Erno Goldfinger from a Regionalist's Perspective

ERNÖ GOLDFINGER FROM A REGIONALIST’S PERSPECTIVE :

A CASE FOR BALFRON TOWER AND TRELLICK TOWER AS CONTEXTUALLY SPECIFIC RESPONSES

ALICE (LI WEI) LOI 139099344 / 09258 A Research Paper submitted towards the Degree of Master of Architecture at the University of Bath, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, 2018-19.

Tutor : Prof. Vaughan Hart (5422 words)

ERNÖ GO L D F I N G E R F RO M A REGION AL IST’S P ERSP ECTIVE : A CASE FOR BALFRON TOWER & TRELLICK TOWER AS CONTEXTUALLY SPECIFIC RESPONSES.

ALICE (LI WEI) LOI

Fig.1 Trellick Tower as of November 2018.

AR40106 2018-19 ALICE (LI WEI) LOI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge my debt of gratitute to Professor Vaughan Hart for his time, motivation and guidance in assisting me throughout the process of producing this work.

Anyone writing about Goldfinger will always owe a great debt to James Dunnett, who has been playing a pivotal role in the campaign for greater recognition and conservation of Goldfinger’s works. This work would not have been possible without his support and I would like to especially thank him for sharing with me his invaluable experience of working in Goldfinger’s office as well as his opinion on the enquiry raised in this research. My thanks also extend to Matthew Wickens for providing me with valuable reference materials and introducing James to me.

Finally, I am grateful to Richard Gooden from 4orm who has shared with me his passion for Goldfinger’s works, and sparked my interest in undertaking this research.

ABSTRACT

“The crass tendency to label Goldfinger a brutalist – a label he always repudiated on the grounds that, unlike the Smithsons, he took great pains to hide wiring and heating ducts - has made his declaration that he wanted to be remembered as a classical architect harder to understand.1”

• Nigel Warburton •

The usual affiliation and categorisation of Goldfinger’s works based solely on its perceived aesthetic under ‘modernism’ or ‘brutalism’ arguably prohibited a more holistic and multi-faceted reading of his approach. This perhaps explained the 1

2

3

Nigel Warburton, “Erno Goldfinger : The Life of an Architect”, (London : Routledge, 2009), 145 Gavin Stamp, “Conversation with Erno Goldfinger”, Thirties Society no.2 (1982), 19 Stamp, 1982, 19

limited number of literature at present that analyse his works and career in depth when compared to his peers, despite his contribution to British modernism being no less significant.

Erno Goldfinger (1902-1987) was born

approach and commitment towards his

in Budapest, Hungary and received his

aspiration. Although few have attempted

architectural training in Paris at the Ecole

to analyse his design methodology, there

des Beaux-Arts before moving to London

remained several aspects of Goldfinger’s

in 1934. His early training that tended

approach that could bear merit when

towards classical architecture, as well as

revisited, one of which is the extent of

subsequent correspondence with Auguste

influence ‘context’ as a place and culture

Perret, Le Corbusier and Adolf Loos were,

had towards his works. Contextualising

as he admitted in his conversation with

Goldfinger’s works, in particularly the

Gavin Stamp2, influential in his formative

controversial Balfron Tower and Trellick

years. After moving to London as an

Tower, in the social, cultural and physical

emigre architect, despite the lack of

norm of London between the pre-war and

opportunities and an environment that

post-war era allows one to reconsider his

was insufficiently appreciative of his

works as regionally-specific responses.

works, he chose to stay and made London his home instead of moving on across the

This attempt to understand and analyse

Atlantic like many others3.

Goldfinger’s works, which were seen as evident products of Modernism, from the

It was in London where he designed and

regionalist’s lens will be considered in

built most, if not all, of his significant

reference to the wider debate of Critical

works and reached the maturity of his

Regionalism. The term, most prominently

career. His most symbolic works ranged

expanded by Kenneth Frampton in the

from the domestic 2 Willow Road house

1980s, will be discussed and assumed as

in Hampstead to the 31-storey Trellick

a paradigm to frame the analysis in this

Tower in North Kensington. All of his

paper.

works embodied a consistent thread of

CONTENTS

I

INTRODUCTION

12

II

DEFINING CONCEPT : CRITICAL REGIONALISM

14

III

GOLDFINGER : FORMATIVE YEARS & EARLIER WORKS

19

IV

THE CONTEXT OF POST-WAR LONDON

26

V

ANALYSING BALFRON & TRELLICK TOWER IN DETAIL

29

VI

CONCLUSION

56

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

61

IMAGE CREDITS

69

APPENDICES

72

12

I INTRODUCTION

Goldfinger has always been perceived as an architect’s architect4, and has a unique place in the development of British Modernism. His rigorous and consistent pursuit of a distinctive approach towards architecture resulted in his works remaining largely outside the mainstream of British architecture5. Being an emigre architect in post-war London possibly had an effect on the way his version of modernism were perceived. His works have been generally viewed by the conservatives

Fig.2 Erno Goldfinger.

as alien aesthetic, bearing ideals born in the Continent and unsympathetic towards the English tradition5.

The available literature on Erno Goldfinger at present is limited when compared to his peers, and has mainly revolved around :

(a) detailed account that narrates his life and works in the form of biographs and monographs based on primary sources;

13

INTRODUCTION

(b) analysis of his approach from both the

research. Together with a brief evaluative

rational and classical perspectives;

reading of Goldfinger’s works during

(c) social and architectural analysis of

his formative years, a line of reasoning

Balfron and Trellick Tower as examples of

could potentially be established through

post-war social housing.

an analysis of Balfron and Trellick Tower based on the concept of Critical

This paper focuses on Goldfinger’s

Regionalism to reveal his consideration

approach to architectural design, and aim

towards context.

to explore the contextual aspect that has yet been highlighted in present literature.

It sets out to analyse his works from a regionalist’s perspective, in particularly his most controversial projects, Balfron Tower in Poplar and Trellick Tower in North Kensington. Regionalism, in the context of this paper, is understood as responses specific to the particular conditions of place, time and culture.

This definition is based on the theory of Critical Regionalism, most prominently explored by Kenneth Frampton, which will be discussed and considered as an approach to frame the arguments in this

4

Robert Elwall, “Erno Goldfinger”, (London : Academy Editions, 1996), 19

5

Elwall, 1996, 19

6

David Roberts, “Make Public : Performing Public Housing in Erno Goldfinger’s Balfron Tower”, The Journal of Architecture vol.22 (2017), 125-126

14

II DEFINING CONCEPT : CRITICAL REGIONALISM

The concept of regionalism, with roots

universal appearance and the rational use

linked to historicism and romanticism,

of new construction materials, was viewed

revolves around the concern for place

as absolute opponent to regionalism due

identity in architecture. Critical to the

to the concept being narrowly defined

picturesque movement and Gothic

and often misunderstood.

Revivalism unravelling in England in the late 18th century, for instance,

This dichotomy was first challenged

was a pursuit of national identity that

in 1947 by Lewis Mumford in his

sought to associate architecture with

controversial New Yorker article in which

place, as oppose to universalism7.

he started to suggest that regionalism

Interestingly but perhaps not surprising,

could be understood as way of mediating

it was of Goldfinger’s opinion, as noted

modernism, rather than a resistance.

in his interview with Stamp, that the

The article, as well as being critical

architectural styles pursued in England

of Modernism as a forceful impetus,

from 1500 onwards were all international

criticised at the same time the classical

in roots8. This view was arguably directed

regionalist idea that is essentially

towards those who sought to revive

anti-universal9. Mumford’s attempt

traditions and the vernacular in modern

at defining his interpretation of

times. Modernism, often characterised by

regionalism was however not exactly

7

Gevork Hartoonian, “Critical Regionalism : Whatever Happenned to Autonomy”, Fusion, no.4 (2014)

8

Stamp, 1982, 20

9

Alexander Tzonis, “Introducing an Architecture of the Present : Critical Regionalism and the Design of Identity”, in Tzonis, A. and Lefaivre, L, “Critical Regionalism : Architecture and Identity in a Globalised World”, (London : Prestel Verlag, 2003), 8-21

15

easy to comprehend as he never put forth

(Fig. 3) and argued that traits used to

a complete manifesto. Despite this, his

polarise Regionalism and Universalism

departure sufficiently sparked a refreshed

should be seen as points of dialectical

interest in the discussion of what

interaction11. Critical Regionalism should

regionalism in the context of globalisation

be understood as the interstitial middle

means or embodies.

ground between such oppositions12.

This concept, which Frampton adopted

To approach regionalism as no longer an

as a paradigm to analyse several works

isolated phenomenon from modernism

representative of modernism, is

is central to Critical Regionalism,

important in validifying the line of enquiry

which was revisited by Kenneth

set out for this research. Goldfinger’s

Frampton in the 1980s who contended

works are evident products of universal

that the “fundamental strategy of

development and yet could contain

Critical Regionalism is to mediate the

within its conception the concern for

impact of universal civilisation with

locality. Similarly in a recent publication

elements derived indirectly from the

by William Hunter13, Le Corbusier who

peculiarities of a particular place10”. In

was ‘indeed a great advocate of universal

the discussion of Critical Regionalism,

industrial advances and purity of form as

Frampton adopted a set of opposites

well as functionalism’, was reassessed in

10

Kenneth Frampton, “Towards a Critical Regionalism : Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance” in H. Foster (ed), “The Anti-Aesthetic : Essays on Postmodern Culture”, (New York : The New Press, 1998), 23

11

Kenneth Frampton, “Critical Regionalism Revisited” in S. Amourgis (ed), “Critical Regionalism, The Pomona Meeting Proceedings”, (Pomona : Calfornia State Polytechnic University, 1991), 38

12

Chao-Ching Fu, “Regional Heritage and Architecture : A Critical Regionalist Approach To a New Architecture in Taiwan”, PhD, University of Edinburgh (1990), 202

13

William Hunter, “Debating Urbanism Globalisation and the Regionalist Alternative”, DPU Working

Paper no.138 (2009),17-18

16

Fig.3 Kenneth Frampton’s dialectical approach. Critical Regionalism as the interstitial middle ground. Diagram is derived from Frampton’s Six Points for Critical Regionalism.

17

DEFINING CONCEPT : CRITICAL REGIONALISM

a similar fashion. This revealed a more

continuity within modernity15’ rather than

contextually responsive hybrid approach

a style. To summarise Frampton’s points16

that Le Corbusier adopted in urban

which will be considered as criteria to

planning schemes for La Saint Baume in

frame the analysis in this paper, Critical

Provence, Chandigarh for New Delhi and

Regionalism is regional to the degree that:

an urban plan for Algiers. (a) it is dependent on certain site-specific

Architecture is a result of a state of mind of

factors which range from topography to

its time. [...] The techniques, the problems

local light;

raised, like the scientific means to solve them,

(b) it considers and builds upon regionally

are universal. Nevertheless, there will be no

based ‘world culture’ as opposed to

confusion of regions; climatic, geographic,

folkloristic vernacular;

topographic conditions, currents of race and

(c) where appropriate, it inserts

thousands of things still today unknown,

“reinterpreted vernacular elements” into

will always guide solutions toward form

the design.

conditioned by them. – Le Corbusier (1929) as translated by Alan Colquhoun14.

Hence it could be argued that architecture that were conceived out of regionalist consideration do not always appear in a certain way, and that it should be viewed as an attitude that ‘strives for

Alan Colquhoun, “Critical Positions in Architectural Regionalism”, in “Architectural Regionalism : Collected Writings on Place, Identity, Modernity and Tradition”, ed. Vincent Canizaro, (Calfornia : Chronicle Books, 2012), 142-144

15

Leen Meganck et al, “Regionalism and Modernity. Architecture in Western Europe, 1914-1940”, (Leuven : Leuven University Press, 2012), 13

16

Kenneth Frampton, “Modern Architecture : A Critical History”, (London : Thames and Hudson, 1997), 327

14

18

Fig.4 Design for Law Courts in 1925 by Goldfinger while at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, submitted to the Grand Jury but rejected due to the school’s strong preference for projects with more classical nuances.

19

III GOLDFINGER : FORMATIVE YEARS & EARLIER WORKS

Born in Budapest in 1902, Goldfinger’s

modern construction techniques yet

earliest encounter with English

adhered to classical theories. These

architecture during his childhood was

experiences combined led to the gradual

perhaps the time when his mother was

development of his own style over the

presented a copy of the ‘Das Englische

years, which often involved reference

Haus’ by the architect in charge of their

to historical sources to demonstrate a

home renovation17. During the 1920s, his

sense of continuity, while at the same

education at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts

time employing methods of construction

and subsequent training with Auguste

typical of that particular period of time.

Perret were both key in forming his ethical position and ideals in architecture.

Although he was undeniably a rationalist20

His experience under Leon Jaussely

and had great admiration for Le

who professed urbanism18 at the Ecole

Corbusier, many accounts including his

was seminal in shaping Goldfinger’s

own interview with Stamp21 highlighted

ability to consider architecture in the

his distaste for the anonymous white cube

wider context of an urban or city plan.

or what he termed the ‘kasbah style’. This

However, his frustration towards the

distaste, to a large extent, stemmed from

conservative teaching at the Ecole that

the lack of honest material and structural

rejected anything modern19 soon led

expression that Goldfinger adhered, but it

him to train with Perret who employed

is perhaps not illogical to argue that there

17

James Dunnett, “The Architect as Constructor”, Architectural Review (1983), 47

18

Erno Goldfinger, “In Paris in the Twenties”, Audio Recording : Pidgeon Digital (1980), accessed Jan 01, 2019. https://www-pidgeondigital-com.ezproxy1.bath.ac.uk/talks/in-paris-in-the-twenties/

19

Elwall, 1996, 10

20

Dunnett, 1983, 48

21

Stamp, 1982, 19-24

20

Fig.5 2 Willow Road in Hampstead - Goldfinger’s most prominent pre-war work. The facade was faced in red brick.

21

FORMATIVE YEARS & EARLIER WORKS

was a contextual reasoning of

Goldfinger claimed that it was Loos

placelessness that led him to reject such

who first introduced him to the subtle

aesthetic expression. Goldfinger’s time in

proportions of Georgian streets, and

Paris coincided with an interesting artistic

had great respect for the restrained

ferment where he had the opportunity to

urbanity of 18th century London24. His

meet many leading avant-garde figures22,

understanding and interpretation of the

most of which encounter revolved around

Georgian context led to the design of

the Cafe du Dome. It was there where

2 Willow Road (Fig. 5), where his sensitivity

Goldfinger met Adolf Loos, who told a

towards the surrounding and adaptation

young architect working for Le Corbusier

of the local architectural language were

that he was supposed to come to Paris to

evident. The house sits sympathetically

learn French and not ‘Esperanto’.

with its neighbouring residential buildings at Downshire Hill in Hampstead, and was

“Loos was a very en passant acquaintance.

constructed of concrete frame with red

I first met him in the Cafe du Dome. [...]

brick facing. This resulted in a classic

One time we were sitting in the Dome and a

reinterpretation in brick finish and

young Austrian architect came up : ‘Master,

bold horizontal fenestration of the 18th

I have achieved a fabulous thing. I am going

century Georgian terrace in London25.

to work for Le Corbusier.’ Loos says : ‘My

Noted by Nikolaus Pevsner who found that

dear boy, when you come to Paris you come

‘brick must have something extremely

to learn French, not Esperanto.’ He hated

appealing for the English atmosphere,

Corbusier’s architecture, just as I hate his

if it could even attract these foreign

‘Kasbah’ architecture – all the white stuff.23”

architects working in London26”, it seems

22

Gavin Stamp in Gavin Stamp & James Dunnett, “Erno Goldfinger : Works 1”, (London : Architectural Association, 1983), 11

23

Erno Goldfinger to Gavin Stamp in Stamp, 1982, 19

24

Stamp, 1982, 19-20

25

Elwall, 1996, 52

26

Nikolaus Pevsner, “The Modern Movement”, Special Collections : Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, Architectural Review (1939), 28

22

Fig.6 Bedford Square elevation showing a composition based on 2:3 proportion.

Fig.7 Original drawing of Albemarle Street with annotations indicating golden section ratio on elevation.

Fig.8 Albemarle Street elevation, analysed through the 2:3 proportion.

23

FORMATIVE YEARS & EARLIER WORKS

clear that Goldfinger understood the

was largely instinctive29 and this could

appropriateness of this material language

suggest that his approach was developed

towards the context.

subconsciously based on his observation of the Georgian streets in London. This

To a larger extent, the influence from

assertion can best be supported by

Georgian architecture could also be

Dunnett’s review of Goldfinger’s works

argued to have helped Goldfinger develop

from this dimension over the years.

his proportional theory, an approach that has been analysed in detail by Dunnett.

In 1983 Dunnett initially established

Actual drawn evidences of this approach,

that according to the annotations on

of which importance often emphasised

Goldfinger’s drawings (Fig. 7) it could

by Goldfinger himself verbally, were

be safely assumed that the elevation of

however brief and inconsistent. An

Albemarle Street was based on the golden

elevational drawing of a house in

section30. However, revisiting this analysis

Bedford Square (Fig. 6) was included

in 1996 which led to the findings published

in Rasmussen’s ‘London : The Unique

as part of Campbell’s “Twentieth-century

City’ (1934) which demonstrated that

Architecture and its Histories”, he

the elevation was conceived out of a 2:3

challenged this assumption31. Assuming

ratio27. This proportion, as mentioned

the measurement on the original drawings

by Lucey, was commonly used in

are correct, it was found that it could in

London houses28. By Goldfinger’s own

fact be based on a 2:3 proportion (Fig. 8)

admission, his use of proportional theory

rather than the golden section (1:1.618)

27

Dunnett, 1983, 48

28

Conor Lucey, “Building Reputations : Architecture and the Artisan, 1750-1830”, (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2018), 103

29

James Dunnett and Nigel Hiscock, “To This Measure of Man : Proportional Design in the Work of Erno Goldfinger” in L. Campbell (ed),“Twentieth-century Architecture and its Histories”, (Otley : SAHGB, 2000), 106

30

Dunnett in Stamp and Dunnett, 1983, 79

31

Dunnett and Hiscock, 2000, 106

24

Fig.9 Regent’s Park Road (1954).

Fig.10 Albemarle Street Offices (1955).

25

FORMATIVE YEARS & EARLIER WORKS

that Goldfinger had claimed32. One could

the scale and rhythm of the surrounding

assume, especially for projects up to

street, and further advocated by Lewis

the 1950s, this intuition that has led to

Mumford for its strength in urban

Goldfinger creating well-proportioned

continuity34. Perhaps as a form of respect

architecture has roots in the context

to the local context, the facade is here

where he regularly observed and took

cladded with Portland stone cladding

cues from.

rather than exposing the raw concrete frame35. It is hence clear that his earlier

When designing for infill sites, he

works demonstrated a continuous effort

remarked on the importance of ‘urban

to mediate modern construction theories

decency’, that to achieve would require

throughan architectural expression in

sensitivity and understanding of the

materials and proportion appropriate to

logic that sets out the surrounding

the context.

built context. It is a sense of propriety that, he felt, buildings with glass curtain walling didn’t and couldn’t possess33. His sensitivity in dealing with infill sites, in the case of Regent’s Park Road (Fig. 9) and Albemarle Street (Fig. 10) was also evidence of his respect for context. In particularly for Albemarle Street, the building was praised for conforming to

32

Dunnett and Hiscock, 2000, 106

33

Gillian Darley, “Don’t Teach Me”, London Review of Books vol.26 no.7 (2004)

34

Elwall, 1996, 74

35

Dunnett in Stamp and Dunnett, 1983, 79

26

IV THE CONTEXT OF POST-WAR LONDON

The end of the WWII meant that much

Goldfinger was particularly vocal in

of London had been damaged by the

expressing his visions for post-war

Blitz and following the election of a

London throughout his career. He

Labour government, there was an urgent

co-authored with E.J. Carter a condense

demand to provide more social housing36.

and highly illustrative version of Forshaw

Goldfinger saw this situation as a major

and Abercrombie’s County of London

opportunity to rebuild London, that even

Plan (1943), which indirectly outlined his

before the war ended he had actively

position on the reconstruction of

prepared himself by collaborating with

post-war London. It was his belief, as

Ove Arup to conduct studies on the use of

written in the text, that the fine existing

box-frame structure to construct

buildings need not be in conflict with

multi-storey maisonettes37. This would

modernity, and similarly, new building

later be a defining principle for his

constructed should recognise the quality

larger housing projects in the 1960s. It is

of the old, and be designed in a

known that he had always been a staunch

well-considered manner to fit in with it38.

believer in high-rise which Dunnett believed his attachment to the Parisian

In 1956, he attended, along with the

way of life could be a factor. His theory of

Smithsons, the propositional exhibition

high-rise social housing design was largely

‘This is Tomorrow’ and reported back to

based on the modernist’s approach of

the Sunday Times stating his vision for

‘sun, space, greenery’.

London to be a ‘park city’ with tall tower

36

Warburton, 2010, 123

37

Dunnett in Stamp and Dunnett, 1983, 82

38

Erno Goldfinger and E.J. Carter, “The County of London Plan”, (London : Penguin Books, 1945), 80

27

THE CONTEXT OF POST-WAR LONDON

blocks instead of churches towering

specific to that period of time. Proposals

over smaller buildings39, instead of

to include various on-site communal

garden city which Goldfinger believed

amenities on both of the large-scale social

had led to suburban sprawling. It was

housing developments (Rowlett Street

indeed a more sensible solution to

Estate and Cheltenham Estate) that he

the immediate problems that London

had put all his ideals and theories into

faced during that period. The urgency to

practice, represented a robust yet socially

rebuild the city in various aspect – social,

progressive intention, born out of

economic as well as physical – meant

post-war reconstruction.

that people needed to be rehoused into proper accommodation as rapidly as possible. Concentrating city dwellers in appropriate and well-considered tall residential blocks could allow economies of infrastructure and increase efficiency40.

It is also important to emphasise on the view that Goldfinger’s inclination towards high-rise as a response to the context of post-war London was both a result and representation of the social vision

39

Elwall, 1996, 17

40

Hannah Lewi, “Look Away Prince Charles : Goldfinger is Classic”, Proceedings of the Society of Architectural Historians of Australia and New Zealand, (Melbourne : GOLD, 2016), 385

28

Fig.11 Principle elevation of Balfron Tower, Poplar.

Fig.12 Principle elevation of Trellick Tower, North Kensington.

29

V CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS : BALFRON TOWER & TRELLICK TOWER

Balfron Tower, as part of the Rowlett

proposal for a housing block in 1933.

Street Estate in Poplar, is a 27-storey social

The tower, essentially a social housing

housing block completed in 1967. Trellick

block, was designed with an aim to satisfy

Tower, on the other hand, was completed

the needs of modern living in an urban

in 1972 as part of the Cheltenham Estate

context. The use of box-frame structure

comprising of 31-storey. With Trellick

and reinforced concrete as construction

often known as Balfron’s younger twin,

techniques were all obvious decisions

both towers were at first glance very

typical of that particular time period,

much similar in terms of outlook (Fig. 11

when the industry was actively searching

and 12). This similarity is conceivable, as

for new and efficient construction

both schemes were commissioned under

methods using this material. The format

similar social, cultural, planning as well

of these two towers was a definitive or

as the wider geographical and physical

‘closed’ element for Goldfinger, similar to

context. It is worth noting that as Trellick

the case of the Unite d’Habitation for Le

came almost immediately after Balfron

Corbusier.

Tower was completed, and as Goldfinger himself admitted41, early development

The adaptation of this format onto both

of the basic format of the tower were

towers’ respective sites in London,

largely non-existent in the case of Trellick

however, could be seen as a targeted

as it was an appropriated version of its

response towards regional conditions.

predecessor.

Although conceived out of the similar conditions as mentioned above, there

Theories behind the conception of the

remained variations in the locale where

tower were driven by modern ideals, with

both towers were sited respectively,

roots possibly dating back to his CIAM

which had to an extent resulted in the

41

Dunnett, 1983, 46-48

30

Fig.13 Drawing shows variations of number of storeys (24,25 and 28) for Trellick Tower to achieve the brief requirement before finally settling for 31-storeys.

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS : BALFRON TOWER & TRELLICK TOWER

difference in urban arrangement of the

A1 : Tower as Landmark to Counter the

tower in both schemes. A closer look at

Monotonous Context

31

the design of the tower itself would also reveal important adjustments made to

The Cheltenham Estate was

the form and elevation of Trellick that

commissioned in 1966 by the Greater

allowed for it to be visually different to

London Council (GLC) similar to Rowlett

Balfron. These accounted differences

Street Estate by the then London County

necessitate Balfron and Trellick Tower

Council (LCC) in 1962, with the difference

to be discussed in a comparative format

between these two commissions being

to highlight Goldfinger’s consideration

that the latter was designed in 3 phases

and response towards the respective

rather than a single plan from the

peculiarities of the given site. This method

beginning42. It is important to stress that

is also instrumental in encouraging the

despite the enormous efforts of the LCC

contextualisation of these two towers,

in delivering housing solutions in London,

which evidently bear similarities in many

the rate of building in the 1960s was

levels. This could demonstrate that

lower than projected in meeting housing

despite the similarities, both towers are

demand, hence the decision to pass down

not interchangeable due to them being

commissions to external architects in

grounded onto their respective context.

private practice was not uncommon43.

The following analysis to support this

The nature of client in this context is

assertion will be categorised into two

important as it provides justification for

main sections, (a) the tower in urban

the heights of both Balfron and Trellick.

design term and (b) format and design of

In the case of Trellick, the brief by GLC

the tower itself, both relating to the locale

on the number of flats required for

and the wider context of London.

Cheltenham Estate was well documented as part of Goldfinger’s feasibility studies in 1967 (Fig. 13), where different

42

Stamp in Stamp and Dunnett, 1983,

43

Lewi, 2016, 384

32

Fig.14 Map showing site of Cheltenham Estate before development, 1950s.

33

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

configuration of the accommodation

impact onto its direct surrounding in

blocks were experimented. This

terms of daylighting46”. It is of no doubt

justified the proposed density as a

that high-rise living was a definitive

brief requirement. For Balfron Tower,

element that Goldfinger believed in

Confirmed through Tower Hamlet

regardless. The inclusion of both Balfron

Archives44, the brief was originally

and Trellick Tower in Poplar and North

intended as 3 15-storey point blocks, but

Kensington respectively was very much

was then challenged by Goldfinger who

an acontextual response to the London

then appropriated it into a dominant,

tradition especially in the 1960s, a time

27-storey tower block. Although this was

where buildings of such scale were still

dismissed by some from the housing

uncommon and often associated with

division of the LCC and subsequently

negative social connotations. In terms of

residents from the surrounding area, it

locale however, the physical and social

could be assumed that the LCC was able

context of post-war Poplar and North

to overrule all objections45 and approved

Kensington was not dissimilar. Both areas

for the tower to be built. The arguments

suffered from poverty, lack of proper

put forth against Balfron Tower, and surely

sanitary provision and linked to a history

was the case for Trellick Tower a few years

of agitation47. From the late 19th century

later, were undeniably valid at that stage.

onwards, both sites were predominantly

It was thought that at such height the

filled with endless rows of sprawling

tower could “mar the London skyline by

low-rise terraced housing (Fig. 14).

protruding in isolation for no particular

Specifically for Poplar, this phenomenon

reason, as well as causing a negative

was combined with vast industrial sites

44

Tower Hamlet Archives (1961) in David Roberts, “Balfron Tower : A Building Archive”, accessed 28 November 2018, http://www.balfrontower.org/document/1/archival-recordsw

45

London County Council, “Rowlett Street Housing, Poplar - Notes of Meeting at the Housing Division, held 1 February 1963”, RIBA Architectural Archive, Kensington, London

46

Tower Hamlet Archive, 1961

47

Charles Booth, “Life and Labour of the People in London”, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society vol. 1 (1902), 243

34

Fig.15 1945 London County Council, Bomb Damage map, North Poplar.

Fig.16 Brownfield Estate before Balfron Tower, 1960s.

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

Fig.17 Early view of Phase I and II of Rowlett Street Estate.

35

36

Fig.18 Balron Tower in context of Blackwall Tunnel Approach.

A

B

Fig.19 Trellick Tower (Block A) in context of key approaches from Westway and Grand Union Canal.

37

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

(Fig. 15 and 16) as well as being heavily

which was highlighted through the

damaged during the interwar period. The

direction of which Balfron and Trellick

sensitive inclusion of community services

Tower were individually orientated.

and amenity spaces within both towers

Conversation with Dunnett (Appendix A)

was arguably Goldfinger’s attempt to

confirmed that Goldfinger was indeed,

respond directly to the specific social

and as correspondence in the Tower

context of the two vulnerable areas48.

Hamlet archives50 shows, very conscious

Most importantly, the insertion of a

of the impact that Balfron Tower would

high-rise landmark was critical in both

have on the locale. Sited as it was, he

areas as a stark juxtaposition towards the

decided to expose the slender side

monotonous setting, providing a much

towards the North-South direction to

needed emphasis (Fig.17). It was as Alan

instigate a high sense of visual drama51 on

Powers described in the case of Balfron

those emerging from the Blackwall Tunnel

Tower, “It is a wonderful landmark, you

(Fig. 18). This argument that suggests

really know where you are in East London

Goldfinger’s sensitivity towards the tower

when you see this, it does matter49” .

impact on the locale is further supported by the design variation made to Trellick

A2 : Key Site Approaches as Primary

Tower. As part of the Cheltenham Estate,

Driver for Determining the Orientation

Trellick Tower was positioned with its

of Balfron and Trellick Tower.

slender side towards East–West, again considering the views perceived by those

It is also evident that Goldfinger was

approaching from the Western dual

sensitive towards the way both towers

carriageway as well as from both sides of

were perceived from key approaches,

the canal (Fig.19). At 31-storey high, the

48

Lewi, 2016, 385

49

Alan Powers, “Erno Goldfinger” in Maxwell Hutchinson (ed.), “The Architects Who Made London”, The Royal Academy, podcast audio, (2009)

50

Tower Hamlet Archives, 1961

51

Owen Hatherley, “A New Kind of Bleak: Journeys Through Urban Britain”, (London : Verso, 2012) 29

38

Fig.20 Abbots Langley, 1956. Drawing showed a detached service tower albeit with narrower separation.

Fig.22 Goldfinger’s sketch showing his initial iteration for a central corridor connection flats at both sides.

Fig.21 CIAM proposal, 1932-33.

Fig.23 Access gallery serving every third floor.

39

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

detached lift tower was streamlined to

a more human scale towards Golborne

be slimmer than its predecessor and was

Road, which was also used by pedestrians.

rotated 90 degrees, of which as a result the bulk of its elevation when perceived

B1 : Basic Format & Design of the Tower

from the Southside would appear to be much more slender and elegant.

Trellick Tower was the second built version of a similar format after Balfron

When considered as part of the cluster

Tower in Poplar. Although the design was

that formed the estates, the orientation

said to be preceded by an earlier unbuilt

of both towers as they were, further

version designed for Abbots Langley52

emphasised on Goldfinger’s concern

in Hertfordshire (1956) (Fig. 20) and with

for the context. Balfron Tower, having its

some elements arguably going back to his

bulk elevation positioned next to the the

CIAM housing proposal of 1932/3 (Fig. 21),

Blackwall Tunnel Approach reduced the

the format of this tower when designed

impact of overshadowing its surrounding

for Rowlett Street Estate was argued by

residential buildings. In the case of

Dunnett as ‘new in plan and section53’. In

Cheltenham Estate, the rear elevation of

response to the LCC brief, the design to

Trellick Tower faces the canal, offering the

some extent can be seens as a response

residents views of the canal to the North

to the social needs of London at that time.

as well as relieving the south-facing court

For example, the dual aspect flats served

in front of the Tower which he intended as

by an enclosed access gallery every third

playscapes to receive unhindered South

floor area (Fig. 22 and 23) was a new and

light. By designing the 7-storey Block B

satisfying response to the brief, and this

of Trellick Tower to the West facing onto

feature of the tower was dramatically

Golborne Road, it helped in mediating the

reflected in its elevation through the

different scales of housing blocks within

separation of the lift tower from the main

the estate. This decision also provided

accommodation block. With these raised

52

Elwall, 1996, 77

53

Dunnett, 1983, 45

40

Fig.24 Balfron Tower’s access galleries, separation from service tower to main accommodation block.

Fig.29 Expressed boiler house and chimney flues on the exterior of Balfron Tower.

From left to right as Fig.26-28. These sketches of the West Elevation of Balfron Tower from June to Nov 1963 showed Goldfinger experimenting with the service tower design, evidently he did not intend to specifically express the boiler house at this stage.

41

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

walkways as well as the access strategy to

interesting departure from his earlier

the flats, it was believed that Goldfinger

scheme for Abbots Langley, which was

“sought to construct a romantic image of

also composed in a similar manner but

moving relationships, chance encounters

with significantly narrower separation

and neighbourliness54”. In some respect,

(Fig. 20). The wide separation in the basic

his design propositions for the format

format of these two towers (Fig. 24) were

of Balfron Tower, of which was then

justified by Goldfinger as a measure to

appropriated to Trellick Tower, contained

eliminate the transmission of mechanical

motivations to replicate a traditional

noise generated by the lift mechanism

neighbourhood. Cited from the Heritage

onto the flats56. Although this must be one

Statement for Balfron Tower (2015),

of the considerations behind this design

Goldfinger felt that ‘it was important

move, it seems to be a big gesture for very

for normal life of the neighbourhood

little impact for this concern. To some

to continue as is, very similar to a

extent, the separated lift tower allowed

traditional East End street, despite the

for a greater lightness and verticality in

dramatic differences that high-rise living

terms of massing when perceived as part

entailed.55” Similar to his contemporaries

of the London skyline, as compared to a

experimenting on London social housing

single slab throughout. This distinctive

at that time, this design of the tower

profile sets it apart from the other

represented the ideals and solutions to

tall blocks, and further afforded itself

specific conditions of that particular time

as a recognisable sculpture within its

and social context of London.

surrounding urban landscape57, both in Poplar and North Kensington.

The separation of the lift tower from the main accommodation block was an

A particular feature of the lift tower,

54

Laura Chan, “Balfron Tower”, C20 Society : Campaigning for Twentieth-century Architecture, accessed 30 October 2018, https://c20society.org.uk/botm/balfron-tower/

55

Richard Coleman, “Balfron Tower : Heritage Significance Report”, Citydesigner (2015), 44

56

Dunnett in Stamp and Dunnett, 1982, 82

57

Coleman, 2015, 44

42

Fig.30 Elaborated chimneys as status symbols in Jacobean (Tudor) architecture.

Fig.31 Bedford Square Georgian houses in London.

43

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

however, could be argued to bear roots

British architects such as Lutyens made

of a vernacular expression typical

great use of in his Arts and Crafts country

of London architectural character.

houses, with an aim to revive and reinvent

Although Goldfinger favoured the

the British vernacular. It could perhaps be

honest expression of materiality and

argued that Goldfinger’s understanding

structure, he “took great pains in hiding

of this local vernacular language had to

wirings and mechanical ducts58”. The

some extent contributed to his design

expression of the cantilevered boiler

rationale. Futhermore, this connection is

house and chimney flues in both the

shown more clearly in the row of terrace

external elevations of Balfron and Trellick

housing he designed for the second phase

Tower thus presents itself as a curious

of Cheltenham Estate in 1973 (Fig.32),

anomaly. It is important to note that his

where a direct reference to the local

initial intention for the service tower

Georgian character is evident in the sense

of Balfron showed a more minimalistic

that chimney breast, located in shared

articulation (Fig. 26 - 28). This feature

party walls with gable parapets extending

arose because more space were required

above the roof lines, were expressed and

by the engineers59 which Goldfinger later

celebrated.

took the decision to express it. The fact that he chose to repeat and develop

B2 : Design of Elevation Responding to

this feature to full effect for Trellick

Orientation on Site

Tower perhaps indicated his belief in the appropriateness of this expression

Although the basic format of Trellick

in the context of London skyline. The

Tower is very similar to Balfron,

expressions of chimney structure are

Goldfinger made important alterations

some diagnostic features of 17th century

to the elevations when designing for

British Jacobean architecture (Fig.30)

Trellick Tower. As established earlier

as well as the typical London Georgian

in this paper, proportional theory was

Townhouses (Fig.31). It was a feature that

used as a principle tool in rationalising

58

Warburton, 2009, 145

59

Coleman, 2015, 44

44

Fig.32 Phase II of Cheltenham Estate (1973).

Fig.33 Bloomsbury Office Block (1955).

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

45

(Left to Right) Fig.34 and 35 Comparison of principle elevations of Balfron Tower (Left) and Trellick Tower (Right).

46

Fig.36 Part West Elevation of Balfron Tower.

Fig.39 Part South Elevation of Trellick Tower.

Fig.37 West Elevation of Balfron Tower, Horizontal.

Fig.40 South Elevation of Trellick Tower, Square Proportion.

Fig.38 Zoom in West Elevaton in Balfron Tower.

Fig.41 Zoom in South Elevation in Trellick Tower.

47

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

his elevational designs60. Possibly as a

however, it should be emphasised that the

way to mediate the visual impact of

surrounding context was very different

high-rise such as Balfron and Trellick,

compared to that of Bloomsbury Square.

he believed “that there was a limit to

There were very little, if not negligible

how many floors of a building someone

amount of, buildings of architectural

could take in with their eye. To facilitate

interest surrounding both sites due

perception of the building, he recessed

to comprehensive slum clearance

some floors, providing surface variety.

and damage from the war. Hence the

[...] Without this differentiation of the

view that there wasn’t any obvious

surface, the block would be a sheer cliff

connection between the observed

of concrete and windows.61” Speaking

elevational variation and both tower’s

to Dunnett, he revealed that in the

immediate built context respectively is

case of Bloomsbury Square (1955),

apprehensible.

Goldfinger was in fact very contextual and sensitive towards the neighbouring

Nonetheless, the approach that

scale. He chose to express the height

Goldfinger adopted for the elevations of

of Bloomsbury office block in units of

Balfron and Trellick Tower could be driven

5-storeys (Fig.33) using the protruding

by local environmental phenomenon,

bay windows as visual counterpoint, to

which is evidently one of the defining

respond to the surrounding Georgian

measure of Critical Regionalism62. In

buildings which were mostly 5-storey high.

the case of Balfron Tower (Fig.36 - 38),

This reaffirms that his approach towards

the principal elevation with balconies

elevation design could, under specific

presents itself to the West onto the

circumstances, be influenced by the

courtyard, while the rear elevation

characteristics and massing of the locale.

highlighted by the expressed access

In both the cases of Balfron and Trellick

galleries faces the busy vehicular road

60

Dunnett in Campbell, 2000, 106

61

Warburton, 2009, 157

62

Hunter, 2010, 14

48

Fig.42 Rear (East) Elevation of Balfron Tower.

Fig.45 West Elevation of Glenkerry House.

Fig.43 Rear (North) Elevation of Trellick Tower.

49

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

to the East. The principal elevation of

House63, which was built in 1967-68,

Balfron Tower was articulated horizontally.

before Trellick was built. Interestingly,

When compared to Trellick Tower

Goldfinger chose not to repeat the

(Fig.39 - 41), we can see that the principal

same elevational articulation as Balfron

elevation which faces South has more of

Tower for Carradale House even though

a square proportion. The rear elevation

both, one could practically assume, were

(Fig.42 and 43) which is overlooking the

considered concurrently for the same

canal, although similar to that of Balfron in

estate. This immediately emphasises that

principle, consists of more fenestrations

it was a conscious decision to have the

possibly due to its North orientation as

two separate sets of elevation design, and

well as the view it afforded. The change

that the elevation of Trellick Tower might

in the principal elevation of Trellick

not have been an overriding departure

Tower allowed the flats to benefit from a

from that of Balfron Tower per se.

more harmonious relationship with the direct Southern sunlight, as the expressed

This speculation can also be supported

structural frame and deeply modelled

by looking at the 14-storey Glenkerry

facades played a role in providing shade

House (Fig. 45), which was completed

to the flats internally.

in 1975 as Goldfinger’s last residential tower block and major development as

It is also important to highlight that

Phase III of Rowlett Street Development.

further investigation onto both the

Orientated East-West (Fig. 46), its principal

principal elevations of Balfron and Trellick

elevation facing West to Burcham Street

Tower reveals that they were in fact not

was reverted back to an accented

original syntheses. At phase II of Rowlett

horizontal expression, more relative to

Street Estate, Goldfinger had proposed

Balfron Tower, rather than appropriating

a very similar elevation design (Fig. 44)

Trellick’s elevation design directly into the

to that of Trellick Tower for Carradale

scheme. This elevation expression could

63 Historic England, “Carradale House”, accessed on 12 December 2018, https://historicengland.org. uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1246931

50

1956 Abbots Langley, Hertfordshire

Fig.47 1965-67 Balfron Tower, Rowlett Street Estate I

1967-68 Carradale House, Rowlett Street Estate II

Fig.44

1968-72 Trellick Tower, Cheltenham Estate

1972-75 Glenkerry House, Rowlett Street Estate III

Fig.45

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

51

also be seen as an almost direct adaptation from the Abbots Langley scheme in 1956, as the West elevation of this proposal appeared to be very similar to Glenkerry House. Although one possible explanation could be that this was a decision driven by economies subject to the enforcement of Housing Cost Yardstick64 in 1973, as the elevation of Glenkerry House consisted of less balconies, there are some consistencies in the articulation of elevations across two developments that point towards a contextual factor based on orientation.

This analysis is illustrated and explained in Table 1.

64

Historic England, “Glenkerry House�, accessed on 12 December 2018, https://historicengland.org. uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1427917

52

Table 1 Summary of analysis of elevations presented in B2, in a comparative format.

Part Elevation

A1 Year of first adaptation Projects / Estates

1956 Abbots Langley (1956) Glenkerry House, Rowlett Street Estate (1975)

Orientation Distinctive Features & Analysis

West • •

Strong expression of horizontality through increased thickness of concrete banding.

Parts of glazing panels project outwards to align with concrete frame.

53

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

• • •

B1

C1

1967

1968

Balfron Tower, Rowlett Street Estate (1967)

Carradale House, Rowlett Street Estate (1968) Trellick Tower, Cheltenham Estate (1972)

West

South*

Strong expression of horizontality.

Parts of glazing panels project outwards to align with concrete frame.

Perhaps as a development from the elevation of (A1) Abbots Langley (1956), the inclusion of solid planter box as part of the balcony helped further in shading the set back elevation. At the back of this section houses the living area which is presumed to be used more frequently during the evenings.

• •

•

Strong expression of crosswall, square proportion.

All glazing panels set back from the concrete frame.

This feature helps to shade the facade from the Southern sunlight at summertime, prevent overheating.

More balconies.

South-facing balconies for capturing sunlight, ideal for the weather in Britain.

* The only exception in the orientation for this elevation type occurred in Block B of Trellick Tower. Block B consists of only 7-storey, and has this type of elevation (the principal elevation) facing West, onto Golborne Road. As previously established, the orientation of the towers were based on key approaches hence it can be seen that the decision to have Block B (scale of which relates more sensitively to the street) act as a frontage onto Golborne Road. As Block B was perceived as part of Trellick Tower rather than being a separate building, it made sense to continue the same expression for consistency.

54

Fig.46 Location Map showing Glenkerry House in relation to Balfron Tower.

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

Fig.48 Perry House perspective.

Fig.49 Perry House as built.

55

56

VI CONCLUSION

At approximately the same time of the development of Balfron Tower in 1965, Goldfinger received another commission from a private client to design a family home in the countryside of Surrey. Perry House (Fig. 48), which was finally built in 1977 as his last executed project, represented “an unusual but successful exercise in organic architecture65”, resembling some elements present in Frank Llyod Wright’s works. It should perhaps be mentioned that Wright’s influence on Goldfinger was considerable, that back in the 1930s he once organised an exhibition showcasing Wright’s work66. Hence the resemblance of Perry House to Wright’s Jacobs House (1936) in Madison was perhaps not a coincidence. Perry House was resolved 65 66

67

Elwall, 1996, 97

sensitively onto the unusual topography,

Benton Charlotte, “The Importance of Being Erno.” Building Design, no. 642 (May 27, 1983): 24–25.

with rooms deliberately positioned to

Richards, J. M. “Pleasures Offered to the Eyes. Erno Goldfinger.” AA Files, no. 5 (1984): 94–99.

constructed of laminated timber beams and

afford spectacular views out. The house was

posts (Fig. 49), responding to the surrounding

57

CONCLUSION

woodlands context. The understanding

this paper demonstrated, should be

of this scheme is key to put in context

considered equally in the assessment

Goldfinger’s ability to respond to a

of his works. Contextualising his works

diverse range of settings, producing

revealed that whilst remaining at the

architecture of different spirits relating to

forefront of architectural technology as

the particulars of a place.

well as responding to modern needs, he had invested efforts into grounding his

It would be counter-intuitive to brand

buildings within each locale in a sensitive

Erno Goldfinger as a critical regionalist

and considerate manner. This arguably

architect, which ultimately wasn’t the

satisfied Frampton’s definition of Critical

objective of this paper, as it is undeniable

Regionalism. Ultimately, his rationalism

that his architecture represents first

in the resolution of building design

and foremost the pursuit of modern

combined with this sensitivity resulted

rationalism. Furthermore, the concept

in a significant contribution to British

of Critical Regionalism denotes a design

architecture, as shown in both Balfron

approach rather than a style, to mediate

and Trellick Tower specifically. As J.M.

the two polarities of vernacular and

Richards remarked, Goldfinger had indeed

universal.

“provided an invaluable correction to the English tendency towards amateurism and

It is hence pertinent that his sensitivity

provincialism67”.

towards the context and at times subtle reference to the local vernacular, which

(5422 words)

58

Fig.50 Balfron Tower viewed in context of Brownfield Estate.

CONCLUSION

Fig.51 Trellick Tower viewed from Golborne Road.

59

60

61

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66

OTHERS (REPORTS, THESIS, AUDIO RECORDINGS) Avanti Architects, “Conservation Management Plan: The Brownfield Estate, Poplar”, (2007).

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Citydesigner (September 2015).

Corrine, Julius. “Dunnett, James (1 of 15)” National Life Story Collection: Architects’ Lives.

Audio, (2002). Accessed September 11, 2018. https://sounds.bl.uk/Oral-history/ArchitectsLives/021M-C0467X0066XX-0001V0.

Wal, Marijke de. “Architecture of Affect : Conceptions of Concrete in Brutalist Buildings.” (MA Thesis, Radboud University Nijmegen, 2017).

Dunnet, James. “Balfron Tower Planning Application. Comments to Tower Hamlets Council on Planning

Applications”, Planning Document, (October 10, 2015).

Dunnet, James. “The Case for Building Taller Residential Accommodation in London Outside the Central

Area, with Specific Reference to a Site in Honor Oak, in the London Borough of Lewisham,” Manuscript, (September 2016).

Goldfinger, Erno. “In Paris In The Twenties,” Audio. Pidgeon Digital, (1980). Accessed September 1, 2018. https://www-pidgeondigital-com.ezproxy1.bath.ac.uk/talks/in-paris-in-the-twenties/.

Haworth Tompkins, “Cheltenham Estate : Conservation Management Plan.” Planning Document, (October 2015).

McGibbon, Shea, and Dennis Boon. “A Spatial Analsis of Anti-Social Behavior and Transformation

Strategies within Post-War Council Housing.” (Research Report, ETH Zurich, 2016).

Moss, Julie. “An Investigation into England’s Legacy of Post-War Social Housing and Its Heritage Value.”

(PhD, Leicester University, Dept. History of Art and Film, 2016).

Murphy, Kevin. “Trellick Tower and the Edenham Estate : An Appraisal of Heritage Significance.”

Heritage Appraisal, (May 24, 2013).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Powers, Alan. “Interview with Cadbury-Brown, Betty on Erno Goldfinger, 1922-2002.” Audio, (1999).

Accessed on September 11, 2018. https://sounds.bl.uk/Oral-history/Architects-Lives/021MC0467X0051XX-0001V0.

Powers, Alan. “Erno Goldfinger” in Maxwell Hutchinson (interviewer), The Architects Who Made

London, The Royal Academy, Audio, (2009).

Sirikiatikul, Pinai. “Constructional Theory in Britain 1870s-1930s.” (PhD, University College London, n.d.)

“Trellick-Edenham Planning Brief : Supplementary Planning Document.” Planning Document. The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, (January 2015).

WEBSITES Carter, Philip. “Erno Goldfinger and a Visit to 2 Willow Road, Hampstead”. January 10, 2018.

Accessed November 15, 2018. https://blog.history.ac.uk/2018/01/erno-goldfinger-and-a-visitto-2-willow-road-hampstead/.

Historic England. “Balfron Tower.” Accessed September 2, 2018. https://historicengland.org. uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1334931.

Historic England. “Carradale House”. Accessed December 2, 2018. https://historicengland. org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1246931.

Hstoric England. “Glenkerry House”. Accessed December 2018. https://historicengland.org. uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1427917.

Historic England. “Trellick Tower Cheltenham Estate”. Accessed September 1, 2018. https:// historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1246688.

Roberts, David. “Balfron Tower : A Building Archive”. Accessed September 2018. http://www. balfrontower.org.

Wakefield, James. “Balfron Tower : From Socialist Housing to Luxury Apartments”. 2017.

Accessed November 2018. http://www.urban-exposure.com/balfron-tower-study/.

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69

LIST OF ILLUSTRATION : IMAGE CREDITS

Fig. 1 : Author’s Image.

Fig. 2 : Erno Goldfinger in The Daily Mail. (2018) https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5412623/Fancy living-Bond-villains-lair.html

Fig. 3 : Chao-Ching Fu. Frampton’s Dialectical Approach in Regional Heritage and Architecture : A Critical

Regionalist Approach To a New Architecture in Taiwan, (1990) 202 Fig. 4 : Elwall, Robert. Design for Law Courts in Erno Goldfinger. (London: Academy Editions, 1996)

Originals from RIBA Archive.

Fig. 5 : 2 Willow Road in Time Out London. (2012) https://www.timeout.com/london/attractions/2-willow road-1

Fig. 6 : Dunnet, James. Bedford Square by Rasmussen in The Architect as Constructor, Architectural Review (1983)

Fig. 7 : Elwall. Albemarle Street (1996) Originals from RIBA Archives.

Fig. 8 : Dunnett, James and Hiscock, Daniel. Albemarle Street in Campbell, Louise. Twentieth-Century

Architecture and Its Histories. (Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain, 2000)

Fig. 9 : 10 Regents Park Road in Modernism in Metroland. Accessed 12 Nov 2018. http://www.modernism in-metroland.co.uk/10-regents-park-road.html

Fig. 10 : 45-46 Albemarle Street in Manchester History. Accessed 13 Sep 2018. http://manchesterhistory.net/ architecture/1940/albemarle.html

Fig. 11 : Balfron Tower in E-Architect. (2018) https://www.e-architect.co.uk/architects/erno-goldfinger Fig. 12 : Trellick Tower in Brutalism. Accessed 3 Nov 2018. http://brutalism.online/brutalist-buildings/13 uk/462-trellick-tower-london-england

Fig. 13 : Erno Goldfinger in RIBA Archives.

Fig. 14 : Trellick Tower Site. Adapted from Digimap, accessed 18 Nov 2018.

Fig. 15 : 1945 London County Council, Bomb Damage map (published by the London Topographical

Society) in Coleman, Richard, Balfron Tower : Heritage Significance Report, Planning Document.

Citydesigner (September 2015).

Fig. 16 : Balfron Tower Site. Adapted from Digimap, accessed 18 Nov 2018.

Fig. 17 : Early view phase II in Architecture d’Aujourd’hui, no. 120, (1966) Fig. 18 : Trellick Tower Site. Adapted from Digimap, accessed 18 Nov 2018.

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Fig. 19 : Balfron Tower Site. Adapted from Digimap, accessed 18 Nov 2018.

Fig. 20 : Stamp, Gavin, and James Dunnet. Erno Goldfinger : Works 1. Abbots Langley. (London:

Architectural Association, 1983) Originals from RIBA Archive.

Fig. 21 : Elwall, CIAM 1932-33. (1996) Originals from RIBA Archives.

Fig. 22 : Elwall, Balfron Tower Development Sketch. (1996) Originals from RIBA Archives.

Fig. 23 : Presentation Drawing of Block A Trellick Tower in RIBA Archives.

Fig. 24 : Balfron Tower Elevation in Dezeen. (2014) https://www.dezeen.com/2014/09/24/brutalist-buildings

balfron-tower-london-erno-goldfinger/

Fig. 26 : Balfron Tower Development Drawings from London Metropolitan Archives.

Fig. 27 : Balfron Tower Development Drawings from London Metropolitan Archives.

Fig. 28 : Balfron Tower Development Drawings from London Metropolitan Archives.

Fig. 29 : Balfron Tower Lift Tower in The Modern House. Accessed 16 Dec 2018. https://www.

themodernhouse.com/directory-of-architects-and-designers/erno-goldfinger/

Fig. 30 : English Jacobean Designs in History of Design Through the 18th Century. (2011) https:// iammodernman.wordpress.com/2011/

Fig. 31 : Bedford Square by Russ London.

Fig. 32 : Stamp and Dunnet, Block D Cheltenham Estate (1983) Originals from RIBA Archive.

Fig. 33 : Stamp and Dunnet, Bloomsbury Block (1983) Originals from RIBA Archive.

Fig. 34 : Balfron Tower West Elevation from Studio Egret West.

Fig. 35 : Trellick Tower West Elevation from John McAslan Partners.

Fig. 36 : Author’s Own Image.

Fig. 37 : Stamp and Dunnet, Balfron Tower (1983) Originals from RIBA Archive.

Fig. 38 : Balfron Tower by David Borland. RIBA Archives.

Fig. 39 : Author’s Own Image.

Fig. 40 : Stamp and Dunnet, Trellick Tower (1983) Originals from RIBA Archive.

Fig. 41 : Trellick Tower by Ian Tall.

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Fig. 42 : Balfron Tower Elevation in Dezeen. (2014) https://www.dezeen.com/2014/09/24/brutalist-buildings

balfron-tower-london-erno-goldfinger/

Fig. 43 : Trellick Tower in Modern Architecture London. (2009) http://modernarchitecturelondon.com/ buildings/trellick-tower.php

Fig. 44 : Carradale House in Evening Standard (2016). https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/design/why

every-design-fan-should-follow-notreallyobsessive-on-instagram-a3320796.html

Fig. 45 : Glenkerry House by Simon Phillips.

Fig. 46 : Glenkerry House context map adapted from Historic England Heritage Listing. Accessed

December 2018. https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1427917.

Fig. 47 : Elwall, Abbots Langley, (1996). Originals from RIBA Archive.

Fig. 48 : Elwall, Perry House, (1996). Originals from RIBA Archive.

Fig. 49 : Perry House in c20 Architects. Accessed in 10 Sep 2018. https://c20society.org.uk/ publications/20th-century-architects/

Fig. 50 : Balfron Tower in Municipal Dreams, (2014). https://municipaldreams.wordpress.com/2014/10/21/ balfron-tower-poplar-2/

Fig. 51 : Trellick Tower by Sbally1.

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APPENDIX A

Excerpts from Interview with James

on Goldfinger a long time ago, there was

Dunnett on December 6, 2018.

this group of students looking into this great debate about whether services

AL : I found it quite interesting that not

should be exposed in buildings, a time

many who had written about Goldfinger

when Richard Rogers was riding high in

emphasise on the influence London

exposing his pipes and structures. And

as a city had on his approach. Being a

these students had written to Goldfinger

Hungarian architect who trained in Paris,

to ask about the chimneys in Trellick

and ultimately made a career in London,

Tower, whether he was specifically

do you think he was quite conscious of his

trying to express the services. And I

surrounding context when designing?

saw on his reply saying that in Jacobean architecture the chimney had always

JD : Yes, I mean of course Goldfinger was

play a very important role so there was

praised, in fact, by Lewis Mumford in an

actually nothing new in trying to expose

article about his building in Albemarle,

this feature. Of course, Lutyens made

which he termed contextual modernism.

significant use of this feature and so did

And I was contacted once by a British

Mackintosh.

architect writing about modernism in context to understand more about

AL : In terms of urban sense, which I

Goldfinger’s works. So yes, his works were

understand was an area of particular

perceived by some as contextual in some

interest for him, do you he was aware of

way. And I think this idea of a bay window,

how Balfron and Trellick, at both their

it could be seen as a reference to a very

heights, would be perceived as part of the

typical English architectural expression,

London skyline?

Jacobean and so on. And also, I remember reading about something Pevsner wrote

JD : Trellick Tower, as you will know,

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was the second built version of that

design decision?

format, the first being Balfron Tower in Tower Hamlets, with an earlier un-built

JD : Well I think I have hypothesised in

version designed for Abbots Langley, and

somewhere, that, you see in the case

some elements arguably going back to

of Abbott Langley, there weresimilar

Goldfinger’s CIAM housing proposal of

expressions as well albeit in a less

1932/3. So the basic format of Trellick

pronounced manner. I think this idea of

cannot be regarded as having been

a route between the main route and the

devised as a response to its immediate

circulation is something that he had been

locality. However the organisation of the

exploring, shall we say. I have a feeling

site round Trellick is an interesting variant

that in the case of Balfron, you have the

on that round Balfron, and was - I am sure

roadway going through it for rubbish

- a response to locality. Goldfinger was in

collection and so on, and that roadway

fact quite pragmatic and also contextual

was perhaps a way of his to rationalise

as correspondence in the Goldfinger

the process of refuse management, and

archive at the RIBA shows, he was for

make a complete circle (pointing to

example very conscious of the impact

drawing). By spacing them out through the

that Balfron would have, sited as it was,

detached lift tower, it allows the vehicle to

on people emerging rom the Blackwall

move a complete circle and go out. This

Tunnel, and I am sure he would also have

is a suspicion that I have, anyway. But who

been aware of and considered the views

knows exactly...

of Trellick from Westway.

AL : Was he the kind of architect who AL : In terms of the detached lift tower,

test his ideas in context, and experiment

which the reason he gave for such a

through multiple iterations?

big gesture was for isolating the noisy mechanical noise from the flats, do you

JD : Yes definitely. Especially in the case of

think that was the only reason for this

Bloomsbury, which was unbuilt

74

unfortunately, it requires the demolition

buildings there. But also the fundamental

of Sicilian Avenue. Well nobody cared

point of the scheme was that by dividing

about Sicilian Avenue at that time, it was

the tower in 5-storey units , they were

just a Victorian stuff, but they did care

relating to the scale of the typical London

about the Georgian houses, so I guess

buildings. Similarly for a scheme that he

the developers at that time which were

worked with Cadbury-Brown in Moorgate,

about 1963 thought that the reputation of

again not developed, the tower here was

someone like Goldfinger could perhaps

divided in units of 9-storeys, there was

be able to help them get planning

text I think by Cadbury-Brown that argued

permission for such a senstive case.

this relationship with the surrounding

As they do now for the same purpose

building height.

actually. And it was proven to be quite successful actually because Goldfinger

AL : In the case of Balfron and Trellick

was able to call on John Summerson and

then, it was interesting because the

J.M. Richards, and Pevsner himself to

elevations of Balfron were expressed

give evidences in support of his scheme,

horizontally when compared to Trellick,

which they did. Though it wasn’t quite

which has an almost square proportion.

enough to persuade the council, which

Could this be a result of the surrounding

they wouldn’t back down on letting

context do you think?

him demolish building z,y,x making the scheme impossible. But the point of the

JD : I wrote a piece about proportional

argument was that, Goldfinger’s own

design of Goldfinger so there was

justification for the design of the tower

obviously a shift between the proportion

was answering to the Sennet House,

used for Balfron and Trellick. I’m not sure

so these two buildings will act as both

if the surrounding context has had any

ends for Georgian Bloomsbury, though

bearing, but proportions were some his

completely ignoring the fact that he

primary concerns definitely.

was demolishing most of the Georgian

(end)

APPENDIX A

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