List of Figures

Figure 1. Hostile architecture illustrated in a public bench (Carey, 2018) 08 Figure 2. Kelvingrove Park in Glasgow (People Make Glasgow, 2021) 12 Figure 3. Homeless individual sleeping on public space (Jock, 2019) 13 Figure 4. Uncomfortable bench in public space (Jock, 2019) 13 Figure 5. Concrete spikes under a road bridge in China (Chadalavada, 2020) 14 Figure 6. Pig ears on public benches to avoid misuse by skateboarders (Quinn, 2014) 15 Figure 7. Camden bench in London city (Adler-Gillies, 2018) 16 Figure 8. Conceptual framework 23 Figure 9. Spikes in window sills in Manhattan (Omidi, 2014) 25 Figure 10. Spikes in seating areas in New York (Hu, 2019) 26 Figure 11. Metal bars on public benches in New York (Hu, 2019) 26 Figure 12. Unfriendly benches in Manhattan New York (Kim, 2019) 27 Figure 13. Unfriendly benches with dividers in New York subway (Kim, 2019) 27 Figure 14. Leaning bench in New York subway (Kim, 2019) 28 Figure 15. Granite protrudes on flower beds in Pali Hill (Ruetas, 2019) 28 Figure 16. Metal spikes on pavements in public buildings (Ruetas, 2019) 29 Figure 17. Sharp spikes on building pavements (Ruetas, 2019) 29 Figure 18. Spikes on pavements in Glasgow public spaces (Scottish Housing News, 2016) 30 Figure 19. Bristo building square in Glasgow (Qreate, 2018) 30

Abstract List of Figures Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background context 1.2 Perspective Adopted in the Thesis 1.3 Position on Topic, Scope and Issues Involved 1.4 Thesis Structure Chapter 2: Background, Objectives and Methodology 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Research problem 2.2.1 Importance of public urban spaces and their misuse 2.2.2 Hostile architecture to prevent public space misuse 2.3 Research objectives 2.4 Research questions 2.5 Methodology 2.5.1 Research philosophy 2.5.2 Research approach 2.5.3 Research design 2.5.4 Research method 2.5.5 Research strategy – comparative case study 2.5.6 Data analysis 2.5.7 Research methodology limitations 2.6 Summary Chapter 3: Literature Review and Conceptual Framework 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Public spaces in urban areas 3.2.1 Importance of public spaces 3.2.2 Misuse of public spaces 3.3 Adoption of hostile architecture and its consequences 3.4 Conceptual framework 3.5 Summary Chapter 4: Cases or Operationalization and Validation 4.1 Overview 4.2 Case Studies from New York 4.3 Case Studies from New Delhi 4.4 Case Studies from Glasgow 4.5 Discussion of the findings 4.5.1 Hostile architecture in New York, New Delhi and Glasgow 4.5.2 Effectiveness of hostile architecture in restricting unwanted behaviour

31 4.5.3 Benefits and disadvantages of hostile architecture in the cities 32 4.6 Summary 33 Chapter 5: Conclusion 35 5.1 Conclusion 35 5.2 Impact and significance of conclusions 35 5.3 Limitations of the research and future work 36 References 37