All About Countries - England by allaboutcountries

England

Contents General Information

History 8 Nature 26 People 32 Economy & Transportation

Culture 52

English Personalities

William Shakespeare

Isaac Newton

Henry VIII of England

Winston Churchill

Charles Darwin

Charles Dickens

Margaret Thatcher

Charlie Chaplin

Queen Elizabeth II

Jane Austen

English Cuisine

English Breakfast

Beef Wellington

Devonshire Cream

Bangers and Mash

English Sausage Rolls

Yorkshire Pudding

English Travel

English Flapjack

London 103

Kedgeree 99

Manchester 116

English Cottage Pie

100

Liverpool 119

Fish & Chips

100

Birmingham 122

tanqueray gin

101

Leeds 125 Other Places

102

128

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General Information Location

England is a country located in the British Islands and is separated from Continental Europe by the North Sea, through the English Channel. It is bordered by Wales to the west and Scotland to the north. On the other side of the English Channel there is France, while Ireland and Northern Ireland are separated from England by the Irish Sea. England also has access to the Celtic Sea to the southwest. England is part of the United Kingdom and has over 100 smaller islands in its

possession. England covers an area of 130.279 km2, has a density of 407 persons/km2 and has its capital in the city of London, which hosts about 10.000.000 people (without the metropolitan area). The country’s national anthem is called “God save the King/Queen” and the

Crusader flag to have their ships protected by the Genoese fleet in the Mediterranean Sea and part of the Black Sea by numerous piracy attacks. For this privilege, the English monarch offered to the Doge of the Republic of Genoa an annual tribute. England, the city of London and the Royal Navy still hoist the flag of Saint George and is their national flag following the creation of the current United Kingdom.

Coat of Arms

The British Pound Sterling is the official currency in England

composer is unknown but a 1619 attribution to John Bull is sometimes made. England is organized as a part of a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the current monarch. Its total population is about 54.316.600 persons. Other important English citizens are living abroad in countries such as the United States of America (between 26 and 49 million), Australia (7.300.000), Canada (6.570.000), Ireland (between 300.000 and 1.000.000) or New Zeeland (between 50.000 and 285.000). The official currency in England is the British Pound Sterling (GBP). The national day of England is celebrated on 23 April each year.

The English coat of arms was introduced by King Richard I of England in the 1190â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, apparently as a version of that of the Duchy of Normandy. Normandy today uses only two leopards, although the historical version is identical to the English coat of arms. According to a tradition, following the Norman Conquest, a third leopard was added to the two Normans to represent the Anglo-Norman United Kingdom. According to another tradition, the two leopards were combined with the single lion of Aquitaine following the acquisition of this region by the English crowns. Other heraldic experts claim that it is only a design reason for which the English coat of arms ended up having three leopards (nowadays lions) and that of Normandy only two.

Flag

The flag of England actually represents the Cross of Saint George drawn on a white rectangle. The horizontal red cross appeared as an emblem of England during the Middle Ages and the Crusades era, being one of the oldest known representations of the country. It became the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s national flag since the 16th century. Saint George became the patron saint of England in the 13th century, but the legend of him killing the dragon dates back to the previous century. The symbolism of the Salvific banner of the true cross as Jacopo da Varagine pointed to the cross of Saint George in the Middle Ages, determined the name of crusaders for the armed pilgrimages. The Cross of Saint George was then chosen as a symbol of the pilgrims who went to the holy places of Christianity after 1095, the year of conquest of Jerusalem by the Seljuk Turks. The pilgrims decided to take the cross and arm themselves to free the place where Jesus Christ was born and lived. In 1190, the city of London and England requested and obtained the possibility of using the 5

Flag of the United Kingdom

The flag of the United Kingdom, officially called the Union Flag and better known as the Union Jack, is a combination of the crosses of the patron saints of England, Scotland and Northern Ireland, three of the four regions that, together with Wales, form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The cross of St. George is on the flag of England, the cross of St. Andrew is on the flag of Scotland and the cross of Saint Patrick was on the flag of Ireland. The final version of the Flag of the Union appeared in 1802, when the union between Great Britain with Ireland took place, as a result of which the cross of Saint Patrick was included because previously the crosses of the patrons of England and Scotland had already been combined. The cross remained in the flag although nowadays only Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom. It should be noted that in the final version of this unofficial flag of the United Kingdom there is a peculiarity: The two crosses, that is, the white on a blue background or Saint Andrew’s cross, which represents the flag of Scotland and the red cross of St. Patrick, representing Ireland, is interspersed behind the English 6

Flag of the United Kingdom

cross of St. George. Such intercalation of the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick was made in order to avoid giving the idea of Scottish primacy over Ireland or vice versa. It should be also noted that, while the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew have a long tradition, the “St. Patrick’s cross” is a recent invention, in parallel with the independence of the Republic of Ireland. Wales is not represented on the Union flag because, when the first official version of its flag appeared, Wales had already joined with England, although the elements of the flag of Wales, a red dragon on a white and green background, date back from the 15th century. The dragon is a symbol that was probably introduced into Britain by the Roman legions. The Union Flag should be hoisted with the widest white diagonal band up near the flagpole, and the narrower diagonal white band (on the fluttering part) farther from the flagpole. On the other hand, the United Kingdom is one of the countries that have different national pavilions. They denominate “Red Ensign” or “Red Pavilion” to the civil pavilion, “White Ensign” or “White Pavilion” to the naval pavilion (except

for the Air Force, that has a special pavilion), and “Blue Ensign” or “Blue Pavilion” to the institutional pavilion. In addition, they have many variants of each of them, with approved privileges for various agencies and yacht clubs, which may include the shields in the flag of the corresponding pavilion.

Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom

The Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom is the official coat of arms of the British Monarch, currently Elisabeth II. The coat of arms is used by the monarch and authorized institutions. The coat of arms is displayed in all Courts of Justice, the judges being the direct representatives of the monarch. The monarch can also assign royal mandates to royalty companies and they have the right to display the coat on their own products and shops. The coat of arms is made up of a shield superposed by a knight’s helmet and supported

by two animals: a lion and an unicorn. The shield is divided into four quadrants, the first and the fourth displaying each three golden lions on a red background, symbol of England, the second quadrant displaying a red lion on a golden background, symbol of Scotland, while the third quadrant is displaying a golden harp on a blue background, symbol of Ireland. Above the shield is placed a knight’s helmet superposed by the royal crown above which there is a golden lion bearing the same royal crown. On the right side there is a crowned lion, a symbol of England, while on the left stand there stands a unicorn, a symbol of Scotland. Because the unicorn is considered a dangerous animal, it is chained. The coat of arms contains the motto of the English monarchs: Dieu et mon droit and the motto of the Order of the Garter: Honi soit qui mal y pense on a representation of the Garter behind the shield.

Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom

History Pre-History

Homo Sapiens arrived in this area for the first time about 35.000 years ago, but because of the harsh conditions of the last Ice Age (known in this region as Devensian Glaciation), they were forced to flee to the mountains from Southern Europe. Only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly rhinoceroses remained. Around 11.000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area and genetic research showed that they came from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. The sea level was lower than today and England was connected by land to Ireland and Eurasia. The rise of the waters that occurred 9.000 years ago again separated the British Isles and half a century later, it was the turn of Eurasia. The Campaniform culture arrived around 2.500 BC, shortly before the introduction of the manufacture of objects made of clay and copper. It was during this period that Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge or Avebury were built. By melting together tin and copper, both of which were abundant in the region,

Avebury

humans made bronze and later iron from existing iron ore. They were able to weave sheepâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wool to make clothes. According to John T. Koch and other historians, England, at the end of the Bronze Age, was part of a maritime trade network called the Atlantic Bronze Age, which included the whole of Britain, as well as Ireland, France, Spain and Portugal. In these regions, Celtic languages developed: the Tartessian was the most distant written Celtic language ever discovered. During the Iron Age, Celtic culture derived from Hallstatt and La Tene, started spreading to Central Europe. The development of iron foundries allowed the construction of better plows, improving agriculture and the efficiency

Stonehenge

of weapons. The Brythonic languages were spoken at the time. Like other regions of the margins of the Roman Empire, many ties were made with the Romans. The archeological data indicates that England was colonized long before the rest of the British territory thanks to its hospitable climate. The first mention of the island comes from a manual from the 6th century BC (Massaliote Periplus) and it indicates that trade links with the continent already existed long before. Pytheas of Massilia wrote about his commercial trip to the island in around 325 BC. Latin writers such as Pliny the Elder and Diodorus Siculus mentioned about the commercial trades in England, but there were few reports on populations. Tacitus wrote that there were no major linguistic differences between the peoples of Britain and northern Gaul and noted that the various Breton nations shared the same physical characteristics with their neighbours on the continent.

Roman Britain

Caesar invaded Britain in 55 BC and in 54 BC he wrote in De Bello Gallico that the population of southern Britain had many traits in common with the Belgae of Gaul. Until the Roman conquest of Britain, the population of Britain was relatively stable and at the time of the invasion of Caesar, the Britons spoke a Celtic language. The Romans began their second conquest of Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius and the region was annexed to the Roman Empire under the name of Brittany. The best-known people who have tried to resist the invasion were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus. Later, a revolt led by Boadicea, Queen of

Roman Campaign Conquest in England

Iceni was crushed at the Battle of Watling Street. In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died in York, where Constantine was later proclaimed Emperor. Christianity was for the first time introduced at the beginning of the 3rd century, although this information is disputed. Around 410 AD, the Romans retreated from the island as they lost power to defend their borders in continental Europe. England and Wales fell under Roman rule, which lasted until the beginning of the 5th century AD. After the Romans left Britain in 410, the nowadays England was gradually populated by Germanic tribes from the continent. These peoples included the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and the Frisians.

Anglo-Saxon Invasion

They invaded Britain in the second half of the 5th century. It seems that the Jutes were the main group who settled in Kent, the Isle of Wight and the Hampshire coast, while the Saxons predominated the areas south of the River Thames and in Essex and Middlesex, while finally the Angles settled in Norfolk , in Suffolk, in the Midlands and in the north. The native population dwindled after the Roman domination. This dramatic collapse appears to have been caused mainly by plague and smallpox. The Annales Cambriae mentions the

English Kingdoms by 540

Settlements of Angles, Saxons and Jutes around 600 AD

death of the king Maelgwn Gwynedd by plague in 547. Between the 5th and 6th centuries there isn’t much information on English history. The little information that is available comes from De excidio et conquestu Britanniae, historiographical work of the chronicler Gildas (who lived in the 6th century), from the lives of the saints, from the study of names of some places, from the poetic works and the archaeological discoveries. As before the Romans, the Britons also hired German mercenaries to defend themselves from warlike tribes such as the Picts who lived in the north of the island. Subsequently, the Anglo-Saxon mercenaries revolted and began a gradual settlement process that culminated in the 7th century with the elimination of the ruling political class and the establishment of a number of Germanic kingdoms throughout the island. The invaders were the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, people who had similar traditions and that slowly merged into one group, which became known as the Anglo-Saxons. In the 7th century, the Germanic kingdoms

included Northumbria, Bernicia, Deira, Lindsey, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Wessex, Sussex and Kent. There were turbulent reigns, but could be distinguished by a strong monarchy and use of laws based on wergild. The Anglo-Saxons practiced polytheistic religions, had no written culture and lived off farming, hunting and agriculture. In the following two centuries, the most important events were the political unification and the advent of Christianity. In 597, Pope Gregory the Great sent to Kent a group of missionaries led by Augustine the monk. The group was welcomed by King Ethelbert of Kent, who converted to the new religion. The southern kingdoms of England became Christians and Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. The last pagan king, Penda of Mercia, died in 655.

Heptarchy and Christianization

In this period, the so-called “Roman Christianity” met the “Celtic-Irish Christianity” preached by monkspriests, founders of monasteries. Among them, there were several prominent figures such as Saint Columba

Saint Bede the Venerable translating the Gospel of Saint John on his deathbed (by J. Doyle Penrose)

of Iona, who went to Scotland in 563, Saint Columbanus who started the evangelization of Europe in Cornwall around 590 and later by Saint Aidan in Northumbria. He also founded a monastery in 635 at Lindisfarne. At the Synod of Whitby, King Owsy of Northumbria chose the Roman Christian religion and the population was converted. Theodore of Tarsus, who became archbishop of Canterbury in 668, established numerous dioceses, organized and put the basis of the Church in England. The meeting between the Celtic and Latin culture generated a remarkable series of books, especially in Northumbria, where they came from thinkers such as Saint Bede the Venerable and Alcuin. Between the 7th and the 8th century, political power ranged among the great kingdoms. Saint Bede the Venerable recorded that at the end of the 6th century, Ethelbert of Kent was the dominant ruler of England, but after his death, the power passed to the kingdom of Northumbria. After a crisis of the kingdom of Northumbria, it was the time for the kingdom of Mercia to dominate. The supremacy of the kingdom of Mercia lasted on and off throughout the 8th century. Offa of Mercia obtained from Emperor Charlemagne the title of “Great Lord” of southern Britain. At the beginning of the 9th century, the Kingdom of Wessex gained supremacy and put an end to the kingdom of Mercia.

Viking Challenge

kingdom.

Norman England

Towards the end of the 10th century, England was again hit by the Danish attacks. Canute the Great reigned over England, Denmark and Norway. The stability across the country was restored in 1042 with Edward the Confessor, coming from a dynasty of native rulers of England. The lack of a successor after Edward’s death caused a severe dynastic crisis that led to furious fighting. In 1066, Harold Godwinson became king, probably appointed as successor by the same Edward on his deathbed and approved by the Witan. However there were other pretenders to the English throne: William I, Harald III of Norway and Sweyn II of Denmark. In September 1066, Harald III, aided by Tostig of Wessex, Harold’s brother, managed to land in northern England with a force of 15.000 men, but was defeated at the Battle of Stamford Bridge by the army of Harold Godwinson. Shortly after, a Norman army from France landed in England. The armies of William of Normandy managed to rout the army of Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. William was crowned king of England on the Christmas Day of 1066. The Normans brought a great turning point for the British state. William of Normandy ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey on the population regarding the real estate and land properties for tax purposes revealing that in twenty years since the conquering of the island, the ancient Anglo-Saxon population was expropriated by the Norman ruling class which held the main civil and ecclesiastical offices. The court of William, as well as the aristocrats spoke French in Normandy. The English Middle Ages were characterized by civil wars, revolts, in court intrigues and dynastic struggles in France. Henry I, the fourth child of William, who was the successor of his brother, William II, tried to smooth out the social differences between the Anglo-Saxons and Anglo-Normans. However, after the loss of his son, Henry’s proposals for reform remained outside the goal. After the death of Henry I, there was a serious dispute between the new dynastic King Stephen I, grandson of Henry, and Matilda, daughter of Henry, which led to a series of civil wars until the death of Stephen, which took place in 1154.

Since the end of the 8th century, the Viking raids became more and more frequent. The arrival of the Vikings changed the political geography and the social system in England. Despite the victory of Alfred the Great at Edington in 878, the Vikings were able to settle both in Britain and Ireland. Towards the end of the 9th century, Alfred the Great was the only king of the Anglo-Saxon race. After the death of Alfred the Great, which occurred in 899, his son, Edward the Elder became king of Wessex. Edward, along with his brother, Æthelred, Earl of Mercia, began an expansion program building on its territory a number of towns and fortifications. After the death of Æthelred, his wife continued the expansion. After the death of Edward the Elder, his son, Æthelstan took the throne. Æthelstan continued his father’s program of expansion, becoming the first king of unified England. However, the English unity was not achieved in a stable manner, given that Æthelstan’s successors lost and regained Northumbria. England under the Plantagenets Shortly after the middle of the 10th century, Edgar Matilda’s son, Henry of Anjou tried a new the Peaceful of England managed to consolidate the invasion but in the end he managed to agree with 12

Viking Invasion of England

Eustace, son of Stephen. Henry II of England ruled over a territory that included, in addition to England, much of France. This domain was known as the Angevin Empire. The successor of Henry II was Richard I, who was scarcely present in England because he took part in the Third Crusade and had to defend the French possessions. The successor of Richard was his

brother John, nicknamed “John Lackland”, which was very unfortunate because he lost much of the French territories following the Battle of Bouvines. Due to his military defeats in France, his increasing in taxes and the conflict with the Pope, “John Lackland” became very unpopular with the English aristocracy. He was forced to enact the Magna Carta by which the king’s power 13

William The Conqueror

Richard Lionheart

was severely limited. When hostilities ceased with the Pope, John tried to go back on his word. This attitude provoked the First Baronsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; War. The son of John, Henry III of England came to the throne when he was a child and for most of his reign he had to fight the barons. The reign of Edward I saw a strengthening of the royal authorities and the first convocation of the English Parliament. Edward I conquered Wales and tried to advance his dynastic pretensions on Scotland. Edward II was a dissolute and little energetic king. Robert Bruce, the Scottish leader managed to regain the territories lost during the reign of Edward by defeating the English in the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. In 1326, Edward II was deposed by his wife, Isabella. In 1327, Edward III came to the throne. During his long reign (1327-1377) Edward III was able to turn England into a great military power and after defeating the Kingdom of Scotland, Edward claimed the crown of France. This act led to the Hundred Years War. Under Edward III, England had a great victory at Crecy. During the 14th century, England had to deal with some major disasters, including the Great Famine of 1315-1317

and the Black Death of 1348. In particular, the plague epidemic claimed the lives of nearly half of the British population. Edward III granted a lot of power to some aristocratic families with whom he tied in marriage alliances. These powerful aristocratic families came out strongly strengthened enough to claim the English throne. The arrogant methods of Richard II did alienate this powerful aristocracy. At the end of the 14th century, under King Henry IV, they continued the riots.

War of the Roses Battles and Outcomes

Edward IV died in 1483, only 40 years of age. The successor of Edward IV was supposed to be his oldest son, Edward, but Richard of Glouchester, brother of Edward IV, declared that his brother’s wedding was not valid, making King Edward V illegitimate. Edward V and his younger brother, Richard, were imprisoned in the Tower of London. Richard of Glouchester became Richard III of England. The two princes were not seen and probably died in the Tower. King Richard III was reviled as a dangerous monster for having possibly killed his grandchildren to get the throne. This hatred of Richard III obscured his ability to govern the country during his reign. In August 1485, Henry Tudor, a collateral descendant of Lancaster defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Then, Henry Tudor became Henry VII of England.

England under the House of Tudor

Edward III Plantagenet, King of England

The reign of Henry V, ascended to throne in 1413, is remembered for the great British victory at the Battle of Agincourt. Henry V died of dysentery in 1422, leaving numerous programs incomplete, including the right to launch a new crusade against the Muslims to regain the Holy Land. Under the weak Henry VI, riots in England returned to a higher level, especially after the final defeat in the Hundred Years War. Following the infirmity of Henry VI, who was no longer able to control the situation, in 1455 the War of the Roses has outbreak. It came to small skirmishes which nevertheless ended up undermining the central authority. In 1461, Edward of York, a cousin of Henry VI, deposed the king and became known as Edward IV of England. Edward was able to defeat the Lancastrians at the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross. Edward IV was briefly ousted in 1470-1471 when Richard Neville was able, for a short period of time, to restore Henry VI to the throne. Six months later, Edward of York defeated the Earl of Warwick claiming the throne again. Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London where he died in May 1471.

With the accession to the throne of Henry VII, the War of the Roses finally came to an end. The Tudors reigned in England for 118 years. The English Parliament recognized Henry VII as a sovereign but supporters of York were still strong. Henry VII married the eldest daughter of Edward IV in 1486, thus bringing together the rival houses of York and Lancaster. Although he had to cope with several conspiracies and internal rebellions, Henry VII managed to stabilize the royal authority. The foreign policy of Henry VII was set to seek an alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. However, in 1493, England was seen involved in a war against France. In the end, given the internal problems, Henry VII managed to find a compromise with France, in which he renounced the claims on the French territory, except for the port of Calais, still remaining in English hands. Shortly after, Henry VII was able to get close to Scotland, since he managed to arrange a marriage between his daughter, Margaret and King James IV. In 1509, Henry VII died. Since Arthur, the eldest son of Henry VII, had died at the age of 15 in 1501, the crown passed to his second son Henry, who became Henry VIII of England. Henry married the widow Catherine of Aragon, by whom he had several children, but of which only Maria survived, later known as “Bloody Mary”. In 1512, England went to war against France, but Henry VIII did not draw any political advantage. During the absence of King Henry VIII, committed in France, James IV of Scotland began to invade England, but the Scots were defeated at the Battle of Flodden Field in September 1513. 15

days after giving birth to Edward, Henry married for three times: with the German princess Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard and Catherine Parr. Henry VIII died in January 1547 at the age of 55. Edward VI, Henryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s successor, became king at the age of 9. Given the young age of the king, the real power was exercised by Edward Seymour, and after the removal of this individual, by John Dudley. Edward VI died of tuberculosis in 1553 and the royal title passed to Mary. Queen Mary was a devout Catholic, so she thought to restore England amongst the Catholic nations. With the return of England to Catholicism, 274 Protestants were burned at the stake. In 1556, Mary married her cousin Philip of Habsburg. In 1558, Queen Mary died of uterine cancer. Elizabeth Tudor ascended to the throne after the death of her sister, Mary. The new queen restored the Church of England, restoring the schism with the Church of Rome. In terms of domestic politics, Elizabeth managed to maintain the stability during her

King Henry VII of England

In the 1520â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, Catherine of Aragon was no longer able to give more children to Henry. The king, who was hoping to generate a male heir (at that time the heir to the throne would be his daughter Maria), tried to obtain a divorce from Catherine in 1527, but found the opposition of the powerful Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey and Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggi, tied to the Pontiff. Not having the ability to get a divorce from the Catholic Church, Henry decided to get rid of Wolsey and to secede from the Church of Rome and with the Act of Supremacy, the English Church separated from the Roman one. Catherine was banished from the English court in 1530 and spent the rest of her life in an isolated manor, where she could not meet her daughter Mary, who was declared an illegitimate daughter. In 1530, Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn, whom in 1533 gave birth to a daughter, the future Elizabeth I of England. Still worried about the dynastic stability, not happy to have female heir, Henry decided to imprison Anne in the Tower of London and in May 1536 to behead her on charges of adultery. Henry married Jane Seymour, who bore the long awaited male heir in 1537, the future Edward VI of England. Elizabeth, on par with her sister Mary, was declared an illegitimate daughter. After Jane Seymour died a few 16

King Henry VIII is one of the most well-known figures of English History

Mary I, also known as ”Bloody Mary”

reign, being able to strengthen the royal authority at the expense of the nobility. In 1569, Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, Elizabeth’s cousin, fled from Scotland to take refuge in England, but was soon arrested and imprisoned for 18 years in captivity, as Mary Queen of Scots and not Elizabeth was recognized by the European legitimists as the true queen of England (with the name of Mary II of England). In 1587, Mary Stuart was sentenced to death and beheaded. In terms of foreign policy, Elizabeth sought to distance herself from both Spain and France, countries which tried to put an end to Protestantism in England. The world’s largest military success during Elizabeth’s reign was the victory against Spain’s Philip II with the wreck of the Invincible Armada in 1588.

Religious Conflicts and Civil War

In 1603, Queen Elizabeth I died at the age of 69 years. Successor to the throne was, as next of kin, James VI of Scotland, son of Mary, Queen of Scotland. James of Scotland (James I of England) was the first monarch to reign over the whole Britain. Just ascended to the throne, James tried to make peace with Spain, successfully ended with the Treaty of London to the Anglo-Spanish War. During the reign of James I of England, the country remained outside the international disputes which were raging at that period in continental Europe (Thirty Years War). At the beginning of the 17th century, Britain began to take shape of a colonial empire. In 1607, the Jamestown colony was founded, which was the first permanent settlement in North America. Subsequently, the British began to infiltrate in the spice, tobacco and sugar trade in western and eastern India. Charles I became King of England, Scotland and Ireland at the death of King James I in 1625. Proponent, like his father, claiming the divine right of kings, he was engaged in the first phase of his reign with a struggle for power against the Parliament, which resolutely opposed

Battle of Marston Moor (1644) during the English Civil War

Queen Elizabeth I

his wishes, fearing his absolutist aspirations, especially in trying to collect taxes without his assent. Another cause of friction with a part of the English society was his religious policy: persevering in the “middle path” of the Anglican Church, being hostile to the Protestant reformation which instead was spreading among many of his English and Scottish subjects and accused them of being a turn too close to Catholicism. He married a Catholic princess, Mary Henriette of France, and had as a collaborator the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Anglican William Laud. The political and religious tensions accumulated over the years took shape with the dissolution of the Parliament in the years called the “Government Personnel” and exploded in the English Civil War. The first phase of the civil war (1642-1649) saw the clash between two factions: the royalists and the parliamentarians, the latter called “Roundheads”. After four years of war, the “Roundheads” led by Oliver Cromwell managed to prevail over the royalists. In 1649, King Charles I was executed. After the beheading of King Charles I, Oliver Cromwell and the Parliament declared the the monarchy decayed

the elimination of all the extremist opposition. Scotland was granted a greater tolerance, while with Ireland, not yet at peace, he used instead an iron fist. A constitution called Cromwell “Lord Protector of the Realm.” The dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell lasted until 1658, the year of his death. Successor to the position of “Lord Protector” was Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, but he lasted barely a year, not having his father’s political stature. In 1660, the royalists troops managed to restore the monarchy. The new ruler was Charles II of England, son of the late Charles I. In 1685, Charles II died. The new king was his brother, James Stuart. James II was determined to restore the Roman Catholicism back to England so a fierce conflict broke out between the king and Parliament. Under the real threat of a return to Catholicism, the Parliament took the situation in hand, appointing William III of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland from 1672, to be the new king of England, together with his wife Mary II of England, the eldest of the two daughters of James II (the second was Anne, future queen which will succeed after William III; both Mary and Anne were Protestant). William agreed and landed in the southern English coast in November 1688. James fled to France Oliver Cromwell and was declared abdicated by the Parliament, which and established the United Republic of England, in February 1689 elected William III of Orange and his Scotland and Ireland (Commonwealth). Cromwell’s wife Mary II as sovereigns of England. The first act to objectives were to safeguard the right of ownership, the seal the newly formed constitutional monarchy sought independence of church and state, religious freedom and to reaffirm the prerogatives of the Parliament and those

The Great Fire of 1666

of the Sovereign to prevent a recurrence of attempts at centralization of the power: this act became known as the Bill of Rights. According to this statement, the king could not levy taxes in favor of the Crown without the approval of the Parliament, could not maintain an army in the kingdom in peacetime without the consent of Parliament and members of the Parliament were to be elected freely, while the Parliament freedom of speech will be granted.

Formation of the United Kingdom

In 1701, the Stuarts were excluded from the succession in favor of the Hannover. Under the reign of Anne Stuart (1702-1714), the war of succession in Spain reinforced the British sea power. In 1707, the Act of Union united definitely the kingdoms of Scotland and England (which had Wales included in its territory). In 1714, the country came under the sovereignty of the Hannover dynasty and the reign of George I, more of a German than English (he learned English while at court), favoured the permanence in power of the Whigs (British political party), which dominated the political life until 1762. George II governed under a constitutional monarchy. Following the Seven Years War, Britain achieved considerable territorial acquisitions (Canada and India), thanks to the Treaty of Paris (1763). George III sought to restore the royal prerogatives. His reign coincided with the First Industrial Revolution, which made Britain the first world economic power. In 1776, the uprising of the American colonies resulted in the independence of the United States of America. A notable fact during George IIIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution with James Wattâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s famous steam engine and the mechanization of the manufacturing industry transforming the face of England. Great industrial cities such as Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds and Sheffield emerged as the new economic centers of the country, their

King George III of England

population booming several fold. Against the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire, Britain led a struggle from which it came out victorious following the battle of Waterloo. In 1800, the United Kingdom was formed by the union of Great Britain and Ireland. After the advent of William IV, the return of the Whigs made up room for an electoral reform in 1832 and the adoption of considerable social measures (Abolition of Slavery in 1833; Laws on the Poor in 1834).

Modern England

In 1837, Queen Victoria came to power and Britain affirmed its hegemony using diplomacy of intimidation of rival powers and military operations (Crimean War, 1854-1856). Britain asserted its hegemony on virtually every part of the globe, although this resulted in numerous wars, as for example the Opium Wars (1839-1842 & 1856-1860) with Qing China, or the Boer Wars (1880-1881 & 1899-1902) with the Dutch-speaking settlers of South Africa. Inside, 20

Industrial Revolution started in England

the Reformist movement gradually widened the space of the middle classes, while the Chartist movement allowed the development of syndicalism through the Trade Union Act of 1871. The last years of Queen Victoriaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign were dominated by two influential Prime Ministers: Benjamin Disraeli (1808-1881) and his rival William Ewart Gladstone (1809-1898). The former was the favourite of the Queen. She was crowned Empress of India in 1876, while Gladstone became Earl of Beaconsfield. Gladstone was a liberal and often at odd with both Victoria and Disraeli, but the strong support he enjoyed from within his party kept him in power for a total of 14 years between 1868 and 1894. He managed to legalize trade unions and advocated both universal education and universal suffrage. Queen Victoria was to have the longest reign of any British monarch (64 years), but also the most glorious as she ruled over 40% of the globe and had nearly a quarter of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population under her command. Edward VII, successor of Queen Victoria, promoted the Entente Cordiale Franco-British Understanding of 1904, to which Russia adhered in 1907.

England during WWI and WWII

The alliances between related monarchs escalated in World War I between 1914 and 1918 after Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria declared war on Serbia, who was allied to France, Russia and the United Kingdom. Britain participated actively in the First World War, after which it came out economically weakened. 9 million people (including nearly 1 million Britons) were killed throughout Europe and the war financially ruined most of the countries involved. The monarchies in Germany, Austria, Russia and the Ottoman Empire came to an end while the map of central and Eastern Europe was redesigned. Disillusionment with the government and monarchy, as well as the creation of the Labour Party were the main consequences in England. The General Strike of 1926 and the worsening economy led to radical political changes. In 1921, the solution for the Irish problem proved to be the recognition of the Irish Free State (Eire). In 1924, for the first time, the Labour Party, supported by the Liberals, rose to power (MacDonald). Women were granted the same universal suffrage as men (from age 21 instead of

British Troops during the Battle of Amoy during the First Opium War

Rhodesian Platoon in 1914

the country to victory. Nazi Germany became very dangerous to Britain as Hitler grew more powerful and aggressive. When Britain and France were forced to declare war on Germany after the invasion of Poland in September 1939, then the Second World War started. Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874-1965) became the war-time Prime Minister in 1940. His famous speeches encouraged the British to fight off the attempted German invasion. In one of his most patriotic speeches before the Battle of Britain (1940), Churchill addressed the British people with these words: â&#x20AC;&#x153;We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we Queen Victoria shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing previously 30) in 1928. In 1936, Edward VIII succeeded grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, George V, but almost immediately abdicated in favour we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.â&#x20AC;? of his brother, George VI. And indeed, Britain did not surrender and eventually During World War II, Britain made an managed to win the war together with its allies. After exceptional effort under the leadership of Conservative the war, Labourist Clement Attlee achieved important Winston Churchill (Prime Minister since 1940) leading social progress.

The British Empire at its peak in 1921

The city of London was bombed by the Nazis in WWII

Contemporary England

Sir Winston Churchill

After the war, Great Britain was bankrupt and its industry was completely destroyed by the Blitz War. Thus, the British Empire was dismantled little by little, first granting the independence to India and Pakistan in 1947, then to the other Asian, African and Caribbean colonies during the 1950’s and 1960’s (in the 1970’s and 1980’s for the smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean). Most of these ex-colonies formed the British Commonwealth, now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. 53 states are now members of the Commonwealth, accounting for 1.8 billion people

The Beatles was one of the most successful English rock bands in the world

(about 30% of the global population) and about 25% of the world’s land area. In 1952, Elizabeth II succeeded her father, George VI. In 1973, the conservative Eduard Heath helped Britain enter in the Common Market and a few years after the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher, the country developed a tight political liberalism, denationalization and monetary restoration. In 1982, England defeated the attempt of conquest of the Falkland Islands by Argentina. In 1987, the Conservatives won the elections. Margaret Thatcher was pointed prime minister for a third time, but she resigned in 1990, and John Major succeeded her. In 1993, the Maastricht Treaty was ratified despite strong opposition to European integration. A joint statement by the Anglo-Irish relaunched the peace process in Northern Ireland, but the desire to dismantle the IRA made the negotiations very difficult and armed struggle resumed in early 1996. In June of that year, negotiations were taken with the exclusion of Sinn Fein. On 1 May

1997, Tony Blair became the new British prime minister and under his guidance, the Labour Party returned to government after 18 years, obtaining a crushing victory in the general election. After the historic meeting at Downing Street between Blair and Tony Adams, on 22 May 1998 came up with a referendum regarding Northern Ireland’s self-determination. In the next June, the election of the Assembly of semi-autonomous Ulster saw its solemn opening three months later. In May 1999, there were held elections of the regional Parliaments in Scotland and Wales. In the European consultations of June, Blair’s party was exceeded by the conservatives. In May 2000, the Mayor of London, Ken Livingston (Ken The Red) became a candidate for election as an independent, winning against the Labour candidate. In June 2001, Blair’s Labourists got a convincing success in the election, winning 408 seats against 177 Conservatives, 44 Liberal Democrats and 30 of other formations. In October 2001, British forces alongside the US engaged in the offensive against the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. In 2003, they participated alongside the United States in the war against Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, helping to liberate the country from the dictator, but opening new scenarios of political uncertainty in the region. Regarding the war in Iraq, Tony Blair’s government has staked much of his credibility and the future of the next general election. After much debate, Gordon Brown succeeded Tony Blair in 2007 in the post of Prime Minister. Since the late 20th century, the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England and Wales continue to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom. Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism. There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum.

Margaret “The Iron Lady” Thatcher

England is the most important country of Great Britain and one of the leading worldwide economic and socially developed countries

Queen Elizabeth II

Nature Landforms

England occupies the central and southern part of the island of Britain and is bordered to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales, the Irish Sea and the Celtic Sea, while in the east the country is washed by the North Sea. It is separated from continental Europe by the English Channel. The Scilly Isles and the Isle of Wight are also part of England. The territory is hilly (except for the east parts, where it is flat) and it does not host large reliefs. Among these landforms, the Pennines, which extend from the Peak District in the Midlands to the Cheviot Hills, on the Scottish border, on a distance of 400 kilometers and divides the eastern part of the country from the west, can be mentioned. The main rivers are: the Thames (flowing through London), the Severn, the Trent and the Humber. The lakes are concentrated in the Lake District mountainous tourist region, in the northwest. Despite the name, just one of the lakes is called “lake”, the Bassenthwaite Lake, while the others are called “meres” (ponds), “waters” (water), “tarns” (lakes) or “reservoirs” (artificial lakes). England is also amazing for its fabulous nature. The sights of its fields, particularly lovable in spring and autumn, is an unforgettable experience, as well as the view of the scenic and rugged coastline of Cornwall or the beaches of South West England. From the gardens of Kent to the lands of the Lake District, England doesn’t let you get tired of the landscape due to its rich and varied morphology of different suggestions. And for those who can’t do anything without a little history, just visit some of the castles and stately homes that dot

the whole country, along the woods, lakes and cottages. The ports of London, Liverpool and Newcastle upon Tyne are respectively at the mouth of the Thames, Mersey and Tyne. The Severn is the longest river in England, covering 354 kilometers. It flows into the Bristol Channel and is famous for its bottom blades over 2 meters high (in the Severn Tidal Bore). However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, being of almost 346 kilometers long. There are many lakes, the largest being the Windermere in the aptly named Lake District. The Pennines, known as the “backbone of England”, are the oldest mountain range in the region, which appeared at the end of the Paleozoic era about 300 million years ago. It consists mainly of sandstone, limestone and coal. There are karstic landscapes in areas rich in calcite, such as Yorkshire or Derbyshire for example. The Pennines are covered with heaths in altitude, serrated by fertile valleys thanks to the rivers. They contain three national parks: the Yorkshire Dales, the Northumberland and the Peak District. The highest point in England at 978 meters is the Scafell Pike in Cumbria. Straddling the border between England and Scotland are the Cheviot Mountains. The lowlands of England are located south of the Pennines on many green hills, including the Cotswolds, Chilterns, North Downs and South Downs where they

View of the Pennine Mountains near the Scottish border

English shore near Cornwall

The Thames River passing through London

Scafell Pike

meet the sea and reveal white cliffs near Dover. The South West Peninsula in the West Country is made up of high moors such as Dartmoor and Exmoor, both of them being national parks and enjoying an oceanic climate. The fauna and flora have degraded since the post-war period as more than 80% of the hedges, meadows and swamps have disappeared.

Climate

gets most of the country’s rainfall. As we all know, at least for general culture, the English climate is also characterized by abundant rainfall throughout the year. The temperatures in each season are variable even if they rarely get below zero (- 5°C) or rise above 30°C. The windiest areas are to the southwest, especially because of the exposure to the oceanic climate. To the east, the climate is drier and hotter, as well as towards

The climate in England, varies from day to day and across the country as a whole. Perhaps the two words that best describe England and the weather forecast are “changing” and “unpredictable”. Overall, the climate is temperate with humid hot summers and wet and cool winters. Known for its temperate maritime climate, England has rarely experienced temperatures below 0°C. In fact, the current influence of the Gulf has practically never allowed the country to experience excessively cold winters, as a result quite warm summers with temperatures sometimes even surpassing 32°C can be enjoyed. The west coast and the higher parts of England are experiencing frequent rainfall, while the east coast, particularly in the north, is cold and windy. The south-east region of England gets more sun than the north and receives less rain. The climate in this part is more continental. The mildest climate is of course in the south. England has a fairly even distribution of rainfall throughout the year. The west coast, however, Köppen climate classification of England

southeast, especially because of the net proximity to the continental climate. Due to the two main centers of action, over the British Isles, the wind blows often from west or southwest, therefore they bring mild air during the winter months and often fresh air during the summer months. On this basis, the annual temperature range is in these very small areas: it can happen that even a very mild January day can give temperatures which are not too dissimilar to a particular cool July day: both in January and in July, the daytime highs can in fact be measured at around 13°-14°C. For example, the average temperature in January in London but also in many other places of England is around 4°C, thus exceeding the average in January that exists in most of the resorts of northern Italy for example, even though they are located at lower latitudes. In July, the average temperature is around 1718°C even if the almost total lack of prolonged stability means that there are frequent passages of cold Atlantic winds and, as a consequence, cold days. The permanence of an anticyclone over the British Isles, however, is not rare, especially if it happens at the end of June or in July, when temperatures can exceed 30°C abundantly, especially in the London area. It is the anticyclones “lock”, dry and very stable, which sets off from the end of the subtropical anticyclones and migrate north, bringing often very long periods of summer time, with very high temperatures and lack of rain. The last notable case occurred in the summer of 2003, when even in these areas there was an intense heat and very low rainfall, especially on the island’s southern sector.

Flora

A relatively nice day in Plymouth

England has a very varied vegetation, strongly influenced by centuries of human activity, which has built an original landscape. Most of its territory, except for the pads, for the extended moorlands of the northern and western regions and the wetlands, was once covered with deciduous forests where the oak predominated. Of these original forests only short stretches still remain nowadays, especially in the south, making up 11.7% of the national territory (2005). Much of England’s territory is occupied by moorlands, lands with poor soils, where strong winds only allow the growth of a shrub vegetation consisting predominantly of heather and gorse. The large swampy areas, such as within East Anglia and the Fens in Somerset, has transformed this land into pasture and arable land. Many aquatic plant species have suffered

Foggy days aren’t uncommon in London

The Rose is the national flower of England

the consequences of the expansion of agriculture and urbanization, and some are now found only in protected areas. Regarding the characteristics of the flora and fauna of England it should be clarified that the fundamental factor for the development of both plant and animal species for the different terrain conditions, the Highlands and Lowlands, there are different ecosystems where temperate forests, swamps and marshes predominate. Some of the characteristic species of England in regard to its flora are the oak, elm and beech. It is said that many years ago in the British Island there were a lot of forests where these species of trees predominated, but in 2000, after an alarming study it was concluded that only 10% of the flora patrimony remained. According to the study, the causes for this disaster consist of the uncontrolled growth of the cities.

Saint Johnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Wort

Due to the temperate climate and the variety of soils, England presents a diverse pattern of natural vegetation. Today it is estimated that 9% of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface is covered by forests. Forests of significant sizes are still preserved in the southwest of England. A large proportion of the land comprises farming or agricultural areas. These are occupied by crops like: wheat, barley, oats, cherry orchards, apple orchards or plum orchards. In the wide open expanses, explorers will find flowering heathers, gorse, shrubs, Snowdrops, Bluebells, Daffodils, Buttercups, and so on. This abundance and colour has been the inspiration behind many works of art, both written and drawn or painted. Of course, roses are the national flower and one of the most profuse and wellloved flowers across England. Also known as the English Oak, the Pedunculate Oak is an important member of the English flora as its acorns are the chief source of food for squirrels, and similar animals. It usually grows to between 25 and 35 meters in height, but can exceed 40 meters in some cases. Flowering takes place during spring and the acorn fruits appear in the following autumn. This tree enjoys a long lifespan of several hundred years. The Field Rose is far less ornate than ordinary roses and has white or cream flowers. Its red fruits are favoured as quick snacks

English Oak (Quercus Robur)

Gardens in Guildford, England

for many animals and birds, making them important resources for the fauna of England too. This wild rose can be grown as a hedge or as a creeper. If left unattended, it will sprawl extensively. The Field Rose is not fussy about the soil in which it grows, making it a particularly easy plant to grow. The bright yellow flowers characterize St John’s Wort, acclaimed for its medicinal properties. It is also known as Tipton’s Weed, Chase-devil, or Klamath Weed. It usually grows to about 250 millimeters high and 500 millimeters wide. It is probably best known for the treatment of depression, but has also been used to treat alcoholism and ADHD. However, before using this plant as treatment, it is crucial that you first consult with a medical practitioner.

with extinction or have a very limited distribution: the otter lives mostly in South West England, while the red squirrel is found almost exclusively in the Isle of Wight. The country also has various species of amphibians and reptiles. England is in many aspects an ornithological paradise offering diverse natural habitats to species both resident and migratory. Among the former, the sparrow, the blackbird and the chaffinch, in addition to the robin, the kingfisher, the wren, the woodpecker, the raven and the tit can be included. During summers, the towns are populated by the swallow and the cuckoo. In winter, the

Fauna

The red deer lives in southern England and is the only large mammal that is part of the endemic fauna, in addition to the wild ponies of the New Forest. The practice of hunting caused the extinction of the wolf and the wild boar, whose populations were once numerous. Among the small mammals there can be found: foxes, badgers, otters, stoats, weasels, marten, skunk, red squirrel, mole and hare. Some species are threatened 30

Hadrian’s Wall in Northumberland National Park

The Barbary Lion is the national animal of England

Capercaillie

estuaries are colonized by many species of ducks, geese and other waterfowl. England has a long tradition of sea fishing, although today there is no longer the same fish wealth, which was in the past a thriving industry. Among the main species present in the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s waters there can be found: cod, mackerel, hake and herring, whereas in lakes and rivers are living species of salmon, trout, perch and pike. The fauna in England is also characterized by the presence of some mammals such as foxes, rabbits, deer and hedgehogs, but neither reptiles nor amphibians abound. Also the bird species are very important because in England 230 different species have been discovered, although they are also threatened by the British habit of hunting, as well as the destruction of the ecosystems where they live. The Natural History Society of London affirms that the English capital is one of the greenest cities since more than 40% of its surface is covered by green spaces. According to this calculations, there are more than 2.000 plant species and in the River Thames, as it passes through the city, 120 species of fish can be found. The society also claims that 60 types of birds nest in Central London and that in all the metropolis there have been counted 47 species of butterflies, 1.173 of moths and more than 270 of spiders. The wetland areas of the city are home to colonies of national importance

for waterfowl. London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest, 2 National Nature Reserves and 76 Local Nature Reserves. Other mammals that can be found around the English main city are hedgehogs, rats, mice, rabbits, shrews, field mice and squirrels. In the green areas of outer London such as the forest of Epping, hares, badgers, voles, griffon, mice, moles, shrews or ferrets inhabit the areas in addition to the aforementioned foxes, squirrels and hedgehogs. In the Epping Forest, ten of the eighteen species of bats in England have been counted. Among the most unusual animals that have been sighted in the British capital are an otter near the Tower Bridge, a whale on the River Thames, pigeons in the subway, a seal that is fed by the fishmongers of the Billingsgate market and foxes that have learned to â&#x20AC;&#x153;sitâ&#x20AC;? if they are given sausages. Amphibians are common in the capital, including the common triton that can be found in the Tate Modern area, frogs, common toads, webbed newts and crested newts, while other native reptiles such as the lute, the viviparous lizard, the collar snake or the European common viper only live in the outer London area.

Otters are often found in rivers and lakes across England

Partridge

People Language

In general, the history of the English language is divided into three sections: Old English, Medieval English and Modern English. While linguists and students are contesting much of these labels and, more precisely, when and how each period has started, we can see a radical change in the language through these three stages. The first phase, the Old English or Anglo-Saxon, is the Germanic language brought by the tribes that began migrating in the British Isles from Germany in the 5th century BC. The Old English still has a few words that we can recognize today (him; he - and the various derivatives), but the construction of the sentence and the more complex lexicon requires more care. The second phase, the medieval English, is named so because the Anglo-Saxon rules were broken and contaminated by other influences: the Viking invasions, the Norman Conquest (1066) and of course by Latin, which was the clerical language. Here we begin to find a strong influence of the Romance language from the European continent and a change in the sound of the language. Modern English began to be used extensively in the early 16th century and went on until our days. It is also referred to as “The Great Vowel Shift”, which, together with the invention of printing and the development of technology for widespread

communication (on paper and, later, on the radio), has led to lengthen and mark the vowel sounds up in order to standardize the spoken language. Now let’s look a bit better at every period and see a few words which derived from each of them. The Anglo-Saxon language is often in a very bad reputation among linguists, but at least English is seen as the last great one and often it is considered that English is the most poetic of all the Anglo-Saxon languages. It is still responsible for many English terms, including the name of the country, England and the word used to describe the language, “English”, which are derived from Angles. Here is a passage from the text “Homily on Saint Gregory the Great” of Aelfric which speaks about the famous story of the pope who sent missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons: “Eft he axode, hu ðære ðeode nama wære þe hi of comon. Him wæs geandwyrd, þæt hi Angle genemnode wæron. Þa cwæð he, “Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað, and swilcum gedafenað þæt hi on heofonum engla geferan beon.” Perhaps you will recognize only a few words, like “Angle”, which means English. Even the word “he”, hasn’t changed. Also, using the words “comon” (common), “waes” (was) or “rihtlice” (rightly) maybe we can catch a glimpse of the contemporary equivalent. And here is the translation, thanks to Merriam Webster: Again he (Saint Gregory) asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, “Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should

English is part of the Germanic branch of languages and is majorly spoken in the countries highlighted above

English speakers by % country population

be angels’ companions in heaven”. In the Medieval English, you will immediately notice the influence of the ancient Norwegian and Franco-Norman languages. Perhaps one of the main influences of the ancient Norwegian to English is in the syntax and grammatical order of the words. Having been colonized by the Vikings, many English grammar models have suffered a lot from the influence of the Saxon languages, as the Danish and Icelandic, especially in the placement of verbs. English, Danish and Icelandic

have similar models. Just look at these examples of sentences: “I will never see you again” = Danish “Jeg vil aldrig se dig igen” = Icelandic “Ég mun aldrei sjá þig aftur”. While in Dutch and German, the main verb is always placed at the end (for example - Dutch “Ik zal je nooit weer zien”; German “Ich werde dich nie wieder sehen”, literally “I will never again see you”). There are also new words derived from French like nature, table, hour (heure). In fact, French is responsible for many modern English words. The early modern English is seen to be appeared around 1500 and to be continued to the present day. The grammatical roots, pronouns and prepositions of German and Norwegian origins, as well as for the French and in general, Latin influences, combined with the rich harmonization of vowel sounds, describes pretty much today’s English. Shakespeare’s poetry is an excellent example, not only for the ears of a man from the 16th century, but also for the ones of the people living in the 21st century, and this is due to the gradual standardization of many vocal sounds which have influenced the language.

Religion

The most practiced religion in England is the Christian faith. The official church and state is the Church of England. Christianity was introduced in the country in the Roman period. Legend has it that Origins of the English Language

English language taught around the world

Joseph of Arimathea began at Glastonbury to proclaim his gospel. Historical sources confirm the vast majority of Christian people were already living in England during the Roman withdrawal from the country. The Christianization of the country took place mostly through characters such as Saint Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury and others, like Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne, known as the Apostle of Northumbria and as a Christian missionary. As it is known, in 1536 the English church separated from Rome, because of the divorce of King Henry VIII to Catherine of Aragon. It was then introduced a new ecclesiastical authority. During the next Reformation, the English church took a new position within the Christian world, to which it derived the name of Anglicanism. The Catholic religion is the second largest Christian faith in England. In the 18th century, through the Papists Act of 1778 and the subsequent laws of 1791 (Roman Catholic Relief Act) and 1829 (Catholic Relief Act), the existing restriction on public participation of Catholics was abolished, which was followed, however, by heavy disorders (such as the Gordon demonstrations). In 1850, the hierarchy was restored with the establishment of the Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales. Several other Christian religious practices in England include the Pentecostal Church and the Apostolic Methodist Church (developed in the 18th century) and an infinite number of so-called charismatic movements (by definition, who practice “the action of the Holy Spirit in their lives”). Among other religions in 34

England, after Christianity, we find in particular Islam, with well over 2,4 million practitioners (of whom 40% are found in London), Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism and Buddhism . The so-called pagan religions are increasing in numbers, as an example, it is also very widespread, given the tradition of the British Isles, the practice of the Neopaganism religion of Wicca. 15% of England’s population admits to being an atheist. Protestantism arose in the 16th century after a schism with the Catholic Church because of a religious and political movement known as the Protestant Reformation, derived from the Lutheran and Calvinist ideas. Between 1521 and 1529 it was drawn up by Luther’s followers a document which determined that the direct word of God is inviolable. Those principles would guarantee a preaching of the new rite in the Holy Roman Empire. The document, therefore, began with the word “Protestamur” (solemnly declare), after which the name of the movement was taken. From the theological point of view, Protestantism is characterized by different denominations and churches. Among many of them, there are points in common such as the importance of the biblical writings, regarding the Gospel of the Catholic Church, the idea that salvation is a gift Free of God which is obtained only by faith, rather than as a reward for the implementation of good works. Finally, the knowledge that the human nature is inherently evil and that it is worthy of destruction, but that we can be saved through the atoning sacrifice of Christ. There are also some disputes still in progress such as that of the concept of predestination and also on

English speakers across the European Union

the number and nature of the Christian sacraments. The Anglican Church, also called Church of England, was born in the 16th century after the split with the Catholic Church. It is a schism which took place after the Protestant Reformation, and of course it is part of the different types of Protestant Churches. Even before the Protestant schism, the church in England was called with its own name or Anglican Ecclesia, as it was also for that of France which was instead called Gallican church. With the evolution of the schism during the reign of Henry VIII, it came to form a new doctrine

with very similar traits to the Protestant one. All the doctrinal basis of the Anglican Church is contained in the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion, although it is essentially pluralistic in the sense that, it often clashes various trends and the type of worship may change radically in different areas. There are in fact, the AngloCatholics (who distance themselves slightly from Catholicism), the Neo-Liberals, the Reformed (very close to Calvinism), Evangelicals and Pentecostals or Charismatics. The Anglican Church is composed of two ecclesiastical provinces located in Canterbury and 35

Saint Paul’s Cathedral in London

Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne

York to which they refer to all other English dioceses. The Archbishop of Canterbury has a primacy of honour of the whole Anglican Communion while the Pope has no ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Since 1992, women, according to the Anglican Church, have the chance to become priests. Islam is the second religion in England, with a population of nearly three million, 4,5% of the total in the United Kingdom, twice as twenty years ago. The vast majority of these are religiously observant. Citizens who claim to be Christians were 59% in the last census, but, as in Italy, a much smaller number are observant, though, especially outside the cities, church attendance (mostly Anglican) is socially customary. Every year, the percentage who claim that they are Christians in the polls decreases, in favor of a generic “agnostic”, if not “atheist”. In short, the Muslim presence in England is being felt quite a lot. In fact, on one side there is the extreme reality: the suicide bombings of 2005, the young people who go to fight in Syria, or those who demonstrate in the streets against the foreign policy of the government; 36

and on the other side there is the silent majority of the integrated and bourgeoisified Muslims that a lot of people hear very little but who have now won a place in the economy of the country and a presence in the Parliament (Sayeeda Warsi, former Deputy Secretary of the Conservative Party; Sajid Javid , described by the Guardian as a “rising star” of the Conservative party, Baroness Pola Uddin, the first woman ever elected to Parliament) and several municipal seats both in cities and in the provinces where their presence is stronger. A large part of them is usually voting for the Labour

Religious Distribution in England

Westminster Abbey, the most famous Anglican Church in England

Party. There are also over 10,000 Muslim millionaires. The inherent capabilities of the English culture to accept outside influences, allows Muslims as well as Hindus, Sikhs, to Senegalese or Nigerian and others to feel comfortable in the British communities system.

• • • •

• • World Heritage On UNESCO’s list there can be found 17 cultural • objectives and 3 natural objectives in England (and • smaller islands that belong to the Commonwealth): • Cultural Objectives • • Blenheim Palace • Canterbury Cathedral, Saint Augustine’s Abbey, and • • Saint Martin’s Church • City of Bath • • Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape

Derwent Valley Mills Durham Castle and Cathedral Frontiers of the Roman Empire Historic Town of Saint George and Related Fortifications, Bermuda Ironbridge Gorge Liverpool, Maritime Mercantile City Maritime Greenwich Palace of Westminster and Westminster Abbey including Saint Margaret’s Church Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Saltaire Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites Studley Royal Park including the Ruins of Fountains Abbey Tower of London 37

Anglican Female Pastor

East London Mosque

Natural Objectives • Dorset and East Devon Coast • Gough and Inaccessible Islands • Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

Demographics

With over 53 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total. England taken as a unit and measured against international states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world. With a density of 407 people per square kilometer, it would be the second most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta. The English people are British. Some genetic evidence suggests that 75-95% descend in the paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula, as well as a 5% contribution from Angles and Saxons, and a significant Scandinavian (Viking) element. However, other geneticists place the Germanic estimate up to half. Over time, various cultures have been influential: Prehistoric, Brythonic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Viking (North Germanic), Gaelic cultures, as well as a large influence from Normans. There is an English diaspora in former parts of the

England’s Population by Region

British Empire, especially the United States of America, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Since the late 1990’s, many English people have migrated to Spain. In 1086, when the Domesday Book was compiled, England had a population of two million. About 10% lived in urban areas. By 1801 the population had grown to 8.3 million, and by 1901 had grown to 30.5 million. Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom. There has been significant Irish migration. The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87.50%, including Germans and Poles. Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950’s.

England’s Population Density

Foreign born English citizens across the globe

In particular, 6% of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent, mostly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. 2.90% of the population are black, from both the Caribbean and countries in Africa itself, especially former British colonies. There is a significant number of Chinese and British Chinese. In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families, and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%. About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration. Debate over immigration is politically prominent, according to a 2009 Home Office poll, 80% of people want to cap it. The ONS has projected that the population will grow by

six million between 2004 and 2029. The average age of people in England is 39, while the median age is also 39. 83.5% of people living in England were born in England. Other top answers for country of birth were 1.3% Scotland, 1.3% India, 1.0% Wales, 0.9% Pakistan, 0.7% Ireland, 0.4% Northern Ireland, 0.4% Bangladesh, 0.4% Nigeria, 0.4% South Africa. 92.0% of people living in England speak English. The other top languages spoken are 1.0% Polish, 0.5% Panjabi, 0.5% Urdu, 0.4% Bengali, 0.4% Gujarati, 0.3% Arabic, 0.3% French, 0.3% All other Chinese, 0.3% Portuguese. The English people have originally been Anglo-

Englandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Ethnicity Estimates by 2009

Saxons, but the waves of immigration have been many, East of England Cambridge especially from the Celts around 600 BC. The few Nottingham Romans with their legions arrived in southern Britain East Midlands between 50 BC and 300 AD. In the period of 350-550 West Midlands Birmingham AD, it followed the great migrations of the Angles Leeds populations (all), the Saxons (most) and the Jutes (all); Yorkshire and The in the period of 800-900, it followed the invasions of Humber Liverpool/Manchester the Danish Vikings (with the small enclave kingdom North West of the Danelaw); while in 1066, the Normans invaded North East Newcastle-upon-Tyne the country. In 1650-1750, refugees from continental Europe, including the Huguenots arrived in England; The top 20 largest cities from England can be seen in while between 1880 and 1940, some Jews, Russians, the following table: Italians, Spaniards came to live in this country. In the Rank City Name / Region Population years 1950-1985, the original people of the Caribbean, District Africa and Asia immigrated to England, whereas 1 London London 10.000.000 since 1985 there have been waves of Eastern European inhabitants and Kurdish refugees seeking work places 2 Birmingham West Midlands 1.100.000 in the country. The nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s prosperity has also attracted Leeds Yorkshire and 779.000 more migrants from neighbouring Scotland and Ireland. 3 the Humber England is divided into 9 regions as it can be 4 Sheffield Yorkshire and 565.000 seen in the following table: the Humber Region Capital 5 Bradford Yorkshire and 545.000 London London the Humber South West Bristol/Plymouth 6 Liverpool North West 470.000 South East Guildford 7 Manchester North West 430.000 8

Bristol

South West

400.000

Kirklees

390.000

Wigan

Yorkshire and the Humber North West

Coventry

West Midlands

307.000

Leicester

East Midlands

295.000

Sunderland

North East

294.000

Sandwell

West Midlands

293.000

Doncaster

292.000

Stockport

Yorkshire and the Humber North West

Sefton

North West

290.000

Nottingham

East Midlands

285.000

Newcastleupon-Tyne Kingstonupon-Hull

North East

283.000

Yorkshire and the Humber

270.000

20 Top 100 Baby Names in England

310.000

291.000

Typical English Outfit

Regions of England

Economy & Transportation Economy

The English economy is one of the most important in the world, with an average GDP per capita of 22.907 £. Regarded as a mixed market economy, England has always adopted the principles of the free market and still maintains an advanced infrastructure social assistance. The official currency in England is the sterling pound, whose currency code is GBP. The tax system in England is very competitive compared to much of the rest of Europe, beginning in 2009, the basic personal tax rate is 20% on the taxable income which goes up to 37,400 £ and 40% for any additional extra gain on top of that amount. The economy of England is the leading one of the United Kingdom, which is the 18th in the world in terms of purchasing power. England is one of the leaders in the chemical industry and the pharmaceutical industries, playing key roles in the technology sectors as well, in particular in the aerospace industry, the weapons industry and the software industry. In London there is the headquarters of the London Stock Exchange, the main stock exchange in the United Kingdom and the largest in Europe, and the capital is home to some of the most important companies in the world. The Bank of England, founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson, is the United Kingdom’s central bank. Founded as a private bank, since 1946 it has become a state institution. The Bank has a monopoly over the issuing of banknotes in England and Wales, but not in other parts of the United Kingdom. The government has delegated responsibility for monetary policy and the task of setting interest rates to it. England is highly industrialized, but since 1970 there has been a decline in the traditional manufacturing and heavy industry and an increasing focus towards a service-oriented industry. Tourism has become an important sector, which attracts millions of visitors in England every year. The main exports are represented in particular by pharmaceutical products, cars (although many British brands are now foreign-owned, such as Rolls-Royce, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley), oil products, which is extracted from the North Sea, aeronautical engines and alcoholic beverages. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanized and produces 60% of the 44

England’s GDP per capita

needed food with only 2% of the workforce. Two thirds of the production is devoted to livestock, the other arable crops. The United Kingdom is one of the most industrialized countries of the world and of course much of its fortune is due to the economic strength of England alone. After the strong crisis derived from the Second World War, there were discovered many oil fields in the North Sea, which allowed the reduction of the British deficit. From the 1970’s onwards, the British economy and the English one suffered a sharp surge and only today, after more than twenty years it seems that the time of the crisis was of course accentuated by the totally unstable economic time which felt around the world. Speaking of the economic sectors, the primary sector is perhaps the least developed, despite the fact that 24% of the British territory is cultivated, it doesn’t have any particular relevance to the GDP. England ranks in the first place in the United Kingdom for its arable land and the main crops are wheat, sugar beet, potatoes and oats. England has always been one of the leading nations when talking of industry. In the 19th century, England was the first industrial nation and the famous Revolution was born on the streets of London. A new rise of the British economy in the second quarter of 2015 was boosted by business investment

and exports. The official data published by the Office for National Statistics showed that the gross domestic product increased by 0.7% in the second quarter, confirming a preliminary interpretation, and by 0.4% in the first quarter. The United Kingdom’s economy is currently bigger by 5.2% compared to the pre-crisis levels with the GDP per capita returned to the previous levels, at the beginning of the downturn which began in 2008. The good health of the English economy forces the financial markets to wonder how much longer the central bank will manage to keep interest rates on such low current levels. The British economy has had this increase in the second quarter of 2015 through the production of gas and oil from its industries and, regarding the construction and the agriculture sectors, the underlying data depicts the budget economy production of England. The British Economy’s GDP over the past quarter has risen by 2.6% over the same period as last year. The British economy therefore remains the most dynamic of the G8 with positive prospects for the rest of the year,

The British Pound (£) is one of the most powerful currencies in the world

with lower oil prices, although the pound penalizes exports, especially towards the Eurozone. The excellent state of the English economy has also been confirmed in the employment field, where the unemployment rate is 5.7%, and the United Kingdom is one of the first European countries with the lowest number of people looking for employment. The lowest unemployment rate is considered the main element of the success of the

United Kingdom’s Export Tree Map

England has quite an average labour productivity in Western Europe

British economy. Unfortunately, even today there are various social groups of people, having no competence or any notion of economy, who are discouraging others to come to this wonderful country.

Transportation

The Department of Transport is the governing body responsible for the supervision of transport in England. Throughout the country there are numerous highways and many other ways of great communication, such as the A1 Great North Road, which crosses the

London’s Financial District

East of England from London to Newcastle and then to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through North West to the AngloScottish border. Other important routes are: M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 around London, the M60 around Manchester, the M4 from London to south Wales, the M62 from Liverpool to East Yorkshire via Manchester and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the south west. England boasts an extensive network of national and international flight connections. The largest airport is London Heathrow, which is the busiest airport in the world, measured by the number of international passengers in transit. Other major airports are: Manchester Airport, London Stansted, Luton and Birmingham airport. London serves as the largest aviation hub in the world by passenger traffic, with six international airports, handling over 133 million passengers in 2011, more than any other city. London’s second busiest airport, Gatwick, is the world’s busiest single-runway airport. The largest airport operator in the United Kingdom is Heathrow Airport Holdings (owner of London Heathrow), followed by Manchester

Aerial view of Gravelly Hill Interchange near Birmingham a.k.a. Spaghetti Junction

Airports Group (owner of Manchester, London Stansted and East Midlands). Together with British Airways and Virgin Atlantic Airways, they are part of the Aviation Foundation which lobby for the aviation needs of the United Kingdom. The London Underground, familiarly called “Tube” for the shape of its tunnels or sometimes “The Underground” has had its birth on the 10th of January 1863, where the Metropolitan Railway (hence the term Metro) was opened , which roughly corresponded to a part of today’s Circle line. The London Underground is very often used to quickly move from one part of the city to another. In fact, the metro is divided into 11 lines and 270 stations with a total of 402 km of track, serving an average of three million passengers a day with a total

British Airways is the national carrier of the country

of a billion passengers a year. The subway, in addition to covering most of London’s territory extends by reaching even areas of other regions: the Tube in fact serves some towns in Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire and Essex. However, its greatness is limited only in the northern part of London, north of the Thames. In fact, in the south of the river there are located only 42 stations. The network of London buses, operated by London Buses, a subsidiary of Transport for London, is one of the largest in Europe. The buses, which are characterized by their famous red colour, can be of two different types: with just a story (the so-called singledecker) or with two-story (the famous double-decker). The network counts more than 7.500 buses in service on over 700 lines, articulated on a total of 19.000 stops and terminals. It was also estimated that the buses are used by about 1,5 billion passengers a year, far more than the

Heathrow Airport is one of the biggest airports in the world

The Underground in London

underground. Buses are divided into day care services, nightlife, and “24-hour.” In addition, the network covers the entire area of the London Underground, extending also in the surrounding regions of England’s Greater London. Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world: in fact, passenger railways were born in England in 1825. Much of Britain’s rail network (16.116 km) is located in England and it covers the country quite extensively, even if a high percentage of the lines have been suppressed in the second half of the 20th century. These lines are mostly standard gauge (single, double

track or quadruple) but there are also some narrow gauge lines. There are direct rail links to France and Belgium via the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994. The London taxis have a long history: in fact, the cars began to spread in the capital during the course of the 17th century, to remedy the problem of the traffic that was created in London, as specified by the British Parliament in 1654. The first Hackey carriage dates back to 1662. Taxis were later replaced with open carriages (the elegant cabriolet) at the beginning of the 19th century, which replaced the heavy carriages. The first

Underground Map of London

The Famous English Red Buses

East Didsbury Tram Station in Manchester

taxi which wasn’t horse-drawn didn’t appear until 1897. Around this year, the carriage was replaced by a car, in this case the “Bersey”. The advent of the first cars initially did not affect the use of cars as taxis (at that time there were still more than 11.000 in-service cars). However, the cabriolet gradually disappeared, when in 1947, the cars finally replaced the carriages permanently. For driving in London, a taxi driver should be able to orient himself in the streets of the city, depending on the needs of its customer or traffic conditions, without consulting a map or a GPS. For an aspiring London taxi driver, a person must be submitted to the Knowledge of London Examination System (better known as The Knowledge), which is a study of the streets and sights of the city of London. The examination is very hard. It has in fact a duration of 34 months and usually it is passed after an average of twelve attempts. To move from one place to another in London it is recommended to use bicycles. In the English capital, this habit is widespread. This is probably due to the fact that using a bicycle is a cheaper way (and often faster)

to travel in and around the city. In fact, about 2% of London’s transportation is by bicycle. There is also a bike sharing service in the capital, the Santander Cycles, sometimes abbreviated BCH (because of the previous name, Barclays Cycle Hire). Thanks to it, you can rent a bike from one of the many cyclo stations scattered in the London area, for a fee that varies depending on the time

An English Train in Liverpool

you want to use the bike. The service was introduced on 30 July 2010, when 315 cyclo stations were opened in eight London boroughs and since then, the BCH has gradually evolved, until reaching its present day. The service is sponsored by Santander. There are about 7.100 km of waterways in England, half of which are owned by British Waterways, however, water transport is very limited. The Thames is the most important waterway in England, with businesses concentrated in the port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary, one of the three major ports of the United Kingdom. The Port of Felixstowe is the busiest port of England.

Bicycles outside Cambridge Railway Station

A Black Cab

Port of Felixstowe

Trent and Mersey Canal

Culture English Proverbs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Two wrongs don’t make a right. The pen is mightier than the sword. When in Rome, do as the Romans. The squeaky wheel gets the grease. When the going gets tough, the tough get going. No man is an island. Fortune favors the bold. People who live in glass houses should not throw stones. 9. Hope for the best, but prepare for the worst. 10. Better late than never. 11. Birds of a feather flock together. 12. Keep your friends close and your enemies closer. 13. A picture is worth a thousand words. 14. There’s no such thing as a free lunch. 15. There’s no place like home. 16. Discretion is the greater part of valor. 17. The early bird catches the worm. 18. Never look a gift horse in the mouth. 19. You can’t make an omelet without breaking a few eggs. 20. God helps those who help themselves.

Typical English Landscape

Symbols of England

English Holidays Period

Holiday

1 January

New Year’s Day

2 January

Not Named

3 January

Not Named

Variable

Good Friday

Variable

Easter Monday

First Monday in May

May Day Bank Holiday

Last Monday in May

Spring Bank Holiday

Last Monday in August 25 December

Late Summer Bank Holiday Christmas Day

26 December 27 December 28 December

Boxing Day Not Named Not Named

Typical nobility medieval costumes worn by King Henry VIII and Jane Seymour

Carnival in England

Guards at Windsor Castle

Fish & Chips is considered to be the national dish of England

Police officer in London, dressed with the particular clothes of the English police force

English Personalities

William Shakespeare William Shakespeare (b. 26 April 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England – d. 23 April 1616 in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England) was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world’s pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England’s national poet, and the “Bard of Avon”. His extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. The poet and playwright was born in Stratfordupon-Avon and was regarded by critics as “one of the greatest personalities of literature of all times and of any country”. Taking a closer look at the historical events of those times, however, he is listed as one of the main exponents of the English Renaissance. From a strictly biographical point of view, little is known about William Shakespeare. Besides the fact that a true picture of his life is missing, countless facts and anecdotes were circulating, so it was easy to predict his true figure. Anecdotes, however, were mostly dismissed as groundless. In this jungle of information, across centuries, scholars have tried to make things clear, leading to a few but almost certain pieces of information. As for his birth, 23 April is considered to be the day when Shakespeare saw the light of day, but this date is subject to dispute, being based more on a reliance on tradition. His family belonged to the wealthy English class. His father was a wealthy merchant, while his mother was wearing the blazon of a gentry family. In 1582, the writer marries Anne Hathaway, a pretty girl of humble origins, coming from a family of peasants. Anne will give the playwright three children of which the last two twins. Unfortunately, one of them dies at the age of just 11 years old. Meanwhile, William has already made the choice to live for the theater. Not only he dedicated his soul and body to the activity of an actor, but he often wrote the lyrics alone, so that after a few years, William already had a significant production. After moving to London, in a very short time, he gained himself a good reputation and fame. The publication of the two love 56

William Shakespeare

poems, “Venus and Adonis” (1593) and “The rape of Lucrece” (1594), along with his “Sonnets” (they were published in 1609, but they also were circulating for some time) established him as a versatile and pleasant Renaissance poet. Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare’s “lost years”. Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare’s first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy. Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him. Another 18th century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London. John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster. From the point of view of the diffusion of his plays, instead, the public proved initially less sensitive. He is considered precisely among the “circle of connoisseurs” and the cultivated public thinks of him more as a lyrical master than a drama one. The plays were welcomed, but did not enjoyed a great consideration, although Shakespeare, with an intuitive and remarkable

Portrait of William Shakespeare by Martin Droeshout

sense of flair (as if it was tuned on the artistic paths of history), invested his own earnings in this area of art, which was apparently less profitable at the time. He had in fact a sharing in the profits of the theater company of the Chamberlain’s Men, later called “King’s Men”, who staged their own and others’ performances. Later, the considerable earnings gained from these performances allowed him, among other things, to become a coowner of two of the most important theaters of London: the “Globe Theatre” and the “Blackfriars”. And it is now useless to reiterate that his reputation is now mainly linked to the 38 plays he composed throughout his brilliant career. Some of Shakespeare’s plays were published in quarto editions beginning in 1594, and by 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages. Shakespeare continued to act in his own and wrote other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson’s “Works” names him on the cast lists for “Every Man in His Humour” (1598) and “Sejanus His Fall” (1603). The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson’s “Volpone” is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end. “The First Folio” of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of “the Principal Actors in all these Plays”, some of which were first staged after “Volpone”, although we cannot know for certain which roles he played. In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that “good Will” played “kingly” roles. In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet’s father. Later traditions admit that he also played Adam in “As You Like It”, and the Chorus in “Henry V”, though scholars doubt the sources of that information. It is difficult to frame his remarkable artistic production, which includes historical dramas, comedies and tragedies, mostly because of subsequent re-reading and quotations of his works by the romantic writers who saw profound similarities between their aesthetic research and the works of Shakespeare. For a long time, in fact, his operas, has influenced the critics that tried to fit his works in a certain area, exacerbating the poetic affinities with those of romance. Undoubtedly there are, especially in the great tragedies, characters and themes that precede the romantic experience, but the originality of the great English artist was sought mainly in the large capacity of synthesis of the different forms of theater of his time, in breathtaking works, where the tragic, the comic, the bitter, the taste for close dialogue and wit, are often present in a unique blend of great effect. 58

A considerable effort would also have to be represented by a list of the huge amount of music that has been derived from his lyrics. The lyrical opera has plundered the Shakespearian dramas or comedies that lend their rich themes particularly well to the representation in the notes. A cult of Shakespeare had Wagner, but we should at least mention Verdi (“Othello”, “Falstaff ”, “Macbeth”, etc.), Mendelssohn (who wrote the fantastic music for “Dream of the 20th century”), Tchaikovsky and in the 19th century, Prokofiev, Bernstein (it must not be forgotten that “West side story” is nothing more than a restatement of “Romeo and Juliet”) and Britten. In addition, its extraordinary modernity is evidenced by the dozens of movies inspired by his plays. Achieving a great degree of prosperity, starting from 1608, Shakespeare diminished therefore its theatrical engagement. It seems that he spent increasingly long periods in Stratford, where he bought an imposing house, New Place, and became a respected citizen of the community. He died on 23 April, 1616, at the age of 52 and was buried inside the Stratford church.

William Shakespeare displayed in the Cobbe portrait

Another problematic issue is the iconography of the great bard. So far, Shakespeare had known only two “post mortem” images: the marble bust on his grave and the incision used in the title of one of the first editions of his works, which has since been reproduced countless times so far on books, posters and T-shirts. Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter, Susanna, under stipulations that she pass it down intact to “the first son of her body”. The Quineys had three children, all of whom died

without marrying. The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died without children in 1670, ending Shakespeare’s direct line. Shakespeare’s will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one third of his estate automatically. He did make a point, however, of leaving her “my second best bed”, a bequest that has led to much speculation. Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance.

Tomb of William Shakespeare at Westminster Abbey

Isaac Newton Isaac Newton ( b. 25 December 1642 in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England – d. 20 March 1726 in Kensington, Middlesex, England ) was an English physicist and mathematician (described in his own day as a “natural philosopher”) who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for classical mechanics. Newton made seminal contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for the development of calculus. Physicist and mathematician among the greatest of all time, Isaac Newton demonstrated the composite nature of white light, codified the laws of motion, discovered the law of universal gravitation, laying the foundations of celestial mechanics and created the differential and integral calculus. Born fatherless in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, his mother remarried with the rector of a parish, then leaving his son under the care of his grandmother. He was just a baby when his country became the scene of a battle linked to the civil war, in which religious disagreements and political rebellion divided the British population. After a rudimentary education in the local school, he was sent at the age of 12 years old at King’s School, Grantham, where he was housed in the home of a pharmacist named Clark. And it is thanks to the step-daughter of Clark and the future biographer of Newton, William Stukeley, that we can reconstruct many years later some characteristics of the young Isaac, like his interest in the chemistry lab of her father, in the mice that ran in a small windmill, as well as in the games with the “mobile lantern”, the sundial and the mechanical inventions that Isaac built to entertain his pretty girlfriend. Despite the fact that the daughter of Clark spouses another person later (while he remains celibate for life), however, she was one of the persons for who, Isaac always tried a sort of romantic attachment. At its birth, Newton was the legitimate heir to a modest inheritance linked to a farm, which he should have started to administer once he came of age. Unfortunately, during the probationary period at King’s School, it becomes clear that agriculture and pastoralism 60

Isaac Newton

are not really his job. So, in 1661, at the age of 19 years old, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. After receiving his degree of bachelor in 1665, apparently without any particular distinction, Newton remains in Cambridge to graduate a master but an epidemic causes the university to be closed. He stayed in Woolsthorpe for 18 months (1666-1667), during which he not only made the fundamental experiments and laid the theoretical basis of all of his following work on gravitation and optics, but he also developed his personal calculation system. The story that the idea of universal gravitation was suggested by the fall of an apple would appear to be the most authentic. Stukeley, for example, noted that he heard it from Newton himself. Returning to Cambridge in 1667, Newton quickly completed his master’s thesis and continued intensively the development of his work started in Woolsthorpe. His math teacher, Isaac Barrow, was the first to recognize the unusual ability of Newton on the

Isaac Newton painting by Godfrey Kneller

subject and, when in 1669, he abandoned his job to devote himself to theology, he recommended his pupil to become a teacher in his place. Newton became professor of mathematics at the age of 27 years old, remaining at the Trinity College for a further 27 years. In the 1690’s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible. A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5:7 and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished until 1785. Thanks to his prodigious and eclectic mind, he even obtained some political experience, precisely as Member of Parliament in London, so much so that in 1695, Newton obtained the title of Inspector charged with the Mint in London. The most important work of this mathematician and scientist is the “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica”, an authentic immortal masterpiece, outlining the results of its mechanical and astronomical investigations, as well as laying the foundations of calculus, still of undisputed importance even nowadays. Among other significant works, it can be included “Optik”, a study in which he supports the famous corpuscular theory of light and “Arithmetica universalis e Methodus fluxionum et serierum infinitarum” published posthumously in 1736. Isaac Newton died on 31 March 1727, and his funeral was followed by great honors. Buried in Westminster Abbey, engraved on his tomb are these high-sounding and touching words: “Sibi gratulentur mortales tale tantumque exstitisse humani generis decus” (rejoice mortals because it’s been a great honor to the human race). Although it was claimed that he was once engaged, Newton never married. The French writer and philosopher Voltaire, who was in London at the time of Newton’s funeral, said that he “was never sensible to any passion, was not subject to the common frailties of mankind, nor had any commerce with women, a circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments”. The widespread belief that he died a virgin has been commented on by writers such as mathematician Charles Hutton, economist John Maynard Keynes, and physicist Carl Sagan. Newton did have a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, whom he met in London around 1690. Their intense relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in 1693, and at the same time, Newton suffered a nervous breakdown. Some of their correspondence has survived. 62

In September of that year, Newton had a breakdown which included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke. His note to the latter included the charge that Locke “endeavoured to embroil me with women”. Although born into an Anglican family, by his 30’s Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity. In recent times he has been described as a heretic. By 1672, he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only recently been examined. They demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early church writings and show that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed, he took the side of Arius, the loser, who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity. Newton “recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man, who

Sir Isaac Newton portrait by James Thornhill

discredit as often as their predictions fail. Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton’s papers, about one million deal with alchemy. Many of Newton’s writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations. Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets. Some of the content contained in Newton’s papers could have been considered heretical by the church. In 1888, after spending 16 years cataloging Newton’s papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby’s. The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about 9.000 £. John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton’s collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946.

Portrait of Isaac Newton (by Charles Jervas)

was subordinate to the Father who created him.” He was especially interested in prophecy, but for him, “the great apostasy was trinitarianism.” In Newton’s eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin. Historian Stephen D. Snobelen says the following of Newton: “Isaac Newton was a heretic. But he never made a public declaration of his private faith, which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his personal beliefs.” Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti-trinitarian. In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible, he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060. In predicting this he said: “This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so, they bring the sacred prophesies into Isaac Newton’s tomb at Westminster Abbey

Henry VIII of England Henry VIII of England (b. 28 June 1491 in Greenwich Palace, Greenwich â&#x20AC;&#x201C; d. 28 January 1547 in Palace of Whitehall, London) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was the first English King of Ireland, and continued the nominal claim by English monarchs to the Kingdom of France. Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty, succeeding his father, Henry VII. Besides his six marriages and many extramarital affairs, as well as his effort to obtain an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon which led to a conflict with the Pope, Henry is known for his subsequent and consequential role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. His disagreements with the Pope led to his separation of the Church of England from papal authority, with himself, as king, as the Supreme Head of the Church of England and to the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Born at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, Henry VIII was the second child of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the six brothers of Henry, only three: Alexander (Prince of Wales), Margaret and Mary survived infancy. In 1493, at the age of 2, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden and in 1494, he is appointed as the Duke of York. Henry received a valued education and was fluent in Latin, French and Spanish. Because it was expected that the throne would be inherited by the older brother of Henry, Prince Arthur, Henry was prepared for a monastic life. In 1502, after his brother Arthur dies at the age of 15, Henry becomes Prince of Wales and heir to the throne. Since the untimely death of Prince Arthur broke his marital alliance between England and Spain, the Council, who wanted to keep Catherine as a queen, asks the new Prince of Wales if he could accept her as his wife. Because a text of Leviticus forbade marriage between a brother in law and a sister in law, he had to obtain a papal bull (in 1503) and to prove that his first marriage to Catherine was not consumed. 14 months after her husbandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s death, Catherine was betrothed to Henry. Catherine was the youngest surviving child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. In 1505, when Henry VII lost his interest in an alliance with Spain, the young Henry said that his 64

Henry VIII of England

engagement was arranged without his consent. After the death of King Henry VII, at only 17 years old, Henry VIII married Catherine on 11 June 1509 and at 24 June 1509, the two are crowned at Westminster Abbey. At the beginning of his reign, Henry has not ruled himself, but all the authority was returned to the Minister that has chosen Chancellor Wolsey, the son of a wealthy butcher in Ipswich. Two days after his coronation, Henry arrested two of the most unpopular ministers of his father, Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley. They were accused without evidence of high treason, and executed in 1510. Henry has cultivated the image of the Renaissance man and his court was the center of education and artistic innovations. The young king had literary tastes, composing poems, music and playing the lute. His most famous musical compositions

are “Pastime with Good Company” and “The Kynges Ballade”. He was also an excellent sportsman and loved hunting and tennis. In 1511, Pope Julius II proclaimed the Holy League against France. This new alliance has grown rapidly and included Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and England. Henry decided to use this occasion as an excuse to expand its territories in northern France. He concluded the Treaty of Westminster, a pledge of mutual aid with Spain against France in November 1511 and prepared for the involvement in the War of the League of Cambrai. In 1513, Henry invaded France and his troops defeated the French at the Battle of the Spurs. His brother, James IV of Scotland invaded England on the orders of Louis XII of France, but failed to distract Henry of France. The Scots were defeated at the Battle of Flodden Field on 9 September 1513. Among those killed in the battle was the King of Scotland whose death ended Scotland’s brief involvement in the war. Henry expanded the Royal Navy from 5 to 53 ships. He loved palaces, his early reign had a dozen and when he died he had 55, which hung in 2000 tapestries. He was very proud of his collection of weapons that included an exotic archery equipment, 2250 pieces of land

ammunition and 6500 guns. On 18 February 1516 after some abortions, Queen Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Princess Mary of England, who later would reign under the name of Mary I. The King, who eagerly wanted a son, begins to wonder if his marriage had been cursed. From 1514 until 1529, Thomas Wolsey (1473-1530), a Catholic cardinal served as Lord Chancellor and practically controlled the domestic and foreign policy for the king. Henry VIII fell in love with Anne Boleyn and wanted to take her in marriage to get a legitimate heir. Because there was no civil divorce, the annulment of marriage had to be asked from the Pope. Wolsey was tasked to deal with Rome but the Queen’s nephew, Charles V opposed the divorce. Pope Clement sends Cardinal Campeggio to England and together with Wolsey, they had to judge the case of the queen, but the process gets to be judged at Rome. Convinced that he was treacherous, Anne Boleyn insisted and managed to obtain Wolsey’s dismissal from public office in 1529. The Cardinal began a secret plot to force Anne into exile and began communication with Queen Catherine and the Pope for this purpose. When this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey’s arrest and if he had not died of his illness in 1530, he would have been executed for treason. His replacement, Sir Thomas More initially cooperated with the king at his new policy on denouncing Wolsey in the Parliament and proclaiming that Henry’s marriage to Catherine was illegal. As the king began to deny the authority of the Pope, More’s admonitions rose. Thomas Cranmer, the Boleyn’s family chaplain was appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury. On 25 January 1533, Henry’s marriage to Anne was celebrated in secret. On 23 May 1533, the marriage between Henry and Catherine is declared void and five days later the marriage between Henry and Anne is declared valid. Catherine was formally stripped of her title of Queen and Anne was crowned on 1 June 1533. The new queen has born prematurely at 7 September 1533 a girl who was christened Elizabeth, in honor of Henry’s mother, Elizabeth of York. Rejecting the decisions of the Pope, the Parliament validated the marriage between Henry and Anne with the Act of Succession of 1533. Catherine’s daughter, Lady Mary, was declared illegitimate and removed from the line of succession. All adults in the kingdom were required to acknowledge the Act’s provisions by oath and those who refused were imprisoned for life. The Reformation Parliament that took seven

King Henry VIII portrait by Hans Holbein The Younger

King Henry VIII along with his wife, Jane Seymour and his son, Edward VI

years (1529-1536) passed all the measures proposed by the crown. The clergy had to acknowledge to the King the title of protector and supreme head of the church and to abolish the “first come” ecclesiastical benefits, which until then had been paid to the pope. The Parliament voted the statute calls prohibiting to appeal to Rome, the Act of Supremacy, which hailed the king as the “sole and supreme head of the Church of England” and attributed to him spiritual jurisdiction and civil jurisdiction. Through the Act of Succession, the first marriage was canceled, and the children born of this marriage were deprived of their rights to the crown in favor of Anne Boleyn’s offspring. Opposition to the king’s religious policy was quickly suppressed in England. A number of monks were tortured and some dissidents were executed. The most prominent of them were John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester and Sir Thomas More, Henry’s former Lord Chancellor. Both refused to take the oath to the King and were subsequently convicted of high treason and beheaded. Later, John Fisher and Thomas More were canonized by the Catholic Church, and in 1980, Thomas More was canonized by the Church of England. After several attempts to define the Anglican religion, Henry won the vote of the House of Lords status in six articles which was named the “Bloody Act” or “the Whip with six strings”, act which affirmed the transubstantiation, the validity of the covenant of chastity, the superiority clerical celibacy and allowed private confession and liturgy. The day after Anne’s execution, Henry engaged to Jane Seymour, one of the ladies of honor of the queen. Ten days later they were married. In the same year, they vote the Act of Succession of 1536, which declared Henry’s children by Queen Jane as heirs to the throne while Lady Mary and Elizabeth were declared illegitimate and excluded from the line of succession. In 1537, Jane bear a son, Prince Edward, the future Edward VI. The birth was difficult and the queen died at Hampton Palace on 24 October 1537 after a puerperal fever. Henry considered Jane his only “true” wife, the one who has given the heir that he wanted so desperately. In 1540, Henry sanctioned the destruction of the shrines dedicated to saints. He wants to marry again to ensure the succession. Thomas Cromwell, named Earl of Essex, suggests a marriage with a German princess, Anne of Cleves, sister of the Protestant Duke of Cleves, who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England. Hans Holbein the Younger was sent to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne

for the king. Although it has been said that he painted her in a flattering light, it is unlikely that the portrait has been highly inaccurate, since Holbein remained favorite at court. After watching the portrait painted by Holbein and called descriptions of courtiers, Henry agreed to the marriage. After Anne arrived in England, Henry finds her completely unattractive. However, the marriage takes place on 6 January 1540. Soon, the king wants to cancel the marriage not only because the two did not get along well, but because the Duke of Cleves was engaged in a dispute with the Holy Roman Empire, with whom Henry wanted peace. Queen Anne was intelligent enough not to impede Henry’s attempt to obtain the marriage annulment. When questioned, she confessed that this marriage was never consumed. Henry said that he walked into the room every night and kissed his new bride on the forehead before going to bed. All impediments to an annulment were thus removed. The marriage was dissolved and Anne received the title of “King’s Sister” and the Hever Castle, the former residence of the Boleyn family. Cromwell, meanwhile, fell out of favor for his role in arranging the marriage was later beheaded. On 28 July 1540 (the same day Cromwell was executed) Henry was married to the young Catherine Howard, cousin and lady of honor of Anne Boleyn. He was absolutely delighted with his new queen. Shortly after the marriage, Queen Catherine had an affair with

Portrait of Henry VIII by Joos van Cleve

the courtier Thomas Culpeper. She also hired Francis Dereham, who was previously engaged to her and who had an affair before marriage, as her secretary. Thomas Cranmer, who opposed the Roman Catholic Howard family, brought evidence of the Queen’s activities to the attention of the King. Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations and allowed Cranmer to conduct an investigation, which led to the involvement of Queen Catherine, When questioned, the queen could recognize a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made the marriage to Henry invalid, but she said that Dereham forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Meanwhile, Dereham exposed the relationship between the Queen with Thomas Culpeper. As in the case of Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard could not be accused of adultery since the marriage was officially null. Again, this point was ignored, and Catherine was executed on 13 February 1542. When she died, she must have had between 17 and 22 years (opinions differ regarding her year of birth).

That same year, the remaining monasteries in England were dissolved and their properties transferred to the Crown. Henry married widow Catherine Parr in 1543. She helped him to reconcile with his daughters, Lady Mary and Lady Elizabeth. In 1544, an act of the Parliament reinstated the daughters of the king in the line of succession after Edward, Prince of Wales. In the last years of his life, Henry became obese and had to be moved using mechanical inventions. He was covered with painful boils and possibly suffered from gout. The obesity began in 1536 when he suffered an accident, which left him with leg injuries. This prevented him to exercise and gradually it became ulcerated. Without any doubt, this injury hastened his death at the age of 55 years old, on 28 January 1547 at the Whitehall Palace. A credible theory suggests that Henry’s medical symptoms and his elder’s sister Margaret Tudor were characteristic of untreated Type II diabetes. Henry VIII was buried at Windsor Castle, next to his wife Jane Seymour. 100 years later, Charles I will be buried in the same vault.

Henry VIII’s tomb at Windsor Castle

Henry VIII became fat towards his last years of reign

Winston Churchill (b. 30 November 1874 in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, England â&#x20AC;&#x201C; d. 24 January 1965 in London, England) was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer and an artist. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born on 30 November 1874 at Blenheim Palace, by then owned by his grandfather, the seventh Duke of Marlborough. His father was Lord Randolph Churchill and his mother was a stunningly beautiful young American woman named Jennie Jerome. There is no doubt that in his early years he was a very happy person, because in his autobiography he tenderly evokes the past days under the protective shadow of his mother, who was educated in addition to beautiful, intelligent and sensitive. Perhaps for this reason, he was admitted by his father in an expensive school in Ascot, where the

child reacted with rebellion. Being away from home was unbearable, and Winston expressed his protest by opposing to everything he had to study. Often, he was punished and his grades were always counted among the worst. When he entered the famous Harrow School in 1888, the future prime minister was included in the worst class students. One of his teachers said of him: â&#x20AC;&#x153;It was not an easy guy to handle with. It is true that his intelligence was brilliant, but he only studied when he wanted and learned for the professors who deserved his approval.â&#x20AC;? Churchill failed twice, consecutively in the entrance exams of the Sandhurst Military Academy. However, once he entered the institution, he underwent a radical change. His proverbial stubbornness, his determination and its indomitable spirit were not abandoned, but the habit of capriciously disagreeing, all began to disappear. He worked diligently, was dedicated and serious in classes and soon, he stood out among students at his level. Shortly after, he joined the Fourth Hussars Cavalry Regiment, reputed as one of the best in the army. He was in 1895, in the war of Cuba, and fought in India in 1898 and in Sudan in 1899. In the battlefields, he learned everything about the art of war that he had not found in books, especially practical questions of strategy that later would serve to confront

Winston Churchill

Young Churchill in 1900

Winston Churchill

Sir Winston Churchill at the Admiralty

the enemies of England. However, the military life soon tired him. He gave up the military career to engage in politics and joined the Conservative Party in 1898, applying in the elections a year later. He failed narrowly to obtain the act of deputy, and Churchill moved to South Africa as a correspondent for the Morning Post in the Boer War. There, he was captured and taken to Pretoria, but managed to escape and returned to London to become a popular hero and for the first time, his name hit the front pages of newspapers, for he had come in his flight of over 400 kilometers, facing with bravery endless hazards with extraordinary sangfroid. It is no wonder, then, that was to achieve a seat as a Conservative representative of Oldham in the House of Commons in 1900 and, just turning 26, could start a meteoric political career. In the parliament, his speeches and his good humor soon became famous. But his independent spirit, unwilling to submit to the party discipline, earned him important enemies in the camera, even among his own supporters. It’s no wonder that he changed the party several times and that his interventions, expected and feared by all, always awoke tremendous controversy. Disagreeing with the party regarding the South African

question, Churchill went over to the Liberals in 1904, and in 1906, at the age of 31, he reached his first government post in the cabinet of Henry Campbell-Bannerman, who was named Subsecretary of the colonies. From this position he defended the autonomy granting to the Boers. Then he was appointed trade minister (1908-1910) and Interior Minister (1910-1911) in the government in which, Herbert Henry Asquith would be prime minister between 1908 and 1916. Churchill foresaw with extraordinary accuracy the events that triggered the First World War and the course that they would lately follow in its first stage. His prophecies, considered outrageous by the military, became reality and surprised everyone by the clairvoyance that had been made. In 1911, three years before the outbreak of the conflagration, Prime Minister Asquith appointed him as Lord of the Admiralty. Churchill immediately embarked on a major reorganization of the army of his country. He first set out to make the British navy the world’s best maritime power, changing the oil as fuel instead of coal for the fleet and ordering the installation in all units of large caliber guns. Then, he started creating an air gun and finally decided to counter the feared German power, by ordering the construction of the first “land battleships”, getting the tank to be considered indispensable as an instrument of war. Given the failure of the Battle of the Dardanelles of 1915, he was forced to resign. He rejoined the army and fought on the Western Front as commander and lieutenant colonel. In 1916, during the war, the government of H. H. Asquith fell and was replaced by David Lloyd George. The new prime minister called back Churchill to integrate him into his cabinet, first as Minister of Armaments in 1917 and then for the portfolio of War and Air in 1918. After the First World War, Winston Churchill suffered from the reaction of the postwar period, and for a time he was relegated to a secondary role in the political scene. In 1924, he was reconciled with the conservatives and a year later was put in charge of the Ministry of Finance in the government of Stanley Baldwin. It was a time of economic decline, unrest, labour unrest and ostentatious strikes. His obstinate conservatism did not made him content even with his own colleagues. In a word, everyone was tired of him and his popularity dropped to levels unimaginable years ago. Between 1929 and 1939, Winston Churchill voluntarily withdrew from politics and devoted himself mainly to writing and to cultivate his interest in 71

Winston Churchill during the General Election Campaign in 1945

painting under the pseudonym Charles Morin. “If this man was an office painter, said Picasso in an occasion, he could’ve earned a good living.” Churchill continued to be part of the Parliament, but during those years, he practically lacked influence. He regained prominence when, noting the growing threat posed by Adolf Hitler, he proclaimed the urgent need of rearming for England and began a lonely struggle against the emerging fascism. On several occasions, both in the Chamber and in his newspaper articles, he vigorously denounced the Nazi danger to the nation that, once again, seemed afflicted with a blindness that could end in tragedy. Following the signing of the München Agreement in 1938, in which Britain and France yielded to the German power, people realized again that Churchill had been right from the beginning. There were a dozen times when it would have been possible to stop Hitler without bloodshed, according to experts. In each of these occasions, Churchill ardently advocated for the action. But despite the deployed energy, his warnings had been ignored by the government. On 1 September 1939, the Nazi army entered Poland with scintillating precision. Two days later, France and England declared war on Germany and, at night, Churchill was called upon to his former post at the Admiralty by Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, who had previously attempted a political futility of appeasement against Germany. All units of the fleet radio received the same message: “Winston is back with us.” The same deputies that a week before fought viciously against him, stood up and cheered when he made his entry into the Parliament. But that was a bitter time for the history of the United Kingdom. The nation was ill-prepared for the Second World War, both materially and psychologically. So, when he was appointed Prime Minister on 10 May 1940, Churchill delivered a motivational speech in which he said that he can not offer more than “blood, sweat and tears” to his fellow citizens. Churchill managed to maintain the morale at home and abroad through his speeches, exerting an almost hypnotic influence on all the British. He formed a government of national concentration, which secured the cooperation of his political opponents, and created the Defense Ministry for a better direction of the war effort. When France was completely subjected to the rule of Hitler, and while the United States continued to proclaim its unshakable neutrality, Churchill called a meeting of his cabinet and with good humor said: “Well, gentlemen, we are alone. For my part, I find the

situation stimulating in the end.” Of course, Churchill did his best for the United States and the Soviet Union from entering the war, which succeeded in a short time. He kept close contact with the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1941, after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour, the US declared war on Japan and incorporated their invaluable military potential to the Allied side. Also, in 1941, a decisive year of the war, Hitler launched the invasion of Russia, ending the Soviet neutrality and pushing Stalin to a fragile alliance with England, which Churchill knew how to preserve, relegating to the background his visceral anticommunism and demonstrating his pragmatism. As prime minister, he participated at the crucial conferences of Casablanca (1943), Cairo (1943), Tehran (1943), Yalta (1945) and Potsdam (1945), in which the war strategy was designed and, once the conflict was over, the world’s political map would remain unchanged until 1989. Finally, on the day when the Allied forces obtained victory, he went back to the Parliament and upon entering, he was the subject of the most tumultuous ovation that records the history of the assembly. Members forgot all ritual formalities and climbed into the seats, screaming and shaking newspapers. Churchill remained standing at the head of the ministerial bench, as tears rolled down his cheeks and shaking hands gripped his hat. Despite the enormous popularity obtained during the war, two months after the vote, the British deposed him from office. Churchill continued to be part of the Parliament and emerged as a leader of the opposition. In a speech held in March 1946 he popularized the term “Iron Curtain” and some months later called to promote the creation of the United States of Europe. After the victory of the conservatives in 1951 he became once again prime minister, and two years later he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature for his memoirs about World War II. Because of his age, he resigned in April 1955 after being named Knight of the Garter by Queen Elizabeth II and refused a peerage in order to remain as a deputy in the House of Commons. Re-elected in 1959, he no longer appeared to the elections of 1964. However, his figure continued to weigh on political life and his advice continued to guide those who ruled after him in the United Kingdom. The people had seen Churchill personified as one of the most noble men of history and as having the most beautiful qualities of their race. The British did not cease to acclaim him as their hero until his death on 24 January 1965. 73

Winston Churchill at the conference of Yalta with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin

Winston Churchill â&#x20AC;&#x153;Iron Curtainâ&#x20AC;? speech at Westminster College (MSA)

Charles Darwin Charles Darwin (b. 12 February 1809 in The Mount, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England – d. 19 April 1882 in Down House, Kent, England) was an English naturalist and geologist, best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and in a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. No one better than Darwin could embody the prototype of the scholar who with his limited means, those of reason and observation, was able to divert the course of the history of ideas and to influence the entire development of science. Everyone knows that his theory of evolution has become crucial to understanding the origins and diversity of living things we know today and that his theory is not universally accepted. It is indeed still the result of heated discussions or net waste, as in some more fundamentalist western parts which are tied to the tradition. No wonder. The concept of evolution does not get along with that of Creation, as well as with that of a well-defined ordering principle, to leave room to an unexpected chance of natural selection based on the environment. It is more than normal, therefore, that the Darwinian revolution has clashed with ancient certainties and visions of the world and of history acquired. Born in England, in Shrewsbury in Shropshire (on the border with Wales), Charles Darwin was part of a wealthy bourgeois family and started to study medicine so that he can follow the same career of his father and grandfather Erasmus. Alternating the exercise of the medical profession with his passion for wildlife studies, he wrote several works, such as “Zoonomia” in which some of the arguments presented points of contact with the theories that later will be processed by Lamarck. Charles will remember to have read his theories with great admiration. He abandoned his medical studies to which he felt little interest, so Darwin embarks under the pressure of his antipathetic family, an ecclesiastical career, but in his eyes this was worse than medicine. The clever young man lit a smoldering love for the natural

Charles Darwin

sciences, so when the opportunity arose to take part as an on-board naturalist for a trip on the “Beagle” brig, he set sail even against the wishes of his father. His rebellion against his family’s prohibitions proved very fruitful. The experience of the “Beagle” proved crucial to Darwin’s scientific maturity. On 27 December 1831 the “Beagle” set sail for a long cruise in the Southern Hemisphere that will last five years, and a lot of lands will be explored, especially the South American coast. Darwin collected a lot of material and analyzed the fossils found in the geological strata, arriving solely by his virtue of observation conjugated to an iron logic, at the famous conclusions that we now know. He returned to England on the 2nd of October 1836 and decided to fix his family life. He marries and settles in the countryside, at Down, from where he will not move anymore until his death on 19 April 1882. These fifty years of sedentary lifestyle were imposed by the precarious state of his health, probably caused by a tropical disease that had struck him on the trip. However, he corresponded with many biologists, ranchers and farmers, and asked for information and data necessary for the elaboration of his theories. Reordering the data and the results of his observations, Darwin published “A Naturalist’s Voyage Round the World” in 1839. 75

In 1859, he published his masterpiece “The Origin of Species” which, on the one hand caused scandal and fierce opposition especially in the religious circles, but among scientists, the theory soon found a wide acceptance. The book was accompanied by a large amount of evidence and arguments that comforted the thesis and who were hardly deniable in the light of reason. The structural homology studied by the comparative anatomy became the evidence of common ancestors to all species, which meant that the classic “finality” of religion was overthrown and reinterpreted through natural explanations that they should not have recourse to divine intervention. Subsequently, the results of paleontology, embryology, biochemistry

Young Darwin

have corroborated to the theories of the English genius, forever changing the face of life we see on Earth. In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called “angina pectoris” which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed “anginal attacks”, and “heart-failure”. He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma “I am not the least afraid of death. Remember what a good wife you have been to me. Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me”, then while she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis “It’s almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you”. Charles Darwin was buried in Westminster Abbey in London.

benevolent creator’s laws, which had an overall good effect. To Darwin, natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design, and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering, such as the ichneumon wasp paralyzing caterpillars as live food for its eggs. He still viewed organisms as perfectly adapted, and “On the Origin of Species” reflects theological views. Though he thought of religion as a tribal survival strategy, Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of God as an ultimate lawgiver. He was increasingly troubled by the problem of evil. Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe, John Brodie Innes, and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church, but from around 1849, he would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church. He considered it “absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist” and, though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that “I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind”. The “Lady Hope Story”, Painting of Charles Darwin by Herbert Rose Barraud published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated Darwin had convinced most scientists that by Darwin’s children and have been dismissed as false evolution as descent with modification was correct, by historians. and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionized ideas. Though few agreed with his view that “natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification”, he was honoured in June 1909 by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the 50th anniversary of “On the Origin of Species”. During this period, which has been called “the eclipse of Darwinism”, scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. Ronald Fisher, an English statistician finally united Mendelian genetics with natural selection between 1918 and his 1930 book “The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection”, giving the theory a mathematical footing and bringing broad scientific consensus that it was the basic mechanism of evolution, founding the basis for population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis, with J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright, which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory. The theodicy of Paley and Thomas Malthus vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a Charles Darwin standing

Charles Dickens Charles Dickens (b. 7 February 1812 in Landport, Hampshire, England – d. 9 June 1870 in Higham, Kent, England) was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world’s best known fictional characters and is regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the 20th century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity. Charles Dickens was an English writer, representative of the realism of the 19th century, known for works such as “Great Expectations”, “The Adventures of Oliver Twist”, “David Copperfield”, “Martin Chuzzlewit”, “Dombey and Son”, “Hard Times”, “Booth Junk”, “The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club”, “Nicholas Nickleby”, “Barnaby Rudge”, “A Tale of two cities”. He was born in Portsmouth, Hampshire, son of John and Elizabeth Dickens. In 1817 his family moved to Chatham, Kent, and in 1822 they moved to the new district of Camden Town, London. The first years of his life were some very happy, spending his spare time reading the adventure novels of Henry Fielding and Tobias Smollett. His family belonged to the middle nobility and assured his education at a private school, but everything would change after his father lost a large sum of money in amusement and striving to maintain his social position, led to its family being sent in the debtors’ prison. At the age of 12, Dickens became mature enough to work ten hours a day in a blacking factory of Warren (located near Charing Cross railway station) for six shillings a week. With this money he had to pay for accommodation and tried to help his family. After a time, his family situation improved due to an inheritance coming from his father’s family. The Dickens family gets out of the poor’s prison, but the mother leaves Charles to continue working in the blacking factory. Dickens never and will never forgive this resentment, and the plight of the middle class in which he has lived part of his childhood will become major themes of his work. He would later tell his biographer: “No tip, no permit, no encouragement, no consolation, no support from anyone to remember that, so help me God!”. Starting from 1827, he began working as a clerk 78

in a law office for the chance to become himself a lawyer. He didn’t like the profession so, after a short time in which he worked as a stenographer at the courthouse, he became a journalist, relating the parliamentary debates and traveling through England with the post chaise, to write about the election campaigns. Its reports will be published under the title “Sketches by Boz”, his literary pseudonym being Boz. He will continue to publish in newspapers for most of life. In these years he published his first novel, “The Pickwick Papers”. His first story was published in the Monthly Magazine in 1833 under the pseudonym Boz. With the same pseudonym he published in the Morning Chronicle and London Evening Chronicle. The stories have become very popular and in 1836 they were collected in the volume “Sketches by Boz”. Also in 1836, Dickens accepted the post of editor at the Bentley’s Miscellany magazine, a position he held for three years, during which the publisher William Hall engaged to public “Pickwick Papers” in 20 numbers monthly, then “Oliver Twist” in 1838 and the “Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby” in 1839, were also published in Bentley’s Miscellany once a month. On 2 April 1836, he married Catherine Hogarth, with whom he will have ten children. On the same year, he accepted a job as editor of Bentley’s Miscellany, where he remained until 1839. Two other newspapers where he published a lot were Household Words and All the Year Round. In 1842, while visiting the United States, he criminalized slavery. He invested some of its copyright in a new radical newspaper, the Daily News. He became an editor and in his first issue of January 1846, he wrote an article urging education, religious freedom and equality in front of the law. The newspaper has not been successful and he has resigned as editor in 1850 and began to edit the weekly magazine Household Words. Also, in 1850, the famous novel David Copperfield was published. He published in Household Words, in feuilleton form, his social novel “Hard Times” (1854). In 1859, he brought another magazine “All the Year Round”, where he published the novels of the British writers of the moment, and his own writings: “A Tale of Two Cities” (1859) and “Great Expectations” (18601861). He continued to publish in this magazine until his death. In 1868, he gets to divorce from his wife, but she will continue to live in Gad’s Hill until his death. Dickens continued to work and toured to promote his novels, and in 1868 he made a second trip to the United States where he noted the changes he saw there since

Charles Dickens

reality is reflected in the novel “Nicholas Nickleby”. Undoubtedly, the most famous novel by Charles Dickens is “Great Expectations” (1860), which follows the destiny of the orphan Pip, grandson of a blacksmith who comes to London with the dream of becoming a gentleman. The fortune which helps him to have access to the high society is bestowed to Pip, without having to know the truth, by a former convict, who was helped by the young boy once. The money is received by a lawyer, Jaggers, who communicates the desire of the rich patron: “The boy (Pip) has to be removed from the life he leads and be educated to become a gentleman. In a word, to be educated as a young man with high hopes”. From this moment on, Pip ignores his poor friends, and his behaviour is increasingly forged by the prejudices of that time. At the moment of truth, meeting with former convict, Magwitch, who had given him the money, Pip is confused. The consequences are disastrous for the young boy who believes that the convict’s money are “dirty” so he gives up the wealth and his “great hopes”. Eventually, he finds the inner resources to overcome this moment and rebuild an honorable situation. On 2 December 1867, Charles Dickens has his first meeting with his readers in the United States, in New Young Charles Dickens by Daniel Maclise (1839) York. These meetings required much more effort and his last visit. He also continued his tours in Scotland contributed to the deterioration of his health condition. and Ireland. During such a tour, he suffered a first heart He died on 9 June 1870 following a heart attack. He was attack in 1869, followed by a rest period. Although at buried in the Poets’ Corner in Westminster Abbey. first they were happy, Catherine was now tired and no longer able to provide the energy that Dickens needed. The first signs of discontent had appeared in 1855, when he had gone to meet his first love, Maria Beadnell, who was also married. On 9 June 1865, while returning from France where he had been to see Ellen Ternana, an actress he met in 1857, Dickens was involved in a railway accident where six carriages of the train in which he was travelling with, slid on the bridge over which it passed. The only remaining first-class carriage on rails was where Dickens, along with Ellen and her mother were. He spends a little time between life and death, until help arrived. He then remembers about the unfinished manuscript of the novel “Our Mutual Friend” and returns to the wagon. He manages to avoid a possible scandal, caused by the presence of Ellen and her mother, but the incident leaves serious consequences in his mood. Ellen will continue to be her friend and perhaps lover, for the rest of his life. He spends lots of time in meetings with his readers, while he reads parts of his best novels. His fascination for theater as a mean of escape from 80

Charles Dickens by Frith (1859)

Charles Dickens in 1858

Margaret Thatcher Margaret Thatcher (b. 13 October 1925 in Grantham, Lincolnshire, England – d. 8 April 2013 in Westminster, London, England) was a British stateswoman and politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the longest serving British Prime Minister of the 20th century and is currently the only woman to have held the office. A Soviet journalist dubbed her the “Iron Lady”, a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.

Margaret Thatcher

Baroness Thatcher was born as Margaret Hilda Roberts in the town of Grantham in Lincolnshire, in the east of England. His father was Alfred Roberts, owner of a small shop in the city and a familiar figure in the political life. Although she was officially described as “independently liberal”, practically he supported the local conservatives. Roberts lost his post as Alderman after the Labour Party won the control of Grantham Council in 1946. Her mother was Beatrice Roberts, née Stephenson. She was a good student, attending lectures at the girls school from Kesteven and then those of the Somerville College, Oxford, from 1944, where she studied chemistry. She became president of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946, being the third woman to occupy this position. Margaret Roberts graduated with a title of second degree, and worked as a research chemist for British Xylon and then for J. Lyons and Co., where she helped produce storage methods for ice cream. In the 1950 and 1951 general elections, Roberts was the Conservative candidate for the safe Labour seat of Dartford. The local party selected her as its candidate because, though not a dynamic public speaker, Margaret Roberts was well-prepared and fearless in her answers. Another prospective candidate recalled that “Once she opened her mouth, the rest of us began to look rather second-rate”. She attracted media attention as the youngest and the only female candidate. She lost on both occasions to Norman Dodds, but reduced the Labour majority by 6.000, and then a further 1.000. During the campaigns, she was supported by her parents and by Denis Thatcher, whom she married in December 1951. Denis funded his wife’s studies for the bar; she qualified as a barrister in 1953 and specialized in taxation. Later that same year, their twins Carol and Mark were born, delivered prematurely by Caesarean section. The marriage led to her being referred to as “Mrs. Denis Thatcher”, now considered dated by such official sources as selection minutes, travel itineraries, and society publications such as Queen, even after her election as a Member of Parliament, after which she preferred “Mrs. Margaret Thatcher”. Baroness Thatcher was the only woman elected as prime minister or leader of a major political party in the United Kingdom, and the first British prime minister elected three times in a row (1979, 1983 and 1987), a political record which only Tony Blair managed to equal in 2005. Margaret Thatcher became a member of the British Parliament in 1959. It is one of the most important British political personalities, its mandate

she was given a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven in the county of Lincolnshire, which entitled her to sit in the House of Lords. After a series of small strokes in 2002, she was advised to withdraw from public speaking. Despite this, she managed to prerecord a eulogy to Ronald Reagan prior to his death, which was broadcast at his funeral in 2004. Along with Churchill, Thatcher shares the honour of having a bronze statue in the lobby of the Parliament House. In 2011, her life was screened in a film of great success, “The Iron Lady” , with Meryl Streep starring in the main role for which she was declared in 2012, “Best Actress” at the Golden Globe, BAFTA and Oscar. Thatcher died on the morning of 8 April 2013, at the Ritz Hotel in London, following a stroke. She accommodated in one of the apartments at The Ritz since the Christmas period of 2012, due to problems with the stairs of her house in Chester Square. Margaret Thatcher had, moreover, health problems several years in a row. Lord Bell, Thatcher’s spokesman, confirmed the death through a press release issued at 12:52 local time. Details of her funeral were established according to Thatcher’s wishes. Thus, her funeral was accompanied by a ceremony, including military honours and a religious service held at the Cathedral of Saint Paul, after which, she was cremated.

Margaret Thatcher in 1983

being the longest continuous term in British political history. She is also one of the most controversial political figures, the first female prime minister in the history of Europe. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasized deregulation (particularly of the financial sector), flexible labour markets, the privatization of state-owned companies, and reducing the power and influence of trade unions. Thatcher’s popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment, until victory in the 1982 Falklands War and the recovering economy brought a resurgence of support, resulting in her re-election in 1983. Thatcher was re-elected for a third term in 1987. During this period, her support for a Community Charge, referred to as the “poll tax” was widely unpopular, and her views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet. She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990, after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership. After retiring from the Commons in 1992, Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan

Charlie Chaplin Charlie Chaplin (b. 16 April 1889 in London, England – d. 25 December 1977 in Corsier-surVevey, Vaud, Switzerland) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the silent era. Chaplin became a worldwide icon through his screen persona “The Tramp” and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry. His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy. Famous for his character “The Tramp”, the sweet little man with a bowler hat, mustache and cane, Charlie Chaplin was an iconic figure of the silentfilm era and one of film’s first superstars, elevating the industry in a way few could have ever imagined. Named after his father, a British musical entertainer, Chaplin spent his early childhood with his mother, singer Hannah Hall. He made his stage debut at the age of 5, intervening in the song where his mother was losing her voice. Mentally unstable, his mother was locked in an asylum, and Charlie and his half-brother, Sydney, were sent to correctional and residential schools. Using the business contacts of his mother, Charlie became a professional artist in 1897, entering the Eight Lancashire Lads step band. Subsequent appearances include a small role in “Sherlock Holmes” by William Gillette and a vaudeville role in the production of Casey, “Court Circus”. In 190,8 he joined Fred Karno’s pantomime troupe, quickly rising to stardom in the role of drunkard sketch “A night in a Musical English Hall”. While on tour in America with the Karno troupe in 1913, Chaplin signed a contract to appear in the comedy films of “Mack Sennett”. Although his first Keystone film, a coil, “Making a Living” of 1914 was not the failure that historians thought, Chaplin’s original character on the screen, a mercenary swish, did not caught very well. Sennett asked him to find a more realistic screen and Chaplin improvised a costume consisting of a strait jacket, baggy pants, big shoes and a bowler shabby. And as a final touch, he glued a small mustache and added a stick used for multiple purposes. Only in the second film produced by Keystone, “Kid Auto Races at Venice” of 1914, Chaplin’s alter-ego is born, the immortal “Vagabond”. In fact, Chaplin hasn’t always embodied a bum. In 84

Charlie Chaplin

many of his films, his character was a waiter, store clerk, aid scene, firefighter or other similar roles. His character could be better described as not ready, yet essential: rejected by well-established companies, unlucky in love, resourceful in all but bad at something. He was also a survivor, always leaving behind his past troubles, careless heading towards new adventures. His vagabond charm was universal: the public adored his insolence, lack of vanity, relaxed primitivism, unexpected chivalry and optimism in the face of adversity. Some historians have found traces of the vagabond’s origin in Chaplin’s Dickensian childhood, while others suggested that the character was rooted in the motto of Chaplin’s mentor, Fred Karno: “Be melancholic, sirs, be melancholic”. Whatever the truth, just a few months after his debut film, Chaplin became the biggest star of the screen. The 35 brand Keystone comedies can be considered the star period of the vagabond, during which a character becomes a caricature. These films have improved steadily as soon as Chaplin became its own director. In 1915, he left the Sennett and accepted a contract of 1.250 dollars a week with Essanay Studios. There, he began to introduce elements of the dramatic

Chaplin had founded in 1919 with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford and D.W. Griffith. In the role of the vagabond, Chaplin mastered the art of subtle pantomime, but the emergence of sound gave him reason to be alarmed. After a period of hesitation, he launched in 1931 sa ilent film, “City Lights”, despite the ubiquitous sound films which appeared after 1928. At the cost of a risk, the film was a great success. The next one, “Modern Times” in 1936, was a hybrid, essentially a silent film with music, sound effects, and short passages of dialogue. Here, Chaplin gave him a vagabond small voice when he murmured a song, maybe significantly for the character’s farewell. Chaplin’s first feature sound was in “The Great Dictator” in 1940, a devastating pamphlet against Adolf Hitler, which was the most profitable film of the artist. Throughout his career, Chaplin’s off-screen activities have always sparked controversy. In 1918, he married Mildred Harris, aged 16, and another teenager

Charlie Chaplin in 1910

comedy, especially in short films such as “The Tramp” in 1915 and “Burlesque on Carmen” in 1916. He advanced towards a more cost-effective position (670.000 dollars per year) in the Mutual Film Company. There, for 18 months, he produced 12 films, which can be considered his best films, including the priceless “One AM” in 1916, “The Rink” in 1916, “The Vagabond” in 1916 and “Easy Street” in 1917. While working for First National Pictures (1918-1919), Chaplin made the following movies: “Shoulder Arms” in 1918, “The Pilgrim” in 1923 and his first film starring as the main protagonist, “The Kid” in 1921. Some have suggested that the exaggerated drama of these films is symptomatic of Chaplin’s efforts to justify the overwhelming praise from branded critics. A painstaking perfectionist, Chaplin began to spend more time in the preparation and production of each film. From 1923 to 1929 he brought to life only three films: “A Woman of Paris” in 1923, the only film that he directed; “The Gold Rush” in 1925, generally considered his masterpiece, and “The Circus” in 1928, an underrated film that can be classified as the funniest film of his own. All were produced by United Artists, the company that Charlie Chaplin playing his famous role of The Tramp

in 1924, Lita Grey. Both marriages ended in divorce. A third marriage, to actress Paulette Goddard, was overshadowed by rumors that their relationship, which lasted until 1942, has never been legalized. In 1943, Chaplin was the target of a paternity suit. When he tried to intervene to form a second front in Russia in the Second World War, critics have accused him of sympathizing with the communists. His 1947 film, “Mister Verdoux”, which claimed that a killer was just an “amateur” compared to the instigators of the war in the world, continued to challenge his enemies. On the way to the London premiere of his latest american film, “Limelight” in 1952, Chaplin learned that he was refused a visa to return to the United States. Pained by this decision, the director established himself in Switzerland with his fourth wife, Oona (daughter of playwright Eugene O’Neill), and their children.

His next film, made in England, was “A King in New York” in 1957, where an exiled monarch helplessly watches as his world falls apart. In 1964, Chaplin published “My Autobiography”, and two years later he directed his last film, the much appealed “A Countess from Hong Kong”. Finally, the animosity between Chaplin and the US government has disappeared, and in 1972 he returned to Hollywood to accept a special award from the Academy. It was a return with a bittersweet taste. Chaplin had come to complain about the United States but was visibly and deeply moved by the 12 minute standing ovation received at the Academy Awards ceremony. Chaplin appeared publicly in 1975, when he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth. A few months after his death, his body was briefly kidnapped from a Swiss cemetery by incompetent thieves, a gruesome end that Chaplin would have invented for one of his movies.

Old Chaplin with Oona O’Neil in Netherlands in 1965

Queen Elizabeth II Queen Elizabeth II (b. 21 April 1926 in Mayfair, London, England) is, and has been since her accession in 1952, Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, and Head of the Commonwealth. She is also Queen of 12 countries that have become independent since her accession: Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis. Elizabeth was born in London and is the first child of Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI) and the Duchess of York. Prince Albert was the second son of King George V and Princess Mary of Teck, whose grandmother was countess Claudine Rhédey. Elizabeth was named after her mother, Elizabeth BowesLyon, after her paternal great-grandmother, Queen Alexandra, and after her paternal grandmother, Mary of Teck. Her family used to call her with the nickname

Lilibeth. As a child, she was very close to his grandfather, George V, which helped him to recover from his illness in 1929. At birth, Elizabeth was the third in line to the British throne, after her uncle, Prince of Wales, who became King Edward VIII, and her father. When her father became king in 1936, after the abdication of Edward VIII, Elizabeth became heir to the throne and received the title of “Her Royal Highness Princess Elizabeth”. Elizabeth was thirteen years old when the Second World War started, and she and her younger sister, Princess Margaret, were taken to Windsor Castle in Berkshire. Some have proposed that the princesses would be taken to Canada, at the Hatley Castle, but their mother said: “The children will not go without me. I do not forsake the king. And the King will never leave. “ At the age of 13 years old, Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark. She had a crush on him and began to write, for a long time, while he was in the Royal Navy. In 1945, at the age of 18 years old, Princess Elizabeth convinced her father that she should be allowed to contribute directly to the war effort. She joined the “Women’s Auxiliary Territorial Service”, no.

Queen Elizabeth II

230.873, and was trained as a driver. In the summer of 1946, Prince Philip asked to marry Elizabeth. They married on 20 November 1947. Philip is her second cousin by King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousin by Queen Victoria. Before marriage, Philip gave up the title of Prince of Greece and Denmark, and took the title of Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, named after his mother, he was naturalized British and converted to Anglicanism. Even before the wedding, he was called Duke of Edinburgh and received the title of “His Royal Highness”. Former King Edward, Elizabeth’s uncle, was not invited to the wedding. After their marriage, the couple has chosen the Clarence House residence in London. Princess Elizabeth went on official visits with the Duke of Edinburgh to France and Greece. Their first child, Prince Charles, was born on 14 November 1948. Their second child, Anne, was born on 15 August 1950. In the summer of 1951, Elizabeth and Philip embarked on an official tour in Canada and the United States. The tour was to be continued in Australia and New Zealand, but it was canceled due to the worsening health of King George

VI. He died on 6 February 1952, and as a consequence, Elizabeth became Queen of England. The official coronation took place in Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953 and a solemn ceremony was headed by Geoffrey Fisher, Archbishop of Canterbury. The ceremony was attended by representatives of the British nobility, along with the general public, representatives of foreign countries and of the Commonwealth. All those present witnessed the entire procession despite the heavy rain. The ceremony was broadcasted on radio all around the world and for the first time, at the request of the Queen, the television was present. The New Queen and Duke of Edinburgh moved to the Buckingham Palace. With Elizabeth’s accession to the throne, according to tradition, the royal house should have followed to take her husband’s name, thus becoming the House of Mountbatten. However, Queen Mary and Prime Minister Winston Churchill opposed, and the royal house kept the name of the House of Windsor, to the displeasure of the Duke, who complained that he was “the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children.” In 1960, several years after the death of queen Mary and the resignation of Churchill, Queen Elizabeth accepted that

Queen Elizabeth II in 1953

Queen Elizabeth II in 1959

her followers and Philip’s male line, who were bearing no royal titles, to have the surname MountbattenWindsor. In 1957, Elizabeth has made a state visit to the United States where she addressed to the United Nations General Assembly. At the same tour, she opened the 23rd session of the Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch to open a Canadian parliamentary session. Two years later, she visited again the United States as the representative of Canada. In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal and Iran. Every year, the queen opens the British parliament session. The only exceptions were in 1959 and 1963 when she was pregnant with Prince Andrew, respectively, with Prince Edward. In the 60’s and 70’s the decolonization of Africa and the Caribbean countries took place. Over 20 countries have gained independence from

Great Britain. In 1977 the Silver Jubilee took place (her 25th anniversary year reign). Throughout the Commonwealth, there were numerous commemorative events, reaffirming the popularity of the queen. In 1978, Elizabeth II received Romania’s communist dictator, Nicolae Ceaușescu in a state visit to Britain. In 1981, just six weeks before the wedding of Prince Charles to Lady Diana Spencer, a 17 year old Marcus Sarjeant, fired six shots toward the queen. It was later found that they were blank bullets. Sarjeant was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three years. In 1991, following victory in the Gulf War, Elizabeth II became the first British monarch who addressed to the US Congress. The next year was very difficult for the royal family, marked by the separation of Diana Spencer to Prince Charles and by the one of Prince Andrew to Sarah Ferguson, as well as by the divorce between

Her Majesty and former US President George W. Bush in 2008

Princess Anne to Mark Phillips. In addition, during a state visit to Germany in October, a group of angry Dresden demonstrators threw eggs at the Queen and in November the same year, the Windsor Castle suffered severe damage in a fire. In a speech held on 24 November 1992, to mark the 40th anniversary of accession to the throne, the Queen said that 1992 was an “annus horribilis” for her. Prime Minister John Major reformed royalty finances so that, since 1993, the Queen began paying income tax for the first time in history. In 2002, the Queen celebrated her Golden Jubilee, marking 50 years of reign. A million people attended each day during the three days of celebration in London and enthusiasm shown by the public for Elizabeth was much greater than many journalists had predicted. Although Elizabeth enjoyed a good health throughout her life, in 2003 she underwent surgery on both knees and in June 2005 she canceled her participation in several official events after contracting a cold strong. In May 2007, The Daily Telegraph wrote from anonymous sources that the Queen is “exasperated and frustrated” by the policies of British Prime Minister Tony Blair and showed concern that the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, the Queen admired Blair’s efforts for peace in Northern Ireland. Elizabeth visited for the 16th time Australia in October 2011, in a press tour called “Farewell” given the Queen’s age. The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh celebrated their 60 years of marriage in 2007. It is the longest marriage of a British monarch. Despite her advanced age, Elizabeth said that she does not intend to abdicate, though as more and more of her public duties will be taken over by Prince Charles. The Queen celebrated her Diamond Jubilee in 2012, marking 60 years of reign. Elizabeth became the longest British chief, surpassing Richard Cromwell, on 29 January 2012 at the age of 85 years. Also, on 9 September 2015 at the age of 89, she became the British monarch with the longest reign, going beyond Queen Victoria, who reigned 63 years and 216 days. Queen Elizabeth opened the Summer Olympic Games in London on 27 July 2012 and on the Paralympics on 29 August. Her father, George VI opened the Olympic Games in London in 1948, and her grandfather, Edward VII, those in London in 1908. Also, Elizabeth has opened the Olympic Games in Montreal 1976, and Prince Philip in Melbourne 1956. In 2016, when the queen turned 90 years, a large scale street party was organized where over 10.000 people attended. 90

Official portrait taken in 2011 to mark the Queen’s Diamond Jubilee

The Queen in Berlin in 2015

Jane Austen Jane Austen (b. 16 December 1775 in Steventon Rectory, Hampshire, England – d. 18 July 1817 in Winchester, Hampshire, England) was an English novelist known principally for her five major novels which interpret, critique and comment upon the life of the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Her most highly praised novel during her own lifetime was Pride and Prejudice which was her second published novel. Her plots often reflect upon the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of favorable social standing and economic security. Born as the 7th child of eight (she had five brothers and an older sister or a younger brother) in a large and united family, on the edge of the lower English nobility, Jane has lived all her life near her family. At first, she received education from her father and brothers, but she also educated herself through reading. Her formal education ended when she left the monastery school in Reading after a year and a half, shortly before turning 11 years old. About this time, she began to write what her

Engraving Austen, showing her seated in a chair. She is wearing a lace cap

Jane Austen

father called “Stories in a whole new style.” At the age of 18 or 19 years old, she wrote her first novel, “Elinor and Marianne”. Then she fell in love. Jane met Tom Lefroy in Hampshire during the Christmas holidays in 1795. In mid-January, he went to London to study law. Jane saw him again in London in August, but no one knew anything about their relationship until the fall of 1798 when it turned out that it had no result. Jane’s only sister burned most of her letters, dated between 18 September 1796 and October 1798. These two years were among the most fruitful of Jane’s life. After returning from London she wrote “Pride and Prejudice”, then rewrote “Elinor and Marianne” under the title of “Sense and Sensibility” and finally she started to write “Northanger Monastery”, which she completed in 1799. She has not written a novel in over a decade. Her disappointment in love may have been part 91

of her silence, but an even more devastating event was the leaving from Steventon of her family in 1801 when her father retired to live in Bath, a place Jane hated. In December 1802, a rich young man asks Jane to be his wife and she accepts. However, the next day, she withdraws her acceptance. A few months later, she sells “Northanger Monastery” to a publisher for 10 £ but waits in vain for the book’s publication. Her father died in 1805 and the next year, Jane along with her mother and sister moved to Southampton where they remained until the summer of 1809 when they moved to Chawton, Hampshire, where Jane Austen finally launched her novelist career. She finished “Persuasion” about a year before her death caused by Addison’s disease on 18 July 1817.

The stable support of her family has been instrumental in Austen’s development as a professional writer. The period in which Jane has developed artistic abilities began in adolescence and lasted until the age of 35 years old. During this period, she wrote three important novels and she started on the fourth. From 1811 until 1815 through the apparition of the novels “Sense and Sensibility” (1811), “Pride and Prejudice” (1813), “Mansfield Park” (1814) and “Emma” (1815), she already became successful as a writer. She also wrote two other novels, “The Northanger Monastery” (written between 1798-1799 and revised later) and “Persuasion”, both published after her death in 1817, and began a third, called possibly “Sanditon”, but she died before its completion.

Jane Austen’s Stone Burial

English Cuisine

2. Add the beans without the cooking water and let them cook for a few minutes. Make a sauce by mixing them with ketchup, Worcestershire sauce, tomato paste and some sugar. 3. Transfer the vegetables in a pan, add the sauce and cook in oven at 180°C for 20 minutes. Ingredients: 4. Clean the mushrooms with a damp cloth, removing • 8 pork sausages any residual dirt. Set aside. Thoroughly wash the • 8 slices of Bacon tomatoes and cut them in half. • 4 eggs 5. In a pan, heat a little oil, add the coarsely chopped • 350g mushrooms mushrooms, and sauté over high heat for 5 minutes. • 400g pre-cooked beans Preheat a grill and grill the tomatoes for 5 minutes. • 4 tomatoes 6. Cook the sausages on the grill, turning them • 1 tablespoon ketchup occasionally to make them crisp and well done - it • 1 tablespoon Worchestershire sauce takes approximately 15 minutes. • 2 tablespoons tomato concentrate 7. In a pan heat a little oil, and add the eggs one at • 2 tablespoons brown sugar a time. Cook for a minute, add a few tablespoons • 1 onion of water and cover them with a lid. 3 minutes are • Extra Virgin Olive Oil sufficient, 4 to 5 minutes guarantee a firmer yolk. 8. In another pan or a hot plate cook the bacon for 2-3 minutes per side - it must be crisp and it must lose Steps: the fat. 1. Peel the onion and cut it thinly. Let it fry over low 9. Assemble the dish by placing all the items neatly. heat in a pan with a little oil.

English Breakfast

Beef Wellington Ingredients: • • • • • • • •

1 beef tenderloin (about 1 kg) 400g fresh mushrooms 100g of ham (6 slices) 1 roll of puff pastry English mustard (to taste) 1 egg yolk Extra virgin olive oil (to taste) Salt and Pepper (To Taste)

Steps:

1. Salt and pepper the outside of the tenderloin, massaging it, then put it in a hot frying pan with a little extra virgin olive oil, making sure to brown it on all sides, including the ends. 2. The meat must not be cooked, but simply it has to seal the surface, not to lose its juices later. Brush the steak with mustard and set it aside on a plate to rest. 3. Meanwhile, prepare the mushroom cream. Clean the mushrooms by removing the dirt with a damp cloth, then cut them into small pieces, pour them into a mixer, add a bit of salt and pepper and blend

until you get a fine and homogeneous puree. 4. Transfer the mushrooms puree in a hot frying pan and cook the cream turning, it occasionally until it is completely dry. 5. On a sheet of plastic wrap arrange the slices of ham (depending on the length and width of them), put a pinch of pepper on the ham and then spread on them the mushroom cream, forming an even layer. 6. Lay the fillet in the center and with the help of a plastic wrap, form a cylinder, completely wrap it in paper wrap and twist the ends in order to form a squeezed candy, so as to mix well the ingredients, and then store in the refrigerator for about 15 minutes. 7. Roll out the puff pastry, slightly diminishing the excess with the help of a rolling pin and, after removing it, position the fillet that you took out of the fridge with all the other ingredients in the center, then wrap it with puff closing the ends (possibly eliminating the excess pastry), roll it in plastic wrap and store in refrigerator 5 others minutes. 8. Brush the pastry with beaten egg yolk, then cut a bit the composition with a toothpick or a small knife and bake it at 200°C for about half an hour, until the pastry becomes golden. 9. Remove from oven, let it stand for a few minutes and then cut it into slices of about 1,5 cm, and serve immediately.

Beef Wellington

Devonshire Cream Ingredients: • • • • •

100g Mascarpone ¼ l unsweetened whipping cream 1 teaspoon Vanilla extract 1 or 2 teaspoons of sugar 1 teaspoon grated lemon

Steps:

Place all the ingredients in a bowl of an appropriate size and mix for about ten minutes until you obtain a composure similar to that of the photo, then chill in the • 4 large potatoes refrigerator until ready to eat it. • 1 can of peas • 50g butter • 100 ml milk • ½ onion • Parsley • 2 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil Ingredients: • Salt • 500g of pork sausage • Pepper

Devonshire Cream

Bangers and Mash

Steps:

1. Wash the potatoes and throw them in a pot with cold water. Put the pot on fire, add salt and bring to a boil, then cook the potatoes for 20 minutes from when the water starts to boil. 2. While the potatoes are cooking, prepare the sausages. Divide th into 8 pieces of the same length, make some holes on each of them with the help of a fork. 3. In a pan, heat very little extra virgin olive oil, sauté 1 peeled and chopped onion and, when dried, add the sausage pieces. 4. Cook over medium heat for 10-12 minutes, turning occasionally. Season with salt when half cooked, then remove from heat and keep warm. 5. When the potatoes are cooked, put them in the potato masher and mash them, then pour them into a pot. 6. Turn on the heat and add some butter, stirring until it melts, then add the milk and then season with salt and pepper. Cook for 10 minutes, stirring with a whisk. 7. As soon as the mashed potatoes will be ready divide them into the serving dishes. 8. Lie down the pieces of sausage and the sauce, add a can of peas and serve the dish with finely chopped parsley.

English Sausage Rolls Ingredients: • • • •

1 package pork sausage meat (450g) 1 package frozen puff pastry sheets (thawed) (490g) Sesame Seeds Dijon Mustard

Steps:

1. Remove the skin of the sausage and pass briefly to the mixer. 2. With the help of a spoon, place the filling on the dough creating a strip with the sausage paste, then cover with the puff pastry (the diameter of the roll must be of about 2 centimeters). Then Repeat. 3. With these ingredients you can obtain about three stuffed rolls. Seal the edges of the dough with the help of a fork. 4. Brush the surface with Dijon mustard and place the sesame seeds. Cut into pieces, then place them on a non-stick plate and let them rest in refrigerator for about an hour. 5. When ready to serve, preheat the oven to 170°C and bake them for about 25 minutes until golden brown.

English Sausage Rolls

Yorkshire Pudding Ingredients: • • • • •

Oil 225ml milk 100g flour 3 eggs Salt and Pepper

Steps:

1. Heat the oven to 220°C.

2. Once hot, take a muffin pan, pour some oil and put it inside the oven to get at the same temperature. 3. Meanwhile, prepare the dough by mixing the milk with the flour, eggs, salt and pepper. Then remove the muffin tin from the oven and pour in the milk mixture rapidly. 4. The oil should be hot when pouring the milk and it should do the same sound it makes when you fry in a pan. 5. Then put the pan in the oven for 20 minutes until they are golden brown. 6. They are best to eat when they are hot, but if you want to eat them after a few hours, just put them in a hot oven for a few minutes.

Yorkshire Pudding

English Flapjack Ingredients:

• 350g oat • 175g of butter • 100g of Golden Syrup (if you can not buy it, you can use honey) • 150g brown sugar cane • 75g of dates (chopped) • 75g walnuts (chopped) • A pinch of ground ginger 98

Steps: 1. Put the butter in a pan and let it melt over low heat. 2. When the butter is melted, add the golden syrup (or honey) and sugar, continuing to cook over low heat to dissolve. Be careful not to burn the butter. 3. Then remove the pan from heat and add the oats, nuts, dates and ginger. 4. Put the mixture in a little deep baking dish which is covered with parchment paper. 5. Compress the mixture to make it dense. 6. Put it in the preheated oven and bake for 35-40 minutes at 160°C. 7. Then remove it from the oven and let it cool completely. 8. Cut into squares and serve.

English Flapjack

Kedgeree Ingredients: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Basmati rice Salt cod (traditionally smoked haddock) 1 Onion Fresh peas Eggs Parsley Corriander (if desired) Curry powder Ginger powder Laurel Milk Butter

onion soften in the butter over low heat. Add the curry and ginger in a pan and mix together with a tablespoon of milk. 5. Pour into pan the fish and the rice and stir well, then also add the parsley and the chopped corriander. 6. Add in freshly blanched fresh peas and the previously cooked egg, cut in half.

Steps:

1. First you have to cook the egg in boiling water for 8 minutes, then move it in a pan and let it cool completely before you start breaking the shell. 2. Meanwhile, put the cod and the bay leaf in a saucepan together with the milk and simmer for about 5 minutes, then scatter it coarsely. 3. Prepare the rice and set it aside. 4. In a large skillet, melt a knob of butter and let the Kedgeree

it color well, then shell it with a wooden spoon and add the thyme leaves. 5. Raise the heat and pour in two tablespoons of Worcestershire sauce. Also add the tomato paste. 6. Stir well and pour in the hot stock. Cover with a lid, leaving a small crack and cook over medium heat Ingredients: for about 45 minutes. After this, also add the frozen • 400g of ground beef peas. • 800g of potatoes 7. Season with salt and pepper and continue to cook • 1 carrot for about ten minutes until the peas are tender. • ½ onion 8. Eventually you will get a very tight meat sauce, if • 1 celery it should be even watery, continue to cook with • 2 tablespoons Worcestershire sauce the pan uncovered, until the water has evaporated • 3 tablespoons tomato paste almost entirely. • A sprig of thyme 9. Now, peel the potatoes with the aid of a knife and, • 200g of frozen peas while they are still hot, mash them with a potato • 400ml of broth masher. • 2 egg yolks 10. Add the butter, which in contact with the potatoes • 2 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil will melt. Add salt, pepper and add nutmeg; also • 50g of butter pour the milk/ Mix all ingredients, then add the egg • 120ml of milk yolks. • 1 pinch of salt 11. Mix carefully, in order to obtain a homogeneous • Pepper as needed mixture. In a baking dish, form one layer of meat • Pinch of nutmeg and peas. 12. Put the potato mixture in a pastry bag, then pour it Steps: over the layer of meat and peas. If you do not have 1. To prepare the cottage pie, start by cleaning the a pastry bag you can distribute the potato mixture potatoes, boiling them in their skins in salted water with a spoon, leveling it well. for about 40 minutes, until tender. 13. Cook the cottage pie in a preheated oven at 200°C 2. In the meantime, finely chop the onion, carrot and for about 30 minutes. The last 5-10 minutes turn on celery. the grill to brown it well on the surface . 3. In a pan, melt 20g of butter in two tablespoons of 14. Remove from the oven and let it rest for about 10 olive oil, then add the chopped herbs and fry over low heat for about 5 minutes, until the onion is minutes. Serve the warm cottage pie. transparent. 4. Put the ground meat in the pan, lightly salt it and let

English Cottage Pie

Fish & Chips Ingredients: • • • • • • • • • 100

5 white cod fillets (without skin and bone) 500 ml beer (blonde or brown) 10 tablespoons white flour 1 tablespoon dry thyme (optional) 1 teaspoon garlic powder (optional) 5 tablespoons white vinegar 3 potatoes (cut into 1 centimeter slices) Salt & Pepper Oil (for frying) English Cottage Pie

Fish & Chips

Steps:

tanqueray gin

1. Fry the potatoes until golden brown. 2. Pour the beer into a deep pot. Incorporate the flour and mix gently (about 5 to 6 tablespoons) until you obtain a dough consistency similar to that of pancakes. 3. Season the dough with 1 teaspoon of salt and 1 of pepper and optionally with dry thyme and garlic powder. 4. Mix the rest of the flour with a teaspoon of salt. 5. Heat the oil at high temperature. Use a large amount of oil to soak the entire fillets and avoid sticking them to the bowl. 6. Pass the fish fillets through flour and then through the dough. Drain the excess dough well by gently hitting the fish fillets on the edge of the bowl. Fry the fish fillets until golden. 7. Remove the fish fillets and let them drain on a paper napkin. 8. Sprinkle white vinegar over the fish fillets and serve with fried potatoes and beer. Tanqueray Gin

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English Travel

102

London

Westminster Abbey

103

The Big Ben

104

National History Museum of London

Saint George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle

Amiral Nelson’s statue in Trafalgar Square

Hyde Park

English Parliament

Windsor Castle

105

Tower of London

National Gallery

National Railway Museum

Trafalgar Square

106

London Eye

Saint Paulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cathedral

107

Beautiful Tower Bridge at twiligt

Thames River

108

Tower Bridge of London

Piccadilly Circus

British Museum

Tate Modern Museum

Wimbledon Tennis Court

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Londonese Red Bus and Telephone Cabin

Buckingham Palace, Her Majestyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Residence

110

Saint Jamesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Park

Royal Albert Hall

Victoria and Albert Museum

Changing of the Guard

Madame Tussauds

111

Beamish Museum

Regents Park

Science Museum of London

London Zoo

Hampton Court Palace

112

Greenwich

Churchill War Rooms (Photo of Churchillâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Room)

Wallace Collection

Royal Opera House of London

Covent Garden Market

113

Borough Market

British Library

114

Barbican Center

Alton Towers

Globe Theater

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Manchester

Manchester Cathedral

116

Castlefield

Chethamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Library

National Football Museum

Heaton Park

Manchester Art Gallery

117

Manchester Town Hall

Museum of Science and Industry

Platt Hall: Gallery of Costume

118

Liverpool

The Cavern Pub â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Beatles

119

Saint Georgeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Hall

Museum of Liverpool

Croxteth Hall

120

Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral

Birkenhead Park

Walker Art Gallery

Pier Head

Merseyside Maritime Museum

Albert Dock

121

Birmingham

Saint Martinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cathedral

122

Birmingham Library

Selfridges Building

123

Birmingham University

Chamberlain Clock and the Rose Villa Tavern

124

Leeds

Bridgewater Place

125

Leeds Duck & Drake Public House and Music Venue

Parkinson Building

126

Leeds Castle

County Arcade Victoria Quarter

127

Other Places

Warwick Castle

128

Stonehenge

Salisbury Cathedral

Cambridge University

Canterbury Cathedral

Oxford University

129

Lake Windermere

Lake Grasmere

130

Tudor House and Garden in Southampton

Thorpe Park Resort in Surrey

Silverstone Circuit

Legoland Windsor Resort

Minach Theater

131

SS Great Britain Ship in Bristol

132

Yorkshire Dales National Park

Eden Project

Dartmoor

133

Durdle Door Cliff

134

Peak District National Park

Lake District National Park

135

Beautiful York

Saint Helenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Square and Church in York

Portmouth Harbour

Millenium Bridge in Newcastle

York Cathedral

136

Newscastleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Tyne Bridge

Spinakker Tower in Portsmouth

137

Portsmouth Cathedral Nave

138

Brighton Pier

Exmoor National Park in Devon-Somerset

Cotswolds

Bristol

Firth Court in Sheffield

Nottingham Town Hall and Market

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Bolton Town Hall

Wightwick Manor in Wolverhampton

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Cornwall

The Gannel Estuary

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