan Sodhi. (2014). Palm oil: is it practical to aim for total traceability? The Guardian. February 3, 2014. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-‐business/blog/palm-‐ oil-‐unilever-‐traceability-‐practical Mazarulhisya, S. K. (2009). Effectiveness of sterilisation of oil palm bunch using microwave technology. Elsevier -‐ Industrial Crops and Products. Ming Chih Chiu, C. d. (2009). Carotenoids concentration of palm oil using membrane technology. Elsevier -‐ Desalination. Mutert, E. (1999). Suitability of Soils for Oil Pam in Southeast Asia. Better Crops International. N.A. Nik Norulainin, A. A. (2007). Sterilization and extraction of palm oil from screw pressed palm fruit fiber using supercritical carbon dioxide. Elsevier -‐ Separation Purification Technology.
Poku, K. (2002). Small-‐Scale Palm Oil Processing in Africa. Retrieved 07 2014, from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: http://www.fao.org/DOCrEP/005/Y4355E/y4355e00.htm#Contents Rajah Rasiah and Azmi Shahrin, 2006. Development of Palm Oil and Related Products in Malaysia and Indonesia. University of Malaya RSPO, R. o. (2013). Principles and Criteria for the Production of Sustainable Palm Oil. Sarita Arora, S. M. (2006). Membrane processing of crude palm oil. Desalination. Sau-‐Yee Kok, P. N.-‐L.-‐A. (2013). Biochemical characterisation during seed development of oil palm. Botanical Society of Japan and SPringer Japan. SPP -‐ Sustainable Palm Oil Platform. Sustainable Supply Chains. Available at: http://www.sustainablepalmoil.org/consumers-‐retailers/retailers/sustainable-‐supply-‐chains/ Stichnothe, H and Schuchardt F. 2011. Life cycle assessment of two palm oil production systems. Biomass and Bioenergy 35(9): 3976-‐3984 The Economist. (2010). The other spill. June 24, 2010. Available at: http://www.economist.com/node/16423833 USDA, U. S. (2007). Indonesia: Palm Oil Production Prospects Continue to Grow. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. USDA, U. S. (2012). Malaysia: Stagnating Palm Oil Yields Impede Growth. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. Unilever. (2014). Sustainable Palm Oil. Available at: http://www.unilever.com/sustainable-‐ living-‐2014/reducing-‐environmental-‐impact/sustainable-‐sourcing/sustainable-‐palm-‐oil/ Unilever Press. (2014). 100% of Palm Oil bought will be traceable to known sources by end 2014. December 11, 2014. Available at: http://www.unilever.com/mediacentre/pressreleases/2013/100pcofpalmoilboughtwillbetracea bletoknownsourcesbyend2014.aspx Unilever Sustainable News. (2014). July 2013: New Processing Plant Enables Traceability Of Palm Oil. November, 2013. Available at: http://www.unilever.com/sustainable-‐living-‐ 2014/news-‐and-‐resources/sustainable-‐living-‐news/New-‐processing-‐plant-‐enables-‐traceability-‐ of-‐sustainable-‐palm-‐oil.aspx Wai-‐Lin, S. (2011, March 7). Palm Oil Milling Process. Retrieved 07 2014, from The AOCS Lipid Library: http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/processing/palmoil/index.htm
Who is RSPO? http://www.rspo.org/. Accessed 6 July 2014. WWF -‐ India. (2013). Palm Oil market and sustainability in India. Available at: http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/palmoilmarketsustainability_india_2013.pdf Yahaya S. Madaki, L. S. (2013). Pollution Control: How Feasible is Zero Discharge Concepts in Malaysia Palm Oil Mills. American Journal of Engineering Research. Yean, P and Zhidong, L. 2012. A study of Malaysia’s Palm oil position in the world market to 2035. IAEE Asian Conference, Kyoto, Japan (Feb 20-‐22, 2012)