All About Countries - Romania & Republic of Moldova by allaboutcountries

Romania Republic of Moldova

Contents General Information

History 8 Nature 37 People 52

Romanian Personalities

Economy & Transportation

Vlad Țepeș

Mihai Viteazul

Ștefan cel Mare

106

George Enescu

110

Constantin Brâncuși

113

Nicolae Ceaușescu

117

Mihai Eminescu

121

Henri Marie Coandă

124

Nadia Comăneci

127

Ana Aslan

130

Culture 86

Moldovan Personalities

132

Grigore Vieru

133

Maria Cebotari

136

Eugen Doga

139

Alecu Russo

142

Maria Bieșu

145

Pantelimon Halippa

148

Ciprian Porumbescu

151

Bogdan Petriceicu Hașdeu

154

O-Zone 158 Zdob & Zdub

161

Romanian Cuisine

165

Sarmale & Mămăligă

166

Moldavian Stew

167

Varză A La Cluj

168

Mici 169 Ciorbă de Perișoare

170

Ciorbă de Burtă

170

Salată Boeuf

Romania Travel

176

171 Bucharest 177 Răcitură 172 Iași 182 Cozonac 173 Cluj-Napoca 185 Cușma lui Guguţă 174 Timișoara 188 Țuică de Maramureș

175 Constanţa 191 Other Places

Moldova Travel

194

218

Chișinău 219 Tiraspol 228 Other Places

232

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General Information Location

Romania (România) is a country located in South-Eastern Europe. It is bordered by the Republic of Moldova to the east, Bulgaria to the south, Serbia to the south-west, Hungary to the north-west and Ukraine to the north and east. The country also has access to the Black Sea and is crossed by the Danube over a distance of about 1.075 km. The Republic of Moldova (Republica Moldova) is a country located in South-Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the south, east and north. The country has access to the Danube River on a length of less than 500 meters, but no sea access. Romania covers an area of about 238,391 km2, has a density of 84,4 persons/km2 and its capital is located in the city of Bucharest, which hosts approximately 2.200.000 people. Romania’s national anthem is called “Deșteaptă-te, române!”, which translates to “Awaken thee, Romanian!” and was composed by Andrei Mureșanu. The country is organized as a unitary semipresidential republic and is divided into 8 regions comprising 42 counties. Romania’s total population reaches up to about 20.000.000 persons. Other important Romanian citizens living abroad can be found in countries like: Italy (1.300.000), Spain (800.000),

United States of America (650.000), Germany (355.000) and Israel (220.000). The national day is celebrated on 1 December every year. The Republic of Moldova covers an area of about 33,846 km2, has a density of 75 persons/km2 and its capital is located in the city of Chișinău, which hosts approximately 650.000 people. The Republic of Moldova’s national anthem is called “Limba Noastră”, which translates to “Our Language” and was composed by Alexei Mateevici on the music of Alexandru Cristea. The country is organized as an unitary parliamentary constitutional republic and is divided into 32 districts, 3 municipalities and 2 autonomous territories. The Republic of Moldova’s total population reaches up to about 3.355.000 people (including Transnistria). Other important Moldovan citizens living abroad can be found in countries like: Ukraine (250.000), Russia (155.000), Italy (150.000), Spain (20.000) and Romania (15.000). The national day is celebrated on 27 August every year. Following its rapid economic growth in the early 2000’s, Romania has an economy predominantly based on services, and is a producer and net exporter of machines and electric energy, featuring companies like Automobile Dacia and OMV Petrom. It has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians. Most people of the country are native speakers of Romanian, a Romance language. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with influential artists, musicians, inventors and sports people. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions.

The Republic of Moldova is a member state of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) and aspires to join the European Union. Its economy is the poorest in Europe in per capita terms and has the lowest Human Development Index in the continent. Moldova is also the least visited country in Europe by tourists, with only 11.000 annually recorded visitors from abroad.

slightly darker than the other one, being rather indigo than cobalt, sparked global discussion. The Embassy of Chad in Moscow submitted to the United Nations an official protest, requesting that the Romanian flag would no longer be hoisted at the UN headquarters. The demand was rejected because the vertical blue-yellowred tricolor of Romania existed before Chad became an official state. The Romanian tricolor is also akin to that of the Republic of Moldova, but the latter has a different proportion, a lighter blue and a different coat of arms in the center. The signification of the colours is as following: blue stands for the sky and air, the noblest element, and symbolizes gentleness, beauty and good faith, also reminding about the Christian ancestral law. Yellow is Flag and Coat of Arms the symbol of force, richness and purity. It also stands Flag of Romania The national flag of Romania is a tricolor with for the ripe wheat and grains. Finally, red represents 3 vertical stripes: blue, yellow and red. The colors the symbol of glory, joy, boldness and generosity. It also date back to when Romania was born from the union symbolizes the blood shed by the martyrs in battle, the between the regions of Moldavia and Wallachia, which power of life and ancestral energy. already had these colors and emblems in 1834. When the great European powers decided the unification of these Flag of Republic of Moldova The flag of the Republic of Moldova is a tricolor 2 regions in 1848, the colors were assembled in what flag of vertical stripes with the blue (next to the is now the current flag of Romania, with three vertical bands of French inspiration. The previous national flag, flagpole), yellow and red colors. In the middle of the the flag of the communist state (1947-1989), contained central strip there is represented the national shield (an the emblem of Communist Romania in the center of eagle holding a shield with the image of an aurochs) in the yellow band. During the revolution of 1989, there order to distinguish it from the Romanian flag, which have been seen many flags with the communist emblem has the same colors. Until the Second World War, cut out so the next government decided not to add any the Republic of Moldova (or Bessarabia) was part of coat of arms to the flag and to maintain it just as it was Romania and shared the same language and culture, hence the similarity between the flags. The current flag during the Kingdom of Romania (1881-1947). The flag is very similar to the one of Andorra and was adopted on 6 November 1990, just before being the state of Chad, even though it has no connection with proclaimed independent on 27 August 1991. The historical evolution of the State Flag of the them. The similarity with the flag of Chad, which differs from the Romanian one only through a blue shade, Republic of Moldova, the tricolor, with the current 5

The Romanian Lei (RON) is the official currency of the country

The Moldavian Lei (MDL) is the official currency of the country

vertical positioning of the colours (blue, yellow, red) knows a long and glorious path. The flag combines the old heraldic insignia of Moldova, the traditional aurochs head and the national colours of the Moldavian people. The flag has certainly existed since the time of Bogdan, voivode of Moldavia, who, with the help of his boyars, defeated the King of Hungary, Louis I of Anjou, in 1359. The one who raised the flag to a higher level was Stephen the Great (1457-1504), as all the 24 Moldavian principalities had this flag. The image of the oldest Moldavian flag also dates back to the times of the great ruler (1467). Different historical sources attest that between the 15th to 19th centuries there were known several red, blue and yellow colours, meaning that the national colours persisted over time. The tricolor was waved, according to some historical descriptions, for the first time, on 29 July 1839 on Mount Pleşuva (Comarnic-Prahova area). It was hoisted by Frenchman Jean Alexandre Vaillant and Romanian Angelescu, accompanied by the peasants and shepherds of Comarnic, Bessarabia, however, for a period of more than 100 years (1812-1917), when the territory between the Prut and the Dniester was under Russian domination, was deprived of a flag. In 1848, the flag was adopted by the revolutionaries from the Moldavian and Wallachian Principalities. On 26 April 1848, the Moldovan and Wallachian students from Paris welcomed the new French Revolutionary Government with a national flag of blue, gold and red “as a sign of the Moldovan and Wallachian Brotherhood”. The Social and National Liberation Movement of the Moldovans from the Left of the Prut and Dniester in the agitated year 1917 took place under the national tricolor flag. On 17 to 18 December 1917, the tricolor was hoisted by Gheorghe Mare on the Tiraspol building, where the Moldovan Congress of Transnistria was held. On 27 April 1990, the Tricolor Flag with the Coat of Arms

placed officially in the center of the yellow strip (the coat of arms was to be approved later) was adopted.

Coat of Arms of Romania

The Romanian Coat of Arms consists of an eagle or an Aquila with its open wings represented on a shield. In its beak, the Aquila holds a cross and in its claws there can be seen a sword and a scepter. Between its protective wings there is a shield divided into five parts comprising the coat of arms of the five historical regions of the country. At the base of the present coat of arms stands the coat of arms of inter-war Romania, which was designed in 1921 by József Sebestyén, the herald designer of Cluj at the request of King Ferdinand I of Romania. • The Coat of Arms of Wallachia contains an eagle or an Aquila with its head turned, having a cross in its beak, a sun on the left and a crescent moon on the right. The first version of this coat of arms is attested on a document dated 20 January 1368 which was issued by Voivode Vladislav I. • The Coat of Arms of Oltenia: In 1872, on the emblem of the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldova there was separately introduced, besides the Wallachian eagle and the Moldavian aurochs, the symbol of Oltenia on a red background, a crowned lion that came out of an ancient crown and a star, all made of gold. Since 1921, it has acquired the nowadays form in the third quadrant: on a red background a golden lion is coming out of a golden bridge (most likely the Drobeta bridge). • The Coat of Arms of Moldavia: in the version on Romania’s coat of arms, the head of the aurochs is associated, besides the crescent moon and the rose, with a golden star instead of the sun that was attested on 30 March 1392 by Voivode Roman I. • The Coat of Arms of Transylvania contains

a shield divided into two fields: in the upper field, besides the crescent moon and the golden sun, there is represented half an Aquila flying out of the demarcation line, while in the lower field there are represented fortress towers, which remind of the old name of Transylvania (Siebenbürgen – 7 Fortresses), a certified name since 1296. The emblem of Transylvanian dates back from the 16th century. • Banat, Crişana and Maramureş didn’t have any coat of arms, but on 23 June 1921, it was established that the coat of arms of Oltenia would be attributed to Banat, and that the coat of arms of Transylvania would be also attributed to Crişana and Maramureş. • The coat of arms of Dobrogea consists of two dolphins facing each other on an azure background. The symbol was introduced on the coat of arms in 1872, initially representing the “Sea Lands” since at that time Romania didn’t own nor claimed Dobrogea, having its access to the Black Sea through the Cahul-BolgradIsmail canal. After 1878, when Romania gained this territory, the heraldic sign referred to Dobrogea.

Coat of Arms of the Republic of Moldova

The Coat of Arms of the Republic of Moldova consists of the stylized drawing of an eagle (or an Aquila) wearing a cross in its beak and a golden scepter and a green olive branch in the claws of each of its legs. The bird’s chest is protected by a shield with traditional Moldavian symbols: the head of an aurochs looking upfront and the sun placed between the horns of the aurochs, both on a red background, symbolizing the light of the day, as well as a pentagonal flower (a rose) and a crescent moon, both placed on a blue background, symbolizing the rebirth. Two common mistakes (including in the Middle Ages) concern these elements: the aurochs head is sometimes mistaken with a bison head and the sun is sometimes mistaken with a star and are even represented as such on different occasions. The two rhombuses are placed at the delimitation level between red and blue. The distinctive elements of the shield are gold (yellow). The emblem of the shield is made using the three traditional colours of the tricolor: red, yellow and blue. The coat of arms of the Republic of Moldova is also found in the center of the national flag on the yellow colour.

History Pre-History and Antiquity

The territory of nowadays Romania has been inhabited since ancient times. Based on the available data, experts estimated that the earliest manifestations of human life in Romania date back to about 40.000 years ago. The Stone Age period is very well represented in the archaeological findings throughout the country. It is worth mentioning the pottery of the Cucuteni Neolithic culture, which represented the peak of civilization before the arrival of the Indo-European tribes. Tribes of shepherds from the North Pontic steppes, which are supposed to be Indo-European nations came over the sedentary farmer tribes at the end of the Neolithic age. The hypothesis of hominids presence on Romanian soil is supported by some discoveries made on the Dârjovului Valley, where recently there have been found rubble tools and sharp splinters made out of flint. In the same location there have been found some small axes made out of flint and quartzite boulders through a technique known as bifacial carving, characteristic to the Abbevillian culture. During the middle of the 7th millennium BC in south-eastern Europe, human society started to experiment deep changes. A new way of life brought fundamental procurement for European civilization: agriculture, architecture, crafts and funerary practices. One of the most spectacular aspects of the new society is represented by the appearance of fine arts materialized in a variety of zoomorphic and anthropomorphic statuettes. These are probably the embodiment of a complex, sacred spiritual life. Thus, in Romania

Cucuteni Culture Vase

there have been found traces of ancient civilizations, including the Hamangia culture. This was a culture of middle Neolithic in the Balkans whose evolution is placed in the second half of the 6th millennium BC. The culture developed in the regions of Dobrogea, south-eastern Muntenia and north-eastern Bulgaria, being originally from the north-eastern Mediterranean area and belonging to a cultural trend that includes the Vinča, Dudești and Karanovo cultures. The most well-known symbols of this culture, “The Thinker of Hamangia” and “Seated Woman”, discovered in 1956 by Nicolae Harţuche in a necropolis near Cernavodă can be found in the National Museum of Romanian History. Another evidence showing that the current territory of Romania was inhabited since prehistoric times is the “Cave with Bones”. This cave is a system consisting of 12 karst galleries, located in the Miniș valley karst system, near the town of Anina. Here there were discovered in 2002 the oldest human remains in Europe. Fossils from three individuals, named by scientists “Oase 1”, “Oase 2” and “Oase 3”; Oase = Bones), have been dated at 35.000 or 40.500 years old using calibration data.

Dacia

Before the year 2.000 BC until the 1st century BC, in nowadays Romania, then Dacia, there were highlighted by different historical and archaeological sources a union of Thracian and Geto-Dacian tribes, the most important of them being those under the leadership of King Charnabon (end of the 6th century BC – beginning of the 5th century BC), King Dromichaetes (end of the 4th century BC – beginning of the 3rd BC) and kings Oroles and Rubobostes (first half of the 2nd century BC). The Geto-Dacians were characterized by historian Herodotus as “the bravest and the most righteous of the Thracians”. In the 1st

“The Thinker of Hamangia” and “Seated Woman”

but was assassinated in 44 BC. A few months later, King Burebista shared the same fate, being murdered by one of his servants. The leadership of the Dacian state was taken over by King Deceneu, high priest of Dacians, adviser and close associate of Burebista, a “man of vast erudition”, according to Iordanes. Under the leadership of King Deceneu, the state capital was moved to Sarmizegetusa Regia in the Orăştie Mountains (located in the nowadays village of Grădiştea Muncelului in the Hunedoara county), in a citadel raised during the reign of King Burebista, located about 350-400 km north-west from the former capital, Argedava, which was maintained as a fortress. After the death of King Deceneu, another high priest, Comosicus, took the leadership of the Dacian state. Then, Coryllus-Scorillo and Duras also became kings. In 87 AD, the leadership of the Dacian state was taken over by King Decebal, son of King Scorillo and grandson of Duras. King Decebal “was highly proficient at war planning and skillful when it came to pursue them”, according to Dio Cassius. He is often mentioned by some Roman texts under the name of Diurpaneus, although some argue that Diurpaneus may have been in fact Duras. The Dacian state had to

Statue of Burebista in Orăștie

century BC, King Burebista (82-44 BC) formed the first centralized unitary Daco-Getae state with the capital located at Argedava (nowadays Popești-Novaci village in the Giurgiu county), a city located on the right bank of the Argessis river (Argeș), at about 20 km south-west of the present capital of Romania, Bucharest. The state capital was mentioned by ancient historians as “The City of the Sun” (Hellis). The limits of the Daco-Getae state were as following: in the north the - the Wooded Carpathians; in the east - the entire western shore of the Black Sea until the mouth of the Bug River; in the south - the Haemus Mountains in the Balkans and in the west - the confluence of the Morava and Middle Danube Rivers, at the border of nowadays Slovakia with Czech Republic and Austria, on the whole Danube River line and even beyond it. The Geto-Dacian state threatened in time the regional interests of the Roman Empire. King Burebista involved in the conflict between Caesar and Pompey, supporting the latter. Roman emperor Julius Caesar subsequently planned a campaign against the Dacians, King Decebal

face a series of battles against the Roman Empire. The Daco-Getae state was finally conquered in 106 AD by Roman Emperor, Trajan. The most important events of these fights are highlighted on Trajan’s Column in Rome, realized by the greatest architect of those times, Apollodorus of Damascus, architect of the first bridge across the Danube, at Drobeta. The Romans occupied the nowadays regions of Transylvania and Oltenia, then organized them as Roman province territories. The remaining Dacian territories were ruled by the “Free Dacians”, which were led by their own kings until the late 4th century AD. The successive invasions of Germanic tribes and Free Dacians determined the Roman administration to withdraw from Transylvania and Oltenia after 165 years of presence, in 271 AD, the year known in history as the “Aurelian withdrawal”. The event happened during the rule of King Aurelian and the “withdrawal” actually signified a strategic

restructuring of the Empire’s borders on the Danube River for a more effective management and protection of the provinces located south of the river. These provinces were henceforth called Dacia Aureliana, Dacia Ripensis, Dacia Mediterranea and subsequently Dacia Dioecesis.

Romanization and Latinity

Romanization is a complex historical process by which the Roman civilization penetrated into all departments of a province’s life, which resulted in the substitution of the dominated population’s language to Latin. Factors of the Romanization process were: the administration, military life, veterans, settlers, urbanization, religion, Latin law and education. The impact of these factors on the local population was the consciously assimilation of the Roman civilization. In 271, Emperor Aurelian withdrew the administration and army from the Dacian territories located north

Ancient Dacian Kingdom (Dacia Superior + Moesia Inferior)

of the Danube. However, part of the Romanized population remained north of the Danube in order to exploit the gold resourse from the Apuseni Mountains and the salt from the TĂ˘rnavelor basin. Among the old urban centers, the most notable ones included Sucidava, Dierna, Sarmizegetusa, Napoca and Porolissum, but the majority of the old cities residents retreated to rural lands due to the migratory populations. Thus, they founded new settlements. Romanization continued for a few more centuries on a vast territory in the northern half of the Balkan Peninsula, approximately north of the linguistic lines proposed by scholars Skok and JireÄ?ek, in the southern regions of Dacia, located south of the Danube and in other provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Roman army had an important role in the Romanization process, taking into account not only

the presence of the legions and auxiliary units with their veterans, but also their dispersion throughout Dacia. Thus, it appears that the Romanian language is the successor of the Latin military language that was spoken on the Dacian-Danube frontier of the Roman Empire. Moreover, the intense military life in Dacia, along with the prestige of the civilization, the culture and the Latin language, represent the main reason for the rapid Romanization of the province. In history, there are also other known cases of prestige military and cultural language assimilation in a short period of time. For example, the Normans, who landed in 841 in north-western France and became Christians in 911, after the conquest of England following the battle of Hastings in 1066, influenced as French speakers the Anglo-Saxon language. This showed that their native language became French after only about two centuries.

Roman Dacia

Although the army of the Rhine, at various times, was larger than that of Dacia, this was not an essential element in the Romanization of Gaul, because the Rhine legions were concentrated on the limes with the Germanic tribes, between Meuse and Rhine, with major centers at Mainz , Trier, Cologne, and Xantem. But not only the Rhine region, but also other border regions of the Roman Empire in Europe (like Pannonia), Africa and Asia today are no longer of roman influence. So, the Romanian language is not only the Latin successor of a military border language, but it is also the only neo-Latin language which preserves vestiges of camp language. The Romanian words common with Albanian ones belong to the native pre-Roman substrate, because they participated, along with the phonetic developments of the Latin words to the creation of modern Romanian. If one may have a closer look, they would see that the Latin “l” was replaced with “r” in Romanian, but not the same thing happened in the case of the Albanian language (for example: in Romanian – viezure, in Albanian – vjedhullë). This simple demonstration of Romanian words common to the Albanian ones at the level of an autochthonous substrate irrefutably denies the Roeslerian hypothesis according to which Albanian words entered into the Romanian language because the two populations lived together in the Balkans during an alleged post-Aurelian withdrawal in the continuity of Romanians in Dacia. It is true that the Thracians lived together with the Illyrians for a period of time as the two civilizations allied and borrowed a bit from each

other culture, but this happened way before the Roman invasions and this fact brings a solid evidence to why some Thracian words are still common with Illyrian words even nowadays. After the withdrawal of the Aurelian administration, the Dacian unity located left of Lower Danube is restored, while the abolition of Roman frontiers on the Carpathian lined allowed the unhindered movement on both sides. Thus, the Free Dacians penetrated the Carpathian Mountains, while the Daco-Romans passed towards the east and south of the Carpathians. The restoration of the Dacian unity didn’t prevent however the continuation of the Romanization process. As the Dacians practiced activities specific to the uninterrupted sedentary life, difficult to do in nomadism and transhumance, like agriculture, crafts and minerals exploitation, upheld the use of Latin as the “lingua franca” on both sides of the Danube. Under Emperors Diocletian, Constantine the Great and Justinian there has been established a true “Roman rule” north of the Danube. The spread of Christianity in the north of the Danube Latin language demonstrates the irreversible Romanization process of the substrate populations. Basic terms of Christianity are expressed via Latin language (bisericăbasilica; înger-angelus; etc.). The Romanization process along southern and northern Danube continued and strengthened between the 4th and 6th centuries. The natives fully integrated into the oriental Roman culture, fully forgetting their original language and most of their own cultural elements.

Thracian-Illyrian common words used by Romanians and Albanians nowadays

Formation of the Romanian Language

Starting from the end of the 8th century, historians speak of the emergence of Romanian, a neo-Latin, Romance language. At its formation, the main roles were played by the three main components: the Romanesque layer, the assumed Daco-Moesian substrate (largely consisting of shared Albanian language vocabulary) and the Slavic adstrate. At the end of the Ancient period, the name Dacia continued to be used for two Roman provinces located south of the Danube (nowadays Serbia and Bulgaria), known as Dacia Ripensis and Dacia Mediterranea. However, in official documents in several languages the territory north of the Danube continued to be known as Dacia up until the Middle Ages and even in modern times. The region between the Adriatic Sea, Black Sea, Marmara and Aegean Sea has sometimes been referred to with the term “Romania” by the Eastern Roman Empire, from which the personalities who have opted in the 19th century for the present name of the country “România”, the result of the unification between Moldova and Wallachia, were inspired from. Romanian language evolved from oriental Latin, while the prolonged contact with the Slavic populations stands at the origin of a significant part of the vocabulary. During the Middle Ages and the premodern period a limited number of Hungarian, ancient Turkic, Ottoman Turkish and Greek words have been adopted in Romanian. The French language had a strong influence in the 19th century. Although subjects of the

Romanian evolved from Latin, thus it is a Romance language

voivodates designated themselves as “Transylvanians”, “Moldavians” or “Wallachians”, the term “rumână” or “rumâniască” for the spoken language is attested in the late 16th century by lots of foreign travelers, as well as by old Romanian documents, such as the “Palia from Orǎştie” or the “Chronicle of the Moldavian Principality” (Letopisețul Țării Moldovei).

Medieval Romanian States

During the post-Roman period, over the future Romanian territory there have passed several waves of migratory populations: the Huns in the 4th century, the Gepidae in the 5th century, the Avars in the 6th century, Slavs and Bulgarians in the 7th century, Hungarians in the second half of the 9th century, Pechenegs, Cumans, Alans and Oghuz Turks in the 10-13th centuries and Tatars in the 13th century. In the early Middle Ages and subsequently the Romanian pre-state formations in the forms of voivodates and kniezates were created. The actual existence of the earliest duchies mentioned in “Gesta Hungarorum”, namely the duchies of Gelu, Glad and Menumorut, couldn’t be confirmed by any other source or any other archaeological or palaeographic studies, so their existence in historical maps is uncertain. However, historian and academician I.A. Pop together with scholar E. Sayous admitted that Gelu’s voivodship existed and continued to exist under Tuhutum, Horca and Iula (Gyula). There are also data about the Transylvanian region of Alba Iulia, led by Iuliu (Iula, Geula or Gyula). He built the first Byzantine 13

Medieval Romanian states (Transylvania) according to Gesta Hungarorum

church in Alba Iulia and in Transylvania at the end of the 10th century, Ieroteu being the first bishop. The diocese was created for the many Romanian and Slavs believers from the area. In a German chronicle, Gyula was considered to be king. In the early 11th century, Gyula was attacked and his country was annexed by the king of Hungary. According to studies made by Romanian historians such as Nicolae Iorga, Theodor Capidan, Vasile Pârvan, George Vâlsan, Constantin Giurescu and Florin Constantiniu, the first Romanian states were founded south of the Danube. The Romanian-Bulgarian Empire was founded by Vlachs Peter and Asen in 1186, and it included the Aromanian lands of “Great Vlachia” (Thessaly, Fotida, Pelasgiotida, Locrida), “Vlachia Minor” ( Epirus, Tesproţia) and “Vlachia Superior” (Dolopia) between the 10th and 12th centuries, while on the north side of the Danube, the name of “Banat” proves 14

the existence within the early Hungarian Kingdom of some autonomous political formations, namely the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian Banat, the latter being those of Timişoara and Severin. Transylvania is referred to as an autonomous principality, vassal of Hungary, starting from the 12th century. Banat and Transylvania appear as offspring formations of some smaller principalities: Neaga, Kean, Ahtum and Chanadinus. In Moldavia, there were the pre-state formations of the Bolokhoveni (perhaps Slavic-Romanian) and Brodnici. In the second half of the 13th century, Hungarian kings colonized Szeklers and Germans in Transylvania evoked in the documents of those times as “hospites”. In the same interval of time, there are mentioned several principalities in Moldova (Onut, Strășineț, Baia, Bârlad, Costea and Olaha), Wallachia (Farcaș, Litovoi, Ioan, Mișelav, Bărbat and Seneslau) and Dobrogea (Tatos, Sațas, Sestlav, Dimitrie, Gheorghe).

Among them stood out in particular those led by Negru Vodă and Basarab I in Wallachia, Dragoș and Bogdan in Moldova, Dobrotici and Balcu in Dobrogea. These rulers were also of different origins. For example, the Basarab family was of Cuman origins, while the rulers from Transylvania were mostly Hungarians. Since the 14th century, the Romanian countries were in contact with the West, especially through the Genoese colonies mentioned in the Lower Danube and the Black Sea: Caladda, Constanza, Licostomo, Montecastro, Policronia and San-Giorgio. By this time, Romanians also had to choose the official religion of their voivodates between Catholicism and Orthodoxy, following the Great Schism, and they chose the latter. The most important person to make this decision is considered to be Nicolae Alexandru. Originally the name of Bessarabia was given to Wallachia because of the founding dynasty of this

Dragoș I hunting an aurochs

principality, the Basarab family. In their battles against the Tatars between 1328 and 1342, they took possession of the steppe region located between the Carpathians, the Danube and the Black Sea and a line running from the confluence of the Trotuş and Siret Rivers, all the way to the head of Codăşti (south of the Cetatea Albă (White Fortress), not far from the mouth of the Dniester River). Later, this territory was ceded in the 14th century by Alexandru Basarab to the Moldavian Voivodship and this is how the territory inherited the name of Basarabia (Bessarabia). In 1484, the Turks conquered the banks of the Danube and the Black Sea, laying their hands on the Chilia and Cetatea Albă port-cities, and in 1538 they conquered Tighina and the rest of the territory which they called “Bugeac”. In 1713, the Turks took over the Hotin Fortress with the surrounding countryside, but this land wasn’t then yet part of Bessarabia at that time. It was not until 1812, when Russia occupied the eastern territory of Moldova between the Prut and the Dniester Rivers, that the Hotin and Bugeac regions taken from the Turks were joined into this ensemble called Bessarabia. Bessarabia was then divided into ten counties (Hotin, Soroca, Bălţi, Orhei, Lăpuşna, Tighina, Cahul, Bolgrad, Chilia and Cetatea Albă, the capital of the gubernia being settled in Chișinău). The territory Iancu de Hunedoara (John Hunyadi), governor of Transylvania and regent of Hungary

Mircea cel Bătrân (Mircea the Wise) bravely fought against the Ottomans and rejected them

of Bessarabia thus extended to the north until Hotin coincides partially with the territory of the nowadays Republic of Moldova, while the southern Bugeac region and the northern region (most of the former Hotin county) are now part of Ukraine. Between the 12th and 13th centuries the formation process of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia started to materialize. Even though the ruling class was of Romanian origins or it was Romanianized, the official language and the liturgical one remained Slavonic for the next four centuries. These Romanian principalities faced many times the Ottoman Empire, which conquered Constantinople in 1453. Mircea cel Bătrân (Mircea the Wise) was the first Romanian that proved himself worthy in the battles against the Turks. Iancu de Hunedoara, voivode of Transylvania and regent of Hungary was another important Romanian figure who led the Crusade of Varna from 1444. He also fought at the battle of Kosovo Polje, where the Christian army was defeated. Iancu died during the siege of Belgrade due to plague. His son, Matei Corvin, took the 16

Partitions of Moldova

throne of Hungary. Romanians like to claim that Matei was the only Romanian that ruled Hungary, but truth to be told, he was rather of both Romanian and Hungarian origins. Vlad Țepeș was a legendary Romanian personality who led Wallachia against the Ottoman domination. Also nicknamed “Dracula” because he was part of the Order of the Dragon, Vlad was famous for his cruelty and for the fact that he impaled his enemies. He made justice in the country, impaled thieves, adulterous and criminals and brought peace in the lands of Wallachia, contrary to what most information claim nowadays. His most famous attack was against Mehmed II, conqueror of Constantinople, during the night of 17 June 1462, when he himself attempted to assassinate the Sultan. Legend has it that Vlad was decapitated by treacherous boyars in 1476. Ștefan cel Mare (Stephen the Great), voivode of Moldova reigned more than any other Romanian ruler. He reigned on the throne of Moldova for more than 47 years. During these years, he fought against the Turks, Poles, Hungarians and Mongols, losing only 2 times in his entire life. Ștefan was a very religious person and is recognized as

Ștefan cel Mare (Stephen the Great), voivode of Moldavia

a saint by the Romanian Orthodox Church. He was a military religious and built Orthodox monasteries and churches every time he won a battle. By 1541, the entire Balkan Peninsula and most of Hungary became Turkish provinces. Moldova, Wallachia and Transylvania remained autonomous, but under Ottoman suzerainty. In 1600, Prince Michael the Brave (Mihai Viteazul), voivode of Wallachia and ally of Habsburg Emperor Rudolf II, became for less than a year prince of Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia as he managed to unite the three Romanian principalities for the first time since the Dacians in a single state. His act of unity has awoken the Romanian consciousness and made it possible for the people of the three principalities to hope further for even more. However, the intervention of Poland and Sigismund Báthory’s return to the throne of Transylvania ended his reign. When Michael retook Transylvania, he was assassinated in his tent according to the orders given by General Giorgio Basta. It is important to mention that Michael the Brave started a campaign on his own and reached by Adrianopole (now Edirne) only with the Wallachian army and a couple of mercenaries. He was promised help by the Christian states, but didn’t receive any, so he decided to retreat back to his country. It is widely confirmed that if he would’ve received the promised help, he could’ve retaken Constantinople as he was a military genius. At the end of the 17th century, Hungary and

Vlad the Impaler, Prince of Wallachia

Mihai Viteazul (Michael the Brave), voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania and architect of the 1st union between the 3 historical Romanian regions

Transylvania became parts of the Austrian Empire (Habsburg), after the defeat of the Ottoman Turks who had turned Hungary for more than 150 years into an Ottoman province. Also in that period, it appeared in Transylvania the Greek Catholic church that resulted in the 18th century. The Church led a political struggle for the recognition by the Austrians of the Romanians from Transylvania rights and for the abolition of the unfair “Unio Trium Nationum” treaty. In 1718, an important part of Wallachia, namely Oltenia, was incorporated in the Austrian Empire. The region was given back to Wallachia in 1739 and legend has it that the Austrians gave the territory back because they were fed up with the Oltenians attitude as they did all the time what they wanted. In 1775, the Austrian Empire occupied northwestern Moldova, then called Bukovina, while the eastern half of the medieval principality was later occupied by Russia, in 1812, and then renamed to Bessarabia. Before 1812, the name of Bessarabia designated only the region called by the Turks “Bugeac”, now part of Ukraine. The 1784 uprising also known as the “Revolt of Horea, Cloșca and Crișan” was an

Avram Iancu

Horea, Cloșca and Crișan, leaders of the 1784 peasant uprising

important rebellion realized by the Transylvanian serfs against the feudal constraints to which they were subjected. Romanian serfs, Hungarians, Saxons from the nobles and state domains, mines from the Apuseni Mountains and from Maramureș, craftsmen, priests and others participated at the uprising. The revolt challenged the status of the Romanians in Imperial Transylvania as tolerated nation, even though they were the majority. Thus, the revolt had a national character. The rebellion broke out on 1 November 1784 in the village of Curechiu, Hunedoara county, and ended in late December 1784 when Horea and Cloșca were captured and tortured by the authorities, while Crișan committed suicide. Tudor Vladimirescu is another important Romanian figure that led a revolution in 1821 against the Phanariot regime. He was associated with the Greek movement Filiki Eteria. Other important people in Romanian history include: Avram Iancu, Constantin Brâncoveanu, Dimitirie Cantemir, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and Mihail Kogălniceanu. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812, won by the Tsarist Empire, the Russians demanded “both Romanian lands” (Wallachia and Moldova). Only the imminence of Napoleon’s attack made the Russian claims gradually reduce from both Romanian countries to the whole of Moldova, then to Eastern Moldova located between the Dniester and the Siret Rivers. In the end, the claims were limited to the Turkish lands located between the Dniester and Prut Rivers: the land of Hotin and the Bugeac (Bessarabia on European maps). The ingenuity of French negotiator Gaspard Louis Andrault, count of Langeron (1763-1831), which served the interests of the Tsar, also allowed for the annexation of the eastern part of Moldova, which wasn’t part of the Ottoman provinces, by fraudulently expanding the name of Bessarabia to all the lands located between the Danube and Hotin, thanks to the complicity of the first dragoman of the Ottoman Empire, Dumitru Moruzi, who betrayed his sovereign in exchange for some lands and a very precious ring. Dumitru Moruzi was then executed for high treason by the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Bucharest signed on16/29 May 1812, violated the international practices and the rules of law existing at that moment as the Ottoman Empire gave up lands that didn’t belong to it and which were part of a vassal but autonomous state, namely Moldova, with which the empire had an active treaty guaranteeing the frontiers of that time. Substantial population exchanges took place in the Ottoman Empire as the Turks and Tatars from 20

Tudor Vladimirecu led the 1821 revolution against the Phanariot regime

Bugeac, as well as more than 30.000 Moldovans left the annexed territory to settle in Dobrogea (an Ottoman territory where they mingled with the local Romanians). They were replaced by more than 60.000 Bulgarians and Gagauz people coming from Bulgaria and Dobrogea, as well as by about 150.000 Russians and Ukrainians, the Russians settling mainly in the cities. Besides, even if the economic development of the 19th century took place at a slower pace than in the rest of Europe, it nevertheless contributed to the process of Russification of the region, even if not all of the newcomers were Russians. The influx of Hebrews, Armenians, Greeks, Germans and others made out of the Bessarabian gubernia a land where the cities were cosmopolite, Russian being the only common language. The native Moldovans represented only 70% of the population in 1910. The autonomy of the government, guaranteed in 1816, was abolished in 1828 as the Moldovan boyars were replaced by Russian military governors. In 1829, despite the protests of the clergy, the Church was transferred from the obedience

Bessarabia (Yellow, Ottoman) until 1812

principality. These goals remained unfulfilled, but laid the foundation for the next stage of development. The educative actions of the revolutionaries, who were called “awakeners of the nation”, helped the populations of the three principalities recognize their language unity and defend their interests. In the decade that followed the Revolution of 1848-1849, the population of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldova increased, reaching by 1860 to more than 4 million inhabitants. At the same time, the number of rural and urban settlements has increased. Several localities on the Danube and nearby (Alexandria, Turnu Severin, Turnu Măgurele and others) have become major urban centers. In this period, agriculture remained the main branch of economy. The areas sown with wheat and rye have increased considerably. Household estates, who Romania as a nation As in many other European countries, in 1848, held the bulk of agricultural territories, were the main revolutions occurred in Moldova, Wallachia and suppliers of agricultural products on the market, but the Transylvania. The main goal of the revolutionaries productivity of these households was low. For example, was complete independence for the first two states the average yield per hectare was two times lower than and national emancipation for the third Romanian in France. Production had increased because of the of the Moldavian Metropolitan Church, which belonged to the Patriarchate of Constantinople, under the Patriarchate of Moscow. Serfdom and captivity, which had been abolished in 1749 by Moldovan Voivode Constantin Mavrocordat, were restored (until 1861), and Romanian was forbidden in administration. The process of denationalization was also carried out via the Russification of toponyms (Chișinău -> Kishinev, Orhei - Orgheev, Ciubărciu - Chobruchi ...) and the systematic formalization of the Turkish names instead of the Moldovan names whenever possible (Frumoasa - Kagul, Obluciţa - Ismail, Cetatea Albă - Akkerman, Tighina - Bender ...). The Tsarist Empire simply sought to erase the Romanian history of Bessarabia.

Alexandru Ioan Cuza, first ruler of the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia Map of the Bessarabian counties in 1883

increasing work obligations of the serfs. Employment was practiced in small proportions. Delegates of the ad hoc meetings convened in October 1857 requested, among other things, the union of Moldova and Wallachia into a single state named Romania. In January 1859, taking advantage of Napoleon III’s support, the fragility of the Ottoman power and the ambiguity of the text of the Paris Convention of 1858, Alexandru Ioan Cuza was elected ruler of Wallachia and Moldova, thus the principalities were unified and politically recognized for the second time since Michael the Brave’s union in 1600. Cuza’s reign lasted only 7 years. He wasn’t allowed to remain in power because in 1866 the politicians gathered in the so-called “Monstrous Coalition” forced him to abdicate. Following the Crimean War, lost by the Russian Empire, between 1856 and 1878, the counties of Cahul, Bolgrad and Ismail reunited for 22 years in the composition of Moldova and respectively Romania since 1859. After 1850, the national sentiment began 22

to manifest in Bessarabia. However, it couldn’t be manifested openly on the political stage as long as the Tsarist Empire considered it to be treasonous. The prolongation of the First World War led to the collapse of Tsarism and thus the national sentiment of the Bessarabian natives became a political one. Thus, on 3 March 1917, the Moldavian National Party under the leadership of Vasile Stroescu was created with the objective of “creating a provincial diet called the Sfatul Țării (Country Counsel)”. The first council meeting took place on 21 November 1917, when Ion Inculeț was elected as president, while Pantelimon Halippa was elected vice-president and Ion Buzdugan became secretary. Sfatul Țării officially proclaimed the Moldovan Democratic Republic on 2 December 1917. Minorities also had representatives in the Sfatul Țării. The first Romanian-language newspaper, “Basarabia” appeared at Chișinău in 1906 and functioned for less than a year, the authorities closing it after publishing the national anthem of Romania. In 1912, following the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Russian annexation, the “Făclia Ţării” newspaper wrote that

Romanians (grey) fighting against the Turks at Grivița in 1877

“Our country is covered by darkness just like a hundred free Romanian nation and has enabled in perspective, years ago”. The newspaper was closed immediately after when history allowed it, of the Great Union of 1918. The confirmation of the Great Union came in the by the authorities. form of the Trianon Peace Treaty. Very important for the Romanians was the release of the other Balkan Independence War In 1866, German prince Carol I of Hohenzollern- peoples from the Ottoman rule, thing which decisively Sigmaringen was proclaimed ruler of the country contributed to their development as modern states in in order to ensure German support for Romanian an era of assertion of the national spirit. independence. It is worth mentioning that Carol I wasn’t the first choice. He was offered the leadership The Great Union and Kingdom of Romania of the country after Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders The newly founded state, located at the refused the Romanian government’s offer. In 1877, confluence of the Ottoman Empire, the AustroCarol I led the Romanian armed forces in a successful Hungarian Empire and the Russian Empire, surrounded war of independence. Eventually, he was crowned King by Slavic neighbors on three sides, aspired to the of Romania in 1881. West, mainly towards France and Germany, for its Romania’s participation in the Russian- cultural, educational and administrative models. While Turkish War of 1877-1878 and the conquest of state Romania didn’t participate in the First Balkan War, the independence meant legal equality with all sovereign country eventually interfered in the Second Balkan states. The country’s independence had a deep moral War, when together with Serbia, Montenegro, Greece significance because it awoken the consciousness of the and the Ottoman Empire defeated Bulgaria. The Peace 23

Carol I von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, King of Romania

Ion Inculeț, President of Sfatul Țării

Treaty of Bucharest was signed in 1913 and Romania gained southern Dobrogea from Bulgaria. In 1914, at the outbreak of the First World War, Carol I was keen in joining the German Empire, but the government opposed it. He died in 1914 and the throne of Romania was taken by Ferdinand I, Carol’s nephew (Carol I didn’t have any children). In 1916, after a period of 2 years of neutrality, Romania joined the First World War on Entente’s side. In spite of Romania’s resounding failures in 1916, which led to the occupation of Wallachia by the German army, the government and the king, who retreated in Moldova’s capital, Iași, were forced in the spring of 1918 to conclude a separate peace treaty with the Central Powers. However, at the end of the war, the AustroHungarian and the Russian Empire have disappeared. Representative bodies created in Transylvania, Bessarabia and Bukovina chose to unite with Romania, thus resulting in the creation of Greater Romania. Shortly after the Great Union however, Romanian troops had to intervene in Hungary in order to defeat Béla Kun’s regime, which endangered the Romanian borders and stability. The outbreak of the Russian Revolution in February 1917 also marked the beginning of the

Empire’s dissolution as the non-Russian nationalities claimed their autonomy. Following the 1917 October Revolution, the Bolshevik party took over the power in Russia (an act in which the voyage of some Bolshevik leaders to Russia was supported by the German Empire). This action led to an armistice and then to the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty by which Lenin gave the Baltic countries, Belarus and Ukraine to the Germans. In this context, the leaders of the Sfatul Țării could only count (in order to guarantee civil peace and crops in Bessarabia) on the Romanian army, which was left alone on the eastern front after the withdrawal of the Russians. The Romanian army was forced to accept the armistice with the Germans on 9 December 1917. Following their retreat through Bessarabia, the Russian army started robbing, raping and killing the native civilian population, while the Bessarabian leaders were assassinated by communist organizations. Under these circumstances, on 22 December 1917, the Sfatul Țării urged the Romanian government in Iași to send the Romanian army to restore order. The Allied troops led by generals Broşteanu (Romanian) and Berthelot (French) crossed the Prut River on 10 January 1918 and liberated Chișinău by robbers on 16 January 1918. Few days later, they completely liberated Bessarabia.

On 24 January 1918, Sfatul Țării voted unanimously to proclaim the independence of the Moldovan Democratic Republic. The Board of Directors was dissolved and was replaced by the Council of Ministers. Daniel Ciugureanu became the new prime minister. Ion Inculeț became the president of the republic. In the following months, besides the Bolshevik attacks from the German controlled territory located over the Dniester River, territorial claims also arise from Ukraine, which also proclaimed its independence. Sfatul Țării then began showing intentions of union with Romania, which were also expressed through “union motions voted by different counties (Soroca, Bălți)”. Ultimately, the union with Romania was decided by Sfatul Țării on 27 March 1918 with 86 votes in favor, 3 votes against and 36 abstentions. Most Romanian governments preceding the Second World War have preserved the form, but not the substance of a liberal constitutional monarchy. Meanwhile, the political class, who was perceived as deeply corrupt and, at least in the Old Kingdom, responsible for the fiasco created due to the country’s

Ethnic Map of Bessarabia in 1918

Map of Greater Romania

in 1933. However, the Iron Guard also had a positive effect over the country as it revitalized the youth and helped develop the consciousness of the country. In the context of the economic problems caused by the Great Depression, these anti-system movements have known in Romania, as in other European countries, a strong ascension. Returned to the throne in 1930 after giving up his succession in 1925, Carol II brought his new wife, Elena Lupescu, to the forefront of the political life, thus marginalizing his first wife, Queen Helena and her son Michael, the heir to the throne. Elena Lupescu’s influence has risen since then as she was the main factor of influence on the decisions taken by the king. This influential group built around Elena Lupescu and Carol II, derogatory known as “the court clique”, has discredited itself via corruption scandals, despite the presence among it of respected personalities such as historian Nicolae Iorga (who supported the Iron Guard before it started to adopt an extremist behaviour) and General Alexandru Averescu. In 1938, in order to prevent the formation of a government that would include members of the Iron Guard, Carol II dismissed the government and instituted a short-lived royal dictatorship. However, he was forced to abdicate on 6 September 1940, as a result of territorial losses suffered by Romania in the same year. Carol II appointed Marshal Ion Antonescu as head of state, and left the throne to his son, Michael I, who was only 18 years old and had no real power. The League of Nations recognized the union of Union Act between Romania and Bessarabia

participation in World War I, has faced a series of antisystem movements of various guidelines, which were in opposition not only with it, but also between them. In 1927, King Ferdinand I died and his nephew, King Mihai I became the rightful heir to the throne, as his father, Carol II gave up on it. However, Mihai I was only 6 years old then, so a regency ruled the country for a while. If the far-left activists associated with the Comintern activated only clandestine, around King Carol II it crystallized, especially in the 1930’s, a group that wanted a greater participation of the Royal House within the political life. On the other hand, the nationalist mystical movement of the Iron Guard has also become a major political factor in exploiting fear of communism and resentment of alleged foreign domination and it manifested through violence and political assassinations, such as the murder from Sinaia of Prime Minister Ion Gheorghe Duca 26

Ethnic Map of Bessarabia in 1930

Romania in WWII

In the Second World War, Romania lost territories in both the east and the west. In June 1940, following the Ribbentrop – Molotov Treaty, the Soviet Union submitted an ultimatum to Romania and eventually annexed Bessarabia, northern Bukovina and Herța. Two thirds of Bessarabia were combined with Transnistria, a small part of the USSR, in order to form the Moldavian SSR. Northern Bukovina, Herța and southern Bessarabia were offered to the Ukrainian SSR. Between 1941 and 1944, Marshal Ion Antonescu led the country as a military dictator, although he is nowadays glorified by the Romanian nationalists. Ion Antonescu, even though he was allied with Adolf Hitler, managed to save lots of Jewish people from the Nazi’s hands as he didn’t support the Führer’s theories. Through the Dictate of Vienna, Romania was forced in August 1940 to give northern Transylvania to Hungary in exchange for German-Italian security guarantees. Also, according to the Treaty of Craiova signed on 7 September 1940, at the insistences of Hitler, fueled by Bulgarian diplomats,

Carol II, King of Romania (1930-1940)

the Moldovan Democratic Republic with Romania and on 12 April 1939, France and Great Britain guaranteed the borders of the Kingdom of Romania. Instead, the Soviet Union officially recognized all the territorial losses of the Tsarist Empire between 1917 and 1921, with the exception of Bessarabia, as this was the only region that the Bolshevik government hadn’t voluntarily ceded. The union between Bessarabia and Romania was considered by the Soviet authorities to be an imperialist set-up. In 1924, the Soviets set up in the Ukrainian Podolia a Moldovan autonomous republic of 8.000 km² which Ian Sodrabs (Lațis), a commissioner of Stalin, had claimed to be a prefiguration of a future socialist Romania, in which the language was written in Latin. However, on 28 February 1938, this political formation became the basis for a future annexation of Bessarabia only, the language being declared Moldovan and being written with Cyrillic words. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (leader of the Iron Guard) and his wife in 1925

Ion Antonescu, commander of Romania in WWII

the two counties from southern Dobrogea, Durostor and Kaliakra were ceded to Bulgaria. Romania entered the Second World War alongside the Tripartite Pact in June 1941 in order to recover its territories lost to the USSR. The objective was achieved for a short period between July 1941 and August 1944. Following the additional secret protocol, a compromise between Nazi and Stalinist expansionism, the Hitler-Stalin Pact of 1939 and the fall of the Western Allies in June 1939, an ultimatum was transmitted to Romania by the Soviet Union on 28 June 1940. Romania had only 48 hours to evacuate Bessarabia and northern Bucovina, otherwise the USSR would declare war. Romania surrendered the territories in 40 hours and the Soviet troops and the NKVD occupied the requested territories as well as the Herța territory, which wasn’t mentioned in the ultimatum. During the hasty and chaotic retreat of the Romanian administration and army from these territories, the civilian population was subjected to robberies, torture and assassination by Communist commandos and NKVD troops. Other actions against the official representatives of the Romanian State have been committed by Soviet military units and local Communists. The inhabitants of the land born within its borders became Soviet citizens.

BT-7 Soviet Tanks in Chișinău (July 1940)

Administrative Divisions of Bessarabia in February 1942

Those born in the rest of the Romanian territories were expelled, while refugees of all origins who had fled from the USSR and lived in Bessarabia under the protection of the Nansen Committee were deported to Siberia, together with the locals who had worked under the administration of the Romanian state. A month after Bessarabia was annexed in 1940, the Soviet government dismembered it in three parts. The central part was called the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova and consisted of 30.000 km² plus 4.100 km² of territory located on the left bank of the Dniester River. Southern Bessarabia and its northern part, along with northern Bucovina and the Herţa Land, territories that numbered 14.400 km² and the remaining 4.000 km² of the former autonomous republic established over the Dniester River in 1924 were attributed to Ukraine. The Soviet regime contributed to the destruction of the Romanian economic system and national identity in Bessarabia, but it also persecuted other nationalities, especially the “white” Russians (anti-Bolsheviks). The German minority, according to the Hitler-Stalin pact, was expelled to Nazi Germany. According to Stalin’s dispositions, all landowners and all private trade owners, including tens of thousands of natives (mainly

Romanians but also Ukrainians, non-Communist Russians, Jews, Armenians and Greeks) were deported to Siberia. On 14 July 1940, under Lavrenti Beria’s orders, the families of the deported people were split. Men were sent to different camps than those where their women and children were sent. Other deportations also took place in 1941 (before Antonescu’s offensive began), with 6.000 Bessarabians being deported to the Omsk region, while other 10.000 were sent to the Kirovsk region. Family dismantling was also applied in these cases. After Romania’s entry into World War II under the command of Ion Antonescu, who gave the famous order: “Soldiers, I order you to cross the Prut!”, Bessarabia returned to the Romanian state for another three years. During these three years, however, the country was militarily administered and the populations suspected of having collaborated with the Soviet power (as well as Gypsies and Jews, regardless of their attitude) were subjected to robberies, assassinations and deportations in Transnistria. The Romanian and German army committed crimes on the territory of Bessarabia and organized concentration camps for the extermination of Romanian Jews and Gypsies. The Romanian state under the dictatorship of Antonescu

Romania in May 1942

Bessarabian Civilians being deported to Siberia

used the same principle as the Soviets: the purpose excused the means, a principle according to which there were committed crimes against the civilian populations and the Romanian Army was sent to being slaughtered in Stalingrad. For these actions, Ion Antonescu was trialed by the People’s Tribunal of Bucharest, declared a “War Criminal”, sentenced to death and executed at the Jilava Penitentiary in 1946. In March 1944, the Soviet army re-occupied the northeastern territories via the Tighina-Chişinău-Iaşi line and on 23 August 1944, after Romania switched sides and entered on the Allied side, Bessarabia was re-occupied in its entirety. The terrorist actions committed by the Communists, assisted by the Soviet army and backed by the NKVD, against the civilian population in 1940, were repeated at the time of the Soviet army’s withdrawal in June 1941 and much more intensively after its return in 1944. Many of these actions also aimed for the elimination of the Romanian sentiment among the Bessarabians and its replacement by the so called “Soviet Moldavian” identity, a new ethno-political ideology, which was incompatible with the Romanian one, as it had been until 28 February 1938. King Mihai I of Romania

Following the situation on the frontline, in the fall of 1943 Marshal Ion Antonescu started secret negotiations in Lisbon with representatives of the Allies. Subsequently, they will be held in Cairo and Stockholm until 22 August 1944. However, Antonescu didn’t have any intention to withdraw from the war as he acted according to his officer word and promise he gave to Hitler and refused even at the last minute to give up the fight against the Allies. On 23 August 1944, King Michael I, with the support of opposition parties and representatives of the army, ended Antonescu’s dictatorship and switched sides as the Romanian army joined the Allies without signing a preliminary agreement with them. This action would be fully speculated by the Soviet army who immediately took revenge and made repercussions against the Romanian soldiers who have previously participated in the battles on the Eastern Front. Romania fought in battles against the Germans in Transylvania, Hungary, Austria and Czechoslovakia, ranking 4th in terms of military effectiveness, engagement in battle, contribution actually brought the Allies and victory results obtained against the Axis states. When the war ended, King Michael I was awarded by US President, Harry S. Truman with the “Legion of Merit” in the highest degree (Chief Commander) medal and by Joseph V. Stalin with the Soviet order “Victoria Diamond”, recognizing in this way the special merit of his contribution towards the Allied victory. At the end of World War II, northern Transylvania returned within the Romanian borders, but Northern Bukovina, Bessarabia, Herța and southern Dobrogea remained ceded to the USSR and Bulgaria. Some of these territories, along with some of the former Soviet Union territories formed the Moldavian SSR, a state that became independent in 1991 under the name of Republic of Moldova.

Bessarabian Romanians were deported, deportations and mass exterminations after 1944 accounted for more than 120.000 locals, mostly Moldovans. The territory that formed the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic within the Soviet Union after the Second World War suffered a brutal policy of erasing the Romanian identity through massacres and the forced deportation to Siberia of nearly a million innocent people in an attempt to change the ethnic composition of the local population. The secret police fought against local nationalist groups, while instead of the Romanian language, the “Moldovan language” was specially designated as the official language, which consisted of transliterating the Romanian language into the Cyrillic alphabet, thus bringing it closer, at least graphically, to the Russian language. People of Russian or Ukrainian ethnic origin were encouraged by the Soviet government to move to the Republic of Moldova and especially to Transnistria. The policy of the Soviet government, which confiscated Moldovan agricultural products in favor of the Russian population even knowing that the crops of those years were just enough for the Moldovans themselves, led to famine. This event worsened the situation in the catastrophic two years period after the war. The public and academic offices within the Communist Party were reserved for

Communist Romania and Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic

After 1944, the territorial organization remained the same made by Stalin after the annexation of 1940, when Bessarabia was broken in three parts. The Sovietization of Bessarabia, Bucovina and Herţa Land was manifested for the following 50 years through a campaign which aimed to destroy the culture and memory of the natives through massive deportations, banning the Latin alphabet, abolishing the churches, demolishing the historical monuments, Russifying the names of localities and installing a climate of terror and assassinations. If in 1940 tens of thousands of 32

1970 Ethnic Composition of Bessarabia

Republic were of Romanian ethnicity). Ethnic cleansing was practiced even against Romanian communist intellectuals who, even for ideological reasons, had decided to stay in Moldova after the end of the war, as well as for everything that had to do with Romania. The imposition of these policies in the reestablishment of the Soviet domination represented in turn the main cause of the resentment of the Moldovan population towards the Soviet authorities, resentment that rapidly began to manifest itself. During the period of Leonid Brežnev as secretary of the Moldovan Communist Party (1950-1952), a rebellion of Romanian ethnic groups was repressed with the killing and deportation of hundreds of people and with the forced establishment of collectivization. With these methods, Brežnev, then the First Secretary of the Moldovan Communist Party, was so successful in his repression of the Moldovan national sentiment that, since then, the Moldovans remained subdued and hidden for another Soviet Moldovan parade in Bălți (1980) three decades until the arrival of Mikhail Sergeyevich non-Romanian ethnic groups (in 1946, only 14% of Gorbachev at the head of the Soviet Union. Then, the the political leaders of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist glasnost and perestroika politics created the conditions

Communist leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej (saluting) at Stalin’s funeral

for a free and open expression of national sentiment in the Moldovan Soviet Republic, which, like in the other republics of the federation, had the possibility of adopting reforms. On 30 December 1947, the Romanian People’s Republic was proclaimed in the context of the Soviet Army’s invasion of Romania. King Michael was forced to abdicate and settled in Versoix, Switzerland. On 23 May 1948 the last territorial concession to the Soviet Union took place as Bolshevik Ana Pauker signed a secret protocol which resulted in the cession of the Snake Island to the neighboring Ukrainian SSR. In the early 1960’s, the Romanian communist regime under the leadership of Gheorghe GheorghiuDej began to assert some independence from the Soviet Union. After Gheorghiu-Dej’s death, Nicolae Ceaușescu became president of the Romanian Communist Party in 1965 and head of state in 1967. He denounced the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia from 1968 and offered a brief relaxation towards the internal repression. These things helped create a positive image of the dictator, both in the west and at home. Seduced by the seemingly independent foreign policy led by Ceaușescu, Western leaders had an ambiguous position towards a regime which became in the late 1970’s increasingly despotic

and unpredictable. In 1971, Ceaușescu visited North Korea and adopted the cult of the oriental leader. The rapid economic growth driven by foreign credits gradually gave way to a misinterpreted austerity and to a harsh internal political repression. President Nicolae Ceaușescu’s long leadership of more than two decades became increasingly austere in the 1980’s. After the collapse of the communist regimes in the rest of Eastern Europe in autumn 1989, a protest in Timișoara by mid-December 1989 was turned against Ceaușescu’s regime by the people that were close to him, thus causing a popular uprising in the capital that coincided with the coup d’état made possible by Ion Iliescu, Petre Roman, Vasile Milea, Victor Stănculescu and others on 22 December. Nicolae Ceaușescu was immediately arrested after attempting to escape with a helicopter at Târgoviște and after a framed trial he was executed together with his wife on 25 December 1989, on Christmas Day. Over 1.500 people were killed during the street fighting in which both the army and the people were convinced that they were defending the revolution against alleged terrorists sent by Ceaușescu, but in reality they were firing one in others, for which the authors of the coup were considered to be responsible. A willful manipulation couldn’t be proven and the

Nicolae Ceaușescu, president of Romania, together with Todor Zhivkov, president of Bulgaria

The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with influential artists, musicians, inventors and sports people and for this reason, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions

people who died during the revolution were declared “Revolutionary Heroes”. An improvised governing coalition led by Ion Iliescu formed the National Salvation Front (FSN). Iliescu installed in power and proclaimed the restoration of democracy and freedom, as well as the desire to reach a “humane and scientific socialism”. He gave up this desire after only a few days in order to promote a free market economy. The Communist Party was banned by law, and Ceaușescu’s most important unpopular measures, such as abortion banning were repealed.

Modern Romania and Republic of Moldova

Romania’s history after the 1989 revolution was marked by the difficulties of the transition from the communist regime to the capitalist system. The first parliamentary and presidential elections were held on 20 May 1990 and were won with 85% of the votes by Ion Iliescu. A new democratic Constitution was designed by the Parliament and adopted after a popular referendum. In the 1992 elections, Ion Iliescu was re-elected for a second term, thanks to the support of the PUNR and PRM nationalist parties and of the former Communist Party, which became PSM. The National-Liberal Party’s candidate, Emil Constantinescu, defeated Ion Iliescu in the 1996 elections after a second ballot. Victor Ciorbea

was named Prime Minister. In these four years, voters haven’t noticed any significant changes in their living conditions. Hence the 2000 elections were won by the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and Iliescu obtained a third presidential term, thus violating the constitution. Adrian Năstase was appointed Prime Minister. In April 2004, Romania joined NATO, while the European Union has confirmed its strong support for the country’s aim to join it in 2007. In the December 2004 elections, the leader of the Democrat-Liberal Party, Traian Băsescu became President of the country. On 1 January 2007, Romania became a full member of the European Union, together with Bulgaria. Following the presidential elections held in December 2009, Traian Băsescu won his second consecutive term as President of Romania. A new government led by Emil Boc within a coalition made up of PDL, UDMR, the minorities group and the group of independent MPs was installed. Victor Ponta, leader of the opposition became head of the government in 2012. In 2016, Romanians elected Klaus Werner Iohannis, of German origins, as president of the country. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the former Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova declared itself independent on 27 August 1991 under the name of the Republic of Moldova and on 2 March 35

1992 it was also recognized by the United Nations. The attempts to unite with Romania didn’t lead to any result, on the one hand, because Romania as a state didn’t show much interest, on the other hand because the Romanian nationalist movement in Bessarabia adopted unrealistic claims (the abolition the Hitler-Stalin pact and all of its consequences, the redrawing of the 1939 borders, the expulsion of minorities (which meant 1/3 of the population) and others). The geostrategic context of the two countries’ energy dependence on Russia and the presence of the 14th Russian Army in Moldova, as well as the antagonistic chauvinism of the co-inhabiting populations led to a political impasse. The new state of the Republic of Moldova, which was unitary at the beginning, fragmented into three federal entities (one of which is de facto independent from the government) and returned to the Soviet political model of administrative organization. Following this blockage, the Communist Party reconstituted itself and won the elections then held the majority in the Parliament until April 2009. According to the Statement of Independence, the state language is Romanian. Recently, the Moldovan Parliament voted for the official state language as Romanian and not Moldovan. Modern Bessarabia is therefore divided between two countries:

the Republic of Moldova and Ukraine (to which Bugeac and Northern Bessarabia belong). Efforts to force the union with Romania in December 2018 (year in which Romania celebrated 100 years of independence) took place without any notable results. The Republic of Moldova currently oscillates between the union with Romania (therefore an integration into the European Union) and the rapprochement to Russia. Romania still faces issues related to infrastructure, medical services, education, and corruption. Near the end of 2013, “The Economist” reported Romania again enjoying a “booming” economic growth at 4,1% that year, with wages rising fast and the unemployment rate becoming even lower than in Great Britain. Economic growth accelerated in the midst of government liberalizations in opening up new sectors to competition and investment, most notably in energy and telecoms. The emigration has caused social changes in Romania, whereby the parents would leave for Western Europe to escape poverty and provide a better standard of living for their children, who have been left behind. Some children are left to be taken care of by grandparents and relatives, and some even live alone, if the parents deem their kids reasonably self-sufficient. Subsequently, the youth began to be called Euro-orphans.

Moldovans and Romanians participating at the Centenarian March in 2018

Nature Landforms

Romania’s relief is characterized by four elements: variety, proportionality, complementarity and symmetrical arrangement, given the fact that the country has a large number of landforms and an approximately equal distribution of the main relief units (35% mountains, 35% hills and plateaus and 30% plains). The Romanian Carpathians extend in a shape of a ring, which encloses a large depression in the center of the country, the Transylvanian Depression. These are fragmented, middle-altitude mountains, with alpine stage, alpine meadows and extensive areas of erosion, whose maximum altitude reaches up to 2.544 meters in the Moldoveanu peak, located in the Făgăraș Mountains. On the Romanian territory, the Carpathian Mountains have a length of 910 km. The country’s relief is focused on the Carpathian arc. In the heart of the country’s territory there lies the Transylvanian Plateau which is surrounded by

Bărăgan Plain

mountain ranges of the Eastern, Southern and Western Carpathians. On the exterior of the mountains there stretch a step lower plateaus and plains, the passage being made through the Carpathian hills. The Transylvanian Plateau presents a strongly faulted and sank Carpathian foundation, whose compartments are found at depths ranging between 2.000 and 6.000 m. At the surface it overlaps a coating of sedimentary rock formed out of clay, marl, sand, sandstone and conglomerate. The geological

Moldoveanu peak (2.544 m) in the Făgăraș Mountains

structure of the basin contains domes and different layers. On the outside of the Carpathian Mountains there is located a ring of hills, the Sub-Carpathians and the Western Hills, very populous places due to their rich subsoil resources (oil, coal, salt) and favorable conditions for the grape-vines culture and fruit trees. To the east and south there are extending three large plateaus: the Moldavian plateau, the Dobrogea plateau and the Getae plateau. The Mehedinți Plateau is also a pretty important one, while to the south and west there lie two large plains, the Romanian Plain or the Bărăgan Plain (narrowed to the east) and the Western Plain. Delta Dunării (Danube Delta) is the lowest region of the country, with an elevation lower than 10 meters. The region has expanded marshes, lakes and reed. Somewhat higher are the fluvial and maritime levees (Letea, Caraorman, Sărăturile) where fishermen villages are located. It is a territory described in antiquity by many scientists of those ages, including Herodotus, Strabo, Ptolemy and Pliny the Elder. Delta Dunării was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1991 as a natural biosphere reserve. In Romania there are about 2.300 lakes and firths occupying a total area of almost 2.620 km2 or about 1,1% of Romania’s territory. To these there are added about 1.150 ponds. The most important feature is the predominance of lakes with surfaces below 1 km² (90% of the total number of lakes). The largest water surfaces are the estuaries and lagoons located near the Black Sea and the Danube Valley while

Danube River at the Iron Gates

the smallest ones (below 0,5 km²) are the glacial lakes in the mountainous regions. Romania benefits from all water units: rivers, lakes, groundwater, as well as marine waters. The hydrological and hydrographic particularities of Romanian are determined mainly by the country’s geographical position in the temperate continental climate, as well as by the presence of the Carpathian arc. The anthropic factor has contributed to some changes to these features. Most of the rivers in Romania are originating in the Carpathian Mountains and belong to the Danube basin (except for some rivers in Dobrogea). The main river basins in Romania are the Danube and Black Sea. Rivers from western Romania (Vișeu, Iza,

Danube Delta

Cobilița Lake in Bistrița-Năsăud county

Someș, Crasna, Crișurile, Mureș, Bega) flow through the Tisza into the Danube, while Timiș, Caraș, Nera and Cerna flow directly into the Danube. Jiu, Olt, Vedea, Argeș, Ialomița, Siret and Prut rivers are tributaries of the Danube. Rivers belonging to the Black Sea basin are Casimcea, Taița and Teliţa. Romania is a Carpathian country because 2/3 of the Carpathian Range is localized on its territory. The Carpathian Mountains determined the biopedo-climate natural setting, representing a veritable orographic knot and also a barrier to air masses, having significant natural resources (especially unexploited gold in the Roșia Montană region. These mountains

had a great importance in the development of economic life. The country is also Danubian because the whole lower river (1.075 km) is located in Romania and parts of it border the states of Serbia, Bulgaria, Republic of Moldova and Ukraine. The Danube is an important axis of navigation since antiquity. Currently, through the Danube, Rhine and Main-Rhine and the Danube-Black Sea channels it is realized the connection between the Black Sea and the North Sea. Romania is also a Pontic country because it has access to the Black Sea, as the Romanian coastline has a total length of 245 km. It varies depending on the processes of accumulation or erosion. The existence of the Romanian Black Sea coastline offered the country multiple economic benefits. It has a high density as the average population density is around 90 people / km²), surpassing the European average. In cultural terms, the current area of Romania was called the “mioritic space” by Lucian Blaga, representing the spiritual creativeness of the local village, with a specific diversity in the European cultures. The current relief of the Republic of Moldova is fragmented, represented by a succession of relatively low highlands and plains. All of this is inclined from northwest to southeast. The highest regions are those located in the north-west and center plateaus (300 to 400 m). In the south, the altitudes are lower (100 to 200 m). The average altitude is 147 meter, while the

Carpathian Mountains

Black Sea near ConstanĹŁa

Central Moldavian Plateau

Lower Dniester Plain

Bălăneşti Hill (430 m)

maximum altitude of the country is 429.5 m, located in the Bălăneşti Hill. The minimum altitude of the Republic of Moldova is of about 2 meters on the inferior Dniester (Nistru) River. The northern part of the country is occupied by the Moldavian Plateau, which is a slightly curved plain with a slope to the south. The altitudes vary between 240 and 320 meters. In the west, in the Prut area, there are a series of reefs called toltre. To the south, the Moldavian Plateau continues with the North Moldavian Plain (Câmpia Bălţului), which has a weakly fragmented relief, lots of slopes and maximum altitudes of 220 to 250 meters. In the middle of the Răut River there is the Ciuluc-Soloneţ Plateau with a maximum altitude of 349 meters (Rădoaia Hill). The plateau is fragmented by valleys. Between the Răut and Dniester Rivers is situated the Dniester Plateau with the maximum altitude of 350 m in the Vădeni Hill. In the eastern side of the country, on the bank of the Dniester River, deep valleys similar to canyons were formed by the tributaries of the river. In the center of the country there is the Central Moldavian Plateau, characterized by high, narrow and elongated

hills, alternating with deep valleys of 150-250 m. In the south there lies the South Moldavian Plain with a surface fragmented by large valleys and dissected by ravines. The maximum altitude of the South Moldavian Plain is 247 m. Between the Prut and Ialpug Rivers, there is a hilly region called the Tigheci Hills that extends in the sub-meridian direction of the south-western part of the Republic of Moldova. The maximum altitude is 301 m (Lărguţa Hill). To the east of the Dniester Plateau, on the left bank of the homonymous river, there can be observed ramifications of the Podolia Plateau with a relief fragmented by a network of deep valleys. To the south of the city of Dubăsari lies the Lower Dniester Plain with a flat and slightly fragmented surface, with maximum altitudes of up to 175 m. The arable areas occupy 53% of the Republic of Moldova’s surface, while the other areas are occupied by cereals crops (14%), pastures (13%) and forests (9%). Other areas, including nonproductive land, form 11% of the entire territory of the state. Although the Republic of Moldova has no access to the sea, the port of Giurgiulești on the Danube River

Dniester River on the Moldavian border

Prut River near Briceni

provides for the maritime transport. The hydrographic basin area of the Republic of Moldova is represented by 3.621 rivers and streams with a total length of about 16,000 km, including 7 with a length of more than 100 km and 247 over 10 km. The Danube River also flows on a 700 m sector. The longest rivers are Dniester, Prut, Răut, Bac, Botna, Ichel, Cogalnic and Ialpug. The average density of the hydrographic network is of 0.48 km / km2. The largest flow of rivers is recorded in the spring, when snow melts. The cross-border water resources of the Dniester and Prut Rivers represent on average 90% of the total water resources in the country. Natural lakes aren’t numerous. They are mostly located in the meadows of the Prut (Beleu, Rotunda, Foltane) and Dniester Rivers (Nistrul Vechi, Cuciurgan). The water from these lakes is destined for irrigation, fishing, industrial needs and flood protection. There are two large reservoirs in Moldova: Lake Costești - Stânca on the Prut River (the largest, 678 million m3) managed jointly with Romania, and Dubăsari Lake (235 million m3) on the Dniester River.

Climate

Romania’s climate is determined primarily by its position on the globe, as well as by its geographical position in Europe. These features make up the country’s temperate continental climate with transition shades. The territorial expansion of the country on almost 5° latitude contributes to the significant higher differentiation between the south and the north of the country in terms of temperature more than its expansion on about 10°C longitude. If the annual average temperature in the south amounts to about 11°C, in the north the value of the temperature at similar altitudes is generally lower by about 3°C. Between the eastern and western extremities of the national territory, the temperature difference is only of about 1°C, so there is an average annual temperature of about 10°C in the west and 9°C in the east. The relief of the country plays a key role in the delimitation of the climatic floors. The Carpathian Mountains form a natural barrier that separates the harsh continental climate of the east from the western oceanic and Adriatic type of climate. In conclusion,

Dubăsari Lake

Köppen climate classification of Romania

Romania’s climate is a temperate continental one with four seasons and is marked by the influences of the eastern steppe, Adriatic climate in the south-west and oceanic in the west and northwest. Thus, the country maintains a Carpatho-Pontic-Danubian climate. Rainfall is moderate, ranging from small amounts of 400 mm in the Dobrogea Plateau, to 500 mm in the Romanian Plain and up to 600 mm in the West. Precipitation increases once with the elevation of the altitude, sometimes exceeding 1000 mm per year. Romania’s first climatic recordings were made with the establishment of the Central Meteorological Institute in 1884 and the appearance of the works developed by Ștefan Hepites. After 1960, it took place a development of the meteorological stations network. In the same period, there also appeared important works on the climatic characteristics of the mountainous, coastal, urban, rural, and other areas. The average annual temperature decreases from the south (which is over 11°C in the Danube Valley) to the north (8.5°C in the northern Moldova Plateau) and in altitude (reaching 0°C at altitudes above 2000 m). There are three climatic

floors in Romania: the warm floor (with values above 10°C), the medium floor (10°C and 6°C) and the cold floor (with temperatures below 6°C). Rainfall decreases from west to east and increases in altitude. As shown in the previous statement, the lowest precipitations are recorded in the eastern part of the country (where there fall less than 500 and even below 400 mm / year, a phenomenon influenced by the aridity of the area) and the highest ones in the high mountains (over 1200 mm / year). There is a large variety of air movements in the country: “crivǎţul”, a very cold and dry wind produces strong frosts and snowdrifts in the east and southeast. The Western Winds bring frost and snow especially in the west wing and the central parts of the country. Tropical, warm, air currents softens the frost and melts the snow. During summer, oceanic air blows from the west and northwest. It is wet and brings lots of rain clouds. The dry and hot tropical air coming from the southern regions create hot temperatures and prolonged droughts. The oceanic influences in the west bring high rainfall, while Mediterranean influence in the southwest of the country has a special effect, 43

contributing to the warm dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The transition influence makes the transition between the oceanic and the Mediterranean climates, while the aridity influence in the east provokes dry summers and cold winters. Finally, the ScandinavianBaltic influence in the Oriental Carpathians and the Suceava Plateau brings low temperatures, while the Black Sea influence brings smaller thermal amplitudes. On the country’s surface, the air circulation prevails from the west due to the west winds. Frequently, in the eastern half of the country and the Romanian Plain, the “crivăţ” blows from the north-east of the continent and causes the existence of low temperatures in winter (between -6°C and 0°C) and summer droughts (with temperatures over 23°C). In some foothill depressions, there are various winds with föehn character. Extreme temperatures have been recorded as following: the absolute maximum temperature of 44.5°C was recorded in Ion Sion (village that doesn’t exist anymore) near Brăila and the absolute minimum of -38.5°C was recorded in Bod, near Brașov. The Republic of Moldova is located in the temperate-continental climatic zone, influenced by its proximity to the Black Sea and the warmhumid air interference from the Mediterranean Sea with insufficient humidity, which determines a high

Lightning over Oradea

Winter in Romania

frequency of droughts. For example, nine droughts occurred in the country between 1990 and 2007. The four seasons are well-acclaimed, the winter being mild and the warm summer. The general movement of the atmospheric air masses is mostly from the Northwest and Southwest Atlantic. The average annual air temperature from north to south ranges between 8°C (Briceni) and 10°C (Cahul), signaling a climate warmth, while the average soil temperature ranges between 10°C and 12°C . In the Republic of Moldova there are about 2.060-2.360 hours of sunshine per year, while positive temperature is recorded in 165 to 200 days a year. The precipitation varies between 370 and 560 mm / year and almost 10% of it falls in the form of snow, which melts several times during winter. Winter in the Republic of Moldova is mild with the average temperature in January ranging between -5°C and -3°C. In some days it can drop to -15°C or -20°C, and if the Arctic air penetrates it can even go down at -35°C. Spring is an unstable season when the number of sunny days increases and the average air temperature is rising. In May, the temperature generally indicates 15°C and the danger of late frosts decreases. The summer is warm and long-lasting, sometimes with even no rainfall at all. The average temperature in July Solar GIS Map of the Republic of Moldova ranges between 19.5°C and 22°C, often exceeding this average and in some days the temperatures can even warm and long. In November, the average temperature reach up to 32°C. Summer rains are often short and drops to 3°C or 5°C and the first snow and frost can abundant, sometimes causing local flooding. Autumn is occur.

Heavy snowfall in Chișinău in April 2017

Wild blue small flower in the Făgăraș Mountains

Flora

In Romania there have been identified 3.700 plant species out of which 23 have been declared natural monuments, 74 missing, 39 are endangered, 171 are considered vulnerable and 1.253 are rare. The three major vegetation areas in Romania are the alpine zone, the forest and the steppe zone. The vegetation is tiered distributed according to the characteristics of the soil and climate, as well as according to the altitude as follows: oak, gârnița, lime trees, ash (in the low hills and steppe zones); beeches and sessile (between 500 and 1.200 meters); spruce, fir, pine (between 1.200 and 1.800 meters); juniper, jneapăn and dwarf trees (between 1.800 and 2.000 meters) and alpine meadows consisting of small herbs at over 2.000 meters. Within the large valleys, due to persistent moisture, there is specific meadow vegetation consisting of reeds, rushes, sedges and often found patches of willows, poplars and alders. In the Danube Delta, swamp vegetation predominates. The oldest tree of the current vegetation that is preserved since the cold period of the last glacial event is the spruce of northern European essence, which has resisted to cold and even went down in the plains. During the post-glacial heating period, hardwood started to grow in the southern areas, while spruce trees climbed higher in the mountains. Beech, common in Romanian forests nowadays, appeared in the country later via Western Europe. Later, the steppe entered the country from Eastern Europe, which is characterized by grassy vegetation. So, in its current form, the country’s vegetation is relatively recent. The current picture of the natural vegetation summarizes these penetrations and transformations in time, grouping the flora in a natural setting by altitude. 46

Peony (Bujor) is considered the national flower of Romania

In the low areas of plains and higher hills from south-eastern Romania (Dobrogea and Romanian Plain, as well as south-eastern Moldova) steppe grasslands were characteristic until the early 19th century. In their neighborhood, the steppe, with clusters of berries (including fluffy oaks and gray oaks) stretches towards the north in the Moldavian Plain, in the west, along the Danube, in the southern region of Oltenia and even in the Western Plain. In the historical past there have disappeared a series of mammals from the country such as aurochs, bison (repopulated), saiga antelope, beaver and tarpan. Some present species like the bustard, pelican or zăgan are endangered. In order to prevent the extinction of fauna and flora species of the country and preserve some interesting elements of the landscape or geological formations, some great scientists, including Emil Racoviță and Alexandru Borza, contributed since the 1930’s to the enactment of a law aiming to protect the nature. On this basis, the first nature reserves of

Retezat-Godeanu National Park

Romania were created. Currently there are a large number of fauna reservations (in the Delta or the mountains), floral reservations (Poiana Stampei - Vatra Dornei), forestry (Codrii Seculari de la Slătioara in the Rarău Mountains), fisheries (for the preservation of the samo hucho on the Golden Bistrița river), geological (Dealu cu Melci on the Small Arieș valley), caving (with caves of great interest) or rare phenomena reservations (the Muddy Volcanoes in the Buzău county or Râpa Roșie near Sebeș). On the same basis there were organized the Retezat National Park and others in the Apuseni Mountains and the Meridional Carpathians, where rare elements of nature are protected by law. The Danube Delta was decreed as a biosphere reserve and was included in the international circuit of reserves and natural monuments. Both its geographic location and climate or relief has significantly influenced the vegetation composition. In the ecosystems of the Republic of Moldova there are 5.513 species of plants. In the last 50 years, 31 species have disappeared, mostly because of the human factor. In the second edition of the Red Book of the Republic of Moldova there were included 81 species of angiosperms, 1 gymnosperm, 9 pteridophytes, 10 bryophytes, 16 lichens and 9 mushrooms, some of which are subendemic species: Genista tetragona, Centaurea thirei, Centaurea anngelescui, Euonymus nana. There are 2 vegetation areas in the Republic of Moldova: steppe and forest-steppe. The steppe zone occupies especially the regions situated at the southern part of the Codrilor Plateau and the southern and eastern Tigheci Hills. The Bugeac steppe in the south and the Bălțului steppe in the north are mainly used in agriculture and there are few areas that retain their characteristic vegetation. The old steppes occupy 65 thousand ha or 1.92% of the country’s surface. The steppe flora consists of xerophyte

Dog-Rose

Basil is the national flower of the Republic of Moldova

plants from the Gramineae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae families and the most widespread genres are fescue (Festuca), feather grass (Stipa), Wild Oat (Avena) and bluegrass. Other common plant species of the steppe are: Dandelion (Taraxacum), Salvia, Sage and Wormwood (Artemisia). The forest-steppe area is found in regions with fragmented relief, characteristic especially to the Codrilor Plateau. Forests occupy 9.6% of the country’s surface (7.2% in the north, 13.5% in the center and 6.7% in the south). The forest vegetation is represented by oak, beech, hornbeam, birch, sessile, linden, elm, sycamore and maple. The grass cover consists of Poa annua, orchard grass, fescue, Galium verum and lungwort. In the valleys of rivers and lakes there can be found meadow forests composed of species of moistureloving trees such as willows and poplars. The aquatic flora accounts for about 60 species of superior plants of 23 families and 27 genres. The most numerous are reeds. Numerous pines, spruce, tuition, juniper, previously unspecific for Moldova, were planted in parks. Ferns and Equisetites present a low distribution. Following researches between 1965 and 1996, 26 fern species were identified, belonging to 9 families and 15 genres (Dryopteris filix-mas, Salvinia natans, Asplenium trichomanes). There are about 200 species and varieties of lichens on the territory of the Republic of Moldova. Also, 124 species of moss (Pleurozium schreberi, Plagiochila asplenioides, Marchantia polymorpha, Funaria hygrometrica) were identified in the flora of Moldova. In the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems there were discovered 3.500 species of algae, especially green algae, diatoms, Euglenophytes and others. 47

Sunflower field in Valea Perjei

Fauna

Romanian fauna is one of the most rich and varied in Europe, containing rare or even unique species on the continent. In Romania there are 732 species and subspecies of vertebrates and many thousands species of invertebrates. Vertebrates are represented in the Romanian fauna by: Cyclostomes (4 species), fish (184 species and subspecies), amphibians (20 species and sub-species), reptiles (31 species and sub-species), birds (382 species and sub-species) and mammals (110 species and subspecies). Among mammals one is in imminent danger of extinction (sea cow), one threatening (mink), 13 vulnerable and 4 endangered. The Romanian fauna is especially distributed according to vegetation. Thus, for the specific floor of steppe and forest steppe these are the following species of animals living there: rabbit, hamster, squirrel, pheasant, bustard, quail, carp, pike, perch and catfish. For the deciduous forest (oak and beech) the wild boar, wolf, fox, barbell, woodpecker and finch are the most common found animals. Finally, the coniferous forest floor is predominantly inhabited by trout, salmon hucho, lynx, deer and brown bears. The alpine fauna is specific to bald eagles and chamois. 48

In particular, the Danube Delta is home to hundreds of species of birds, including pelicans, swans, geese and flamingos, which are protected by law (as well as feral pigs and lynx). The Delta is also a seasonal stopover for migratory birds. Some of the bird species found in the Dobrogea area are the Dalmatian pelican, the pygmy cormorant, spoonbill, red-breasted goose, white-fronted goose, as well as the whooper swan. In the deciduous forest, common to the hills, specific animals are: the wild boar and the badger, the wolf, fox, wild cat, as well as species from neighboring

The grey wolf is commonly found in the Carpathian Mountains

The lynx is considered the national animal of Romania

areas, like rabbit, squirrel or deer. Also, many of these forests are colonized by herds of deer. Among birds, the most notable ones are the woodpecker, finch and pheasant. In the beech and pine forest floor, which overlaps the mountainous and foothill areas, bears, deer, lynx and capercaillie are quite common. In the alpine floor, chamois and eagle can be often seen. The aquatic fauna is dominated by fish species, represented by trout in the mountain waters; carp, pike, bream and perch in the plains and the Danube Delta, while in the Danube there are commonly found sturgeons, mackerels, stellate sturgeons and starlets who come from the Black Sea here to lay their eggs. In the Black Sea, the most common species living there are turbots, mackerels, gobies and sea gudgeon.

Bisons (Zimbri) in HaČ&#x203A;eg Natural Rezervation

Romania has about half of the total number of brown bears in Europe, but the forest space for them remains small. There are quite a few bear sanctuaries in the mountainous regions. The country doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have a national animal because there are a lot of proposals, although the wolf, a symbol of the ancient kingdom of Dacia stands out as the most important one. Other proposals for the national animal include the lynx, bear or eagle. The variety of the past environmental conditions and the abundance of food has contributed to the formation of a diverse wildlife in Moldova. However, due to the increased use of land for agriculture and the expansion of cities, the fauna is now much poorer. More than 45 species of mammals (bears, bisons, aurochs, elk, wild horses and beavers) and numerous bird species disappeared in the past centuries. Despite this fact, todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fauna has more than 400 species of vertebrates. Predominant species that also appear in Romania and Ukraine and in the Eastern Balkans such as raccoons, squirrels, forest mice, gauntlets, eagles, woodcocks, woodpeckers, hawks and others are also present in the Republic of Moldova. The animal world depends on the nature of the flora that offers food, shelter and safety. The fauna of Moldova comprises about 17.000 species of animals, of which 16.500 are invertebrates and 460 vertebrates. The vertebrate fauna includes 70 mammal species, 281 bird species, 14 reptile species, 14 amphibian species and 82 fish species. In the second edition of the Red Book there are 16 species of mammals, 39 bird species (among which the predatory birds are the more vulnerable and endangered), 8 reptiles, 1 amphibian, 12 fish, 1 lamprey, 37 insects, 1 crustacean and 3 molluscs. In the forests of the Republic of Moldova the most common species of animals are: the deer, boar, fox, badger, squirrel, marten,

Pelicans in the Danube Delta

Romania has the highest concentration of brown bears in Europe

wild cat and bird species such as magpie, hoopoe, nightingale and blackbird. The following rodent species are also found in the steppe areas: field mice, hamsters, rabbits, squirrel. Birds of prey include lark, quail, partridge and more rarely the bustard. Badgers and

Young European Bison in a natural reservation

foxes can also be encountered in this area. Lakes and ponds are populated mainly by geese, wild ducks, swans, storks, herons in the lower Prut River and more rarely pelicans. In the aquatic environment, namely in the rivers and lakes of the country, the following fish species live: carp, pike, zander, salmon and others. Reptiles are represented by lizards, vipers and house snakes. Some rare, endangered animals are protected by law, and their hunting is forbidden. In nature reserves, which aim to protect the vegetation, animals are also protected. Most of the invertebrates are represented by insects, which make up more than 10.000 species. The most diverse are those belonging to the Coleoptera order, which include more than 2.000 species: Stag Beetle, rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes nasicornis), Cerambyx cerdo. The Lepidoptera order is represented by over 800 species: big peacock eye butterfly, deadhead butterfly. More than 300 species of spiders live on the territory of the Republic of Moldova. Of the crustaceans, there are 320 species belonging to 10 orders, the most numerous being filopods, copepods, podocopides and amphipods. The molluscs are represented by gastropods (60 aquatic and 70 terrestrial species - Helix pomatia, Carychium minimum; Anodonta cygnea, Adacna vitrea).

The Aurochs is the national animal of the Republic of Moldova

White Stork

People Language

Romanian is an Indo-European language, part of the italic group and of the oriental subgroup of the Romance languages. Among the Romance languages, Romanian is the fifth by number of speakers, after Spanish, Portuguese, French and Italian. For typological differentiation reasons, the Romanian language is often called in comparative linguistics as Daco-Romanian. There are also 3 dialects that are widely considered to have derived from the Romanian language. These are: Aromanian (spoken across the Balkans), MeglenoRomanian (spoken in the south of the Balkan Peninsula) and Istro-Romanian (spoken in Croatia). Aromanian is spoken nowadays by about 250.000 people, but the

language isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t recognized as an official one, except for Albania. The other 2 languages are slowly becoming extinct as there are very few native speakers left. It is registered as a state language in both Romania and the Republic of Moldova, where about 75% of the population considers it as the mother tongue. Romanian is spoken worldwide by 28 million people, of who approximately 24 million have it as their mother tongue. Of the total number of speakers, over 17 million are living in Romania, where Romanian or the Daco-Romanian dialect is the official language and, according to the 2011 census, it is the mother tongue for over 90% of the total population. The Romanian language is one of the six official languages of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, in Serbia. It is also an official or administrative language in several communities and international organizations such as the Latin Union or the European Union since 1 January 2007. Besides the Republic of Moldova, Romanian is also spoken in neighbouring countries like Bulgaria,

Map of Romanian Language

Serbia, Ukraine and Hungary (more or less in the regions localized near the borders), in Israel (where about 15-20% of the population have Romanian as their second language), in the Middle East (due to the large number of people who come to study in the country), in the former Soviet Union states, as well as in Greece and other European countries. Some linguists believe that there are four Eastern Romance languages Eastern: Daco-Romanian, Aromanian, Istro-Romanian and Megleno-Romanian. Others argue that they form only one language, the Romanian one. The Romanian language is not divided into dialects, but only covers various sub-dialects, known in Romanian as “graiuri”, having minor differences in pronunciation and vocabulary, but being at the same time intelligible between them. Besides standard Romanian, the officially recognized sub-dialects are spoken in the following regions: Transylvanian, Banat, Bukovina, Moldova, Maramureș, Crișana, Wallachia and Timok. The Romanian language evolved from oriental Latin, while the prolonged contact with the Slav populations represents the origin of a significant part of the vocabulary. In medieval and early modern period there have been introduced in the language a limited

number of Hungarian, ancient Turkic, Ottoman Turkish and Greek words. French had a strong influence over Romanian in the 19th century. Although there can be brought arguments for a previous indirect attestation, the oldest surviving document written in Romanian is “Neacşu’s letter” from 1521. In this letter, boyar Neacşu from Câmpulung wrote to the ruler from Brașov about the imminent attacks of the Turks. The letter was written in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, which was in use until 1860. The first use of the Latin alphabet is attested by a Transylvanian document, written shortly after the conventions of the Hungarian alphabet in the late 16th century. The Dacian language was an Indo-European language, a branch of the main language spoken in Thrace, which covered in the past large territories of nowadays Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary. It is assumed that it was the first language that influenced the Latin spoken in Dacia, but little is known about this language. There have been discovered about 300 common Thracian-Illyrian words in both Romanian and Albanian language. They are believed to have been inherited from the substrate of the ThracianIllyrian language, many of them related to pastoral life. The Slavic influence was the first one that

Romanian Diacritics

Countries where Romanian is taught as a foreign language

occurred during the formation of the Romanian language due to the migration of the Slavic tribes. It is interesting that the Slavs were assimilated on the north side of the Danube, while they almost completely assimilated the Romanized population localized south of the Danube (the so called “Vlachs”). Slavic influence continued in the Middle Ages, notably through the use of Slavonic Church language for liturgical purposes and as a language of office, until the 18th century. Other neighboring languages (all Slavic, with the exception of Hungarian) influenced Romanian. Slavic influence is felt at both the lexical and phonetical level. Up to 20% of the Romanian vocabulary is of Slavic origin. However, many Slavic words are archaisms and it is estimated that only 10% of the modern Romanian vocabulary is of Slavic origin. Other notable linguistic influences are represented by German, Greek, Hungarian and Turkish. Romanian nouns are declined by gender (female, male and neutral), number (singular and plural) and case (nominative / accusative, dative / genitive and vocative). The article, same as adjectives and pronouns, is accorded according to the gender and number of the noun it determines. Romanian is the only Romance

language where the definite article is enclitic, meaning that it is attached at the end of the noun. Articles evolved from the Latin demonstrative pronouns. Romanian has four verbal conjugations. Verbs can be put in 4 personal ways, namely indicative, conjunctive, imperative and conditional-optative and 4 impersonal ways, namely infinitive, gerund, participle and supine. The Romanian language also has 5 unique diacritics. There are: ă, â, î, ș, ț. Several ethnicities live in the Republic of Moldova. According to the 2014 Population Census, ethnic minorities accounted for 17.9% of the population (excluding the Transnistria region). The largest minority ethnic groups are Ukrainians (6.6%), Russians (4.1%), Gagauz (4.6%) and Bulgarians (1.9%). The natives predominate (82.1%) who can declare either “Moldovans” (75.1%) or “Romanians” (7%). The name “Moldovan” has different meanings depending on: • International law, according to which “Moldovans” are all citizens of the Republic of Moldova irrespective of their ethnicity; • The Law of the Republic of Moldova and of the other former Soviet Union republics according to

Romanian is a Romance language. If you zoom in, you can see different sub-dialects of the Romanian language

Languages spoken in the Republic of Moldova

Romanian Varieties

which “Moldovans” are only the Dacian-Romanian speakers of these states, being a “different ethnic group than Romanians” including from the Romanians from the Moldavia region of Romania; • The law of Romania, according to which the “Moldovans” are part of the Romanian people (defined by the Dacian-Romanian language), living on the original part of the territory of the former Principality of Moldavia, on both sides of the Prut River. The academic sphere considers totally in Romania and mostly in the Republic of Moldova and in the Western countries that the third meaning is the most accurate one according to scientific data (historical, geographic and linguistic). The 1991 Declaration of Independence names the official language as being Romanian. The Constitution of 1994 stated that the national language of the Republic of Moldova was Moldovan, and its writing is based on the Latin alphabet. At the 2014 census, 54.6% of the nearly 3 million inhabitants of the Republic of Moldova (excluding Transnistria) declared Moldovan as their mother tongue and the language they usually speak, while 24.0% of the state’s inhabitants said they had the Romanian language 56

as their mother tongue and the language they usually speak. The two are actually different names of the same language. Moldovan is actually considered a Romanian dialect. The “Romanian Language and Literature” is taught in Moldovan schools since 1991. In Transnistria and Gagauzia, Russian is the mother tongue and the language the local population usually speaks in. Ukrainian languages (spoken by 61% of those who speak Ukrainian as their mother tongue) and Gagauz (spoken by 63.8% of those who speak it as their mother tongue) are recognized as minority languages with official status in areas of the Republic of Moldova with high concentration of the speaking populations of these languages. It is spoken by 2.6% of the country’s citizens. English and French are the most popular languages taught in most schools in the Republic of Moldova. Most of the Russians, Ukrainians, Gagauz and Bulgarians indicated their mother tongue as one language, namely Russian, Ukrainian, Gagauz and Bulgarian. Russian language is considered unofficially the language of interethnic communication, and every second Ukrainian, every third Bulgarian and every

“Our Father” Holy Prayer written in Old Romanian Cyrillic

fourth Gagauz have declared that they usually speak Russian. Only 5% of the Moldovans said that they usually speak Russian. 435.000 citizens of the Republic of Moldova (14.5% of citizens) have declared Russian as the language they usually use, regardless of whether they are Moldovan, Ukrainian, Gagauz, Romanian or Bulgarian. Compared with the 1989 census, Russian daily use decreased significantly due to the emigration of many Russians from the country, as well as due to the diminution of the Russification policy, in the administration being present much more Romanianspeakers (Moldovans / Romanians).

Religion

Romania doesn’t have a state religion as the religious denominations are autonomous from the state. According to the 2011 census, 16.307.004 people, representing 86,45% of the population declared themselves Orthodox, 870.774 declared themselves Roman Catholics or 4,62% of the population, 600.932 Protestants (3,19%), 362.314 Pentecostals (1,92%), 150.593 Greek Catholics (0,8%), 112.850 Baptists (0,6%), etc. In Dobrogea, there is a small Muslim minority (0.34%), composed mostly of Turks and Tartars. There are also a small number of atheists (0,11%), agnostics, people who are irreligious (0,1%) and people without a declared religion. According to a global study, “Religiosity and Atheism Index”, conducted by the Gallup International Institute, Romania is listed in the top 10 most religious countries in the world. Thus, Romania ranks 7th in the world, with almost 89% of the population claiming to be religious. It is the only country in the European Union that appears in the top 10. The report shows that Romania is among the few countries where the number of believers has increased from 2005 to 2012, from 85% to 89% people who declare themselves religious.

In Romania, by 2015, there were 18.436 places of worship. Of these, 14.765 are churches, 359 chapels, 1.096 houses of worship, 47 cathedrals, 2 bishops, 78 mosques, 89 synagogues and 286 monasteries. On average, about 90 new churches appear in Romania annually, and these are only those of the Orthodox Church. Since 1989 until now, the Orthodox churches have increased by about 2.000 in numbers across the country. In Romania, there are thousands of hermits hiding in the Carpathian Mountains and the monastic life is one of the most active in Europe. Religious tourism is growing exponentially in Romania lately, as the Churches from Northern Moldova and Bukovina start gaining international fame. Romania donated lots of money to Mount Athos and other holy places throughout history but currently the Romanians are denied to have their own autonomous church in Mount Athos. Romania represents a paradox, as it is the only Latin country that has adopted Orthodoxy as its religion, even though Catholic influence in the west and Muslim influence in the south throughout history didn’t manage to obtain the Romanian’s gratitude. Romania is the 4th country in the world in terms of Orthodox believers, having about 18.75 million faithful or about 7,2% of the total Orthodox population.

Religion Map of Romania

Adherents to the Orthodox Church in Romania

Although the majority of the population of Romania is Orthodox, the percentage of practicing believers is far smaller. Thus, according to the study “Religion and religious behavior” led by the Soros Foundation Romania, only 59% of the Romanian Orthodox people pray frequently. Also, at least over half of them go to church once a month and almost 40% go only on major holidays. The Patriarch of Romania is also locum tenens to the throne of Caesarea. The Roman Catholic Church currently has about 1.026.429 faithful, of whom 587.033 are Hungarian, 345.557 Romanian, 36.040 Germans, 11.580 Slovaks and the rest of them other nationalities. The Catholic Church has 646 parishes and about 1.000 churches and chapels where about 800 priests serve. The population census conducted in 2002 revealed the existence of 191.556 faithful Greek Catholics, of which 61,8% live in urban areas and 38,2% in rural areas. The vast majority of believers are Romanian, but there are also 19.654 Hungarian believers and 1.721 Ukrainians. The church has five dioceses, 3 vicariates, 75 deaneries (many of which do not have employed personnel), 763 parishes and 761 priests. In Romania, 0,3% of the population is of Islamic 58

confession. Most of them are Sunni Muslims. The Romanian county with most Muslims is Constanța, where about 85% of the Muslims from Romania live. Next in the list is Tulcea, where another 12% live. The remaining Muslims live in cities like Bucharest, Brăila, Călărași, Galați, Giurgiu and Drobeta-Turnu Severin. Ethnic, most of them are Tatars, followed by Turks, Albanians, Gypsies and Muslim immigrants from the Middle East. In total there are 77 mosques in Romania. Following the Holocaust and the communist policy of encouraging massive emigration of Romanian Jews to Israel, the Hebrew community in Romania narrowed

Sihăstria Putnei Orthodox Monastery

dramatically. Mosaic cult believers, numbered approximately 6,000 according to the 2002 census. They are organized in 78 communities scattered in Bucharest and other 30 counties. The most important communities are in Bucharest, Timişoara, Iaşi, Cluj-Napoca, Galați, Bacău, Arad, Baia Mare, Botoşani, Braşov, Deva, Târgu Mureş, etc. In Romania there are a number of 124 temples, synagogues and prayer houses, of which 23 are officiated daily. According to the Association of Religion Data Archives, in 2005, there were 1.869 Bahá’í worshipers in Romania. Other sources indicate 7.000 Bahá’í followers. Romanians are some of the most religious and superstitious Europeans, but also have one of the largest deficits of scientific knowledge. Only one in ten Romanian has a reinforced scientific and active culture. 96% Romanians declare that they believe in God, while 89% believe that there is a soul and that sin exists. 85% believe in angels and 75% believe in heaven. Also, 66% believe in the devil and hell, while 64% believe in life after death. 70% of the Romanians make

Father Onufrie is probably the last hermit whose identity is known, living in the mountains. The Carpathian Mountains are filled with Orthodox hermits

Administrative Organization of the Romanian Orthodox Church

donations to church, with amounts reaching as high as 200 lei (almost 50 euros) in the case of 11% of the total believers. Regarding the role of the Church, 86% of the Romanian population agrees that the Church provides answers to the spiritual needs of people, 76% think that it gives answers to moral issues, 72% think that it gives good advices for the family life problems, 61% for youth problems and 59% thing that it provides adequate answers for social problems. According to the same study, “Religion and religious behavior”, Romanian atheists are a group of very young people and with an educational level significantly higher than the national average: 53% of atheists are under the age of 30 and 33% of them have completed higher education. Although they trust the Church, Romanians do not want it to mingle in politics.

While 73% of Romanian citizens say they trust a lot the Church, 81% of Romanian priests disagree as to advise people who to vote for. Christian traditions in the Republic of Moldova have deep roots and originate in the 3rd to 8th centuries, according to some theories. In August 2007, 23 registered religious cults were active on the territory of the Republic of Moldova, with a total of 2.319 components (parishes, monasteries, theological institutions, missions and others). Religious cults with the most constituent components are: Metropolis of Moldova (1281), Metropolis of Bessarabia (309), Union of Baptist Evangelical Christian Churches (273), Jehovah’s Witnesses Religious Organization (162), Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostal Cult (40), Roman Catholic Bishopric of Chișinău (33), Union of Free Christian Churches (19), the Diocese of the Old Russian Ritual Orthodox Church and others. According to the 2014 census, 96.8% of the population of the Republic of Moldova declared themselves Orthodox Christians. 65% of them belong to the Metropolis of Chișinău and All Moldova (subordinated under the Moscow Patriarchate), 25.2% to the Metropolis of Bessarabia (subordinated under the Romanian Patriarchate) and 6.6% to the Russian Orthodox Church. Other religious minorities are represented by Baptists (0.9%), Jehovah’s Witnesses (0.62%), Pentecostals (0.35%), Adventists (0.32%) and others (1.24%). Neither the Constitution nor any other law of the Republic of Moldova expressly stipulates that the Republic of Moldova is a secular state. Article 35 (8) of the Constitution states that “state education is secular”, while other mentions to the secular state are not established by the supreme law. At the same time, Article 31 (4) of the Constitution refers to the autonomy of religious denominations and their separation from

Religion Pie Chart of the Republic of Moldova

Căpriana Monastery

the state, and this fact is put forward as an argument in favor of the secular character of the state. However, the secular character of the Republic of Moldova should not be seen in the restrictive sense of religion or expression of opinion based on the belief of a certain religious cult.

Demographics

According to the 2011 census, Romania has a population of 20.121.641 inhabitants and is expected in the coming years to register a slight decrease in population due to the negative natural growth and massive emigration. The main ethnic group in Romania is formed by Romanians. They represent, according to World Heritage On UNESCO’s list there can be found 6 cultural the 2011 census, 88,9% of the total population. After Romanians, the following important ethnic community objectives and 1 natural objective in Romania: is represented by Hungarians, who form approximately Cultural objectives: 6,5% of the total population or an estimated 1,3 million • Churches of Moldavia citizens. According to official data, in Romania there live • Dacian Fortresses of the Orăştie Mountains around 665.000 Gypsies. Other smaller communities • Historic Centre of Sighişoara are those of the Germans, Ukrainians, Lipovans (related • Monastery of Horezu to Russians), Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, • Villages with Fortified Churches in Transylvania Croats, Greeks, Ruthenians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians • Wooden Churches of Maramureş and Armenians. Of the 745.421 Germans that lived Natural objective: in Romania in 1930, nowadays there are only about • Danube Delta On UNESCO’s list there can be found only 1 60.000 left. Also in 1924, the Kingdom of Romania had a Hebrew population of 796.056 members, but in the cultural objective in the Republic of Moldova: 2002 census they numbered only 6.179 persons. Cultural objective: Hungarians and Gypsies make up the largest • Struve Geodetic Arc

Ethnic Map of Romania

ethnic minorities in Romania, accounting for 6,5% and respectively 3,2% of Romania’s stable population. The ethnic Hungarian population represents the majority in the Harghita (84,6%) and Covasna (73,8%) counties, while significant proportion of the Hungarian population (over 20%) are present in Mureş (39,3%), Satu Mare (35,2%), Bihor (25,9%) and Sălaj (23,1%). The gypsy minority is growing in almost all regions of the country. The Ethnic Federation of Roma People from Romania believes that gypsies could be as many as 2,5 million, thus representing 10% of the total population, and by other observers, their number would be lower, between 1 and 1,5 million. The counties where most gypsies live are Mureş (8,52%), Călărași (7,48%) and Sălaj (6,69%). The third largest ethnic group in Romania, the Ukrainians, live mostly in the north, in areas near the border with Ukraine, especially in Maramureş, Suceava and Timiş. Also, in the Tulcea county there were registered about 1.000 Ukrainians. The German minority is in a continuous decline since the census of 1930. Currently, the highest percentage of this community is located in the county of Satu Mare

(1,45%). Hertha Muller, Nobel Prize in Literature winner is a Romanian citizen of German origins. Romania is the country with the highest illiterate rate in Europe. In Romania there are nearly a quarter of a million people who are illiterate. According to the 2011 census, the top counties with the most illiterate rates, both in number and as a percentage of the total population, were found in the southern and southeastern counties of Romania: Giurgiu, Călărași, Teleorman, Ialomița and Tulcea, while in the capital and some western, central and northeastern counties there were recorded the lowest illiterate rates, less than 1%. Although according to the 2002 census, the illiteracy rate was reduced by about 50% at the country level, the decline was not uniform in nature. By 1 January 2016 in urban areas, in the 320 cities and towns, there lived approximately 12.546.000 people. Urban population was 56.41% in 2016, slightly lower than the one from 1 January 2015 (56,44%). 48% of the total number of Romanian can hold a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue. English and French are the main

Regions of Romania

languages taught in schools in Romania. English is spoken fluently by a total of 5 million Romanians, while French by 4 to 5 million. German, Italian and Spanish are fluently spoken by 1 to 2 million persons each. Universities in Romania are encouraged to take measures to organize lines of study and specialization in languages and literatures of national minorities. In the past, French was the most popular foreign language in Romania. However, recently, English tends to gain ground. Usually, connoisseurs of English language are in particular young people. However, Romania is a full member of the International Organization of the Francophonie, and in 2006 the country hosted a major summit of the organization in Bucharest. German is taught in Bucovina and Transylvania especially due to traditions that have been preserved in these regions during the Austro-Hungarian rule. Bucharest is the largest city and also the capital of Romania. The city owns 16,8% of the total urban population and 9,5% of the total population. On 1 January 2016, the city’s population exceeded 2.1 million inhabitants, while the metropolitan area of Bucharest concentrates a population of over 3 million inhabitants. There are various plans aiming to expand the borders of the Bucharest metropolitan area in the future. In Romania there are six cities that have a large population (around 300.000) and which rank in the most populous cities of the European Union. These are: Iaşi, Timişoara, Cluj-Napoca, Constanța, Craiova and Galați. Other

Romania’s Population Pyramid

Illiteracy Rate in Romania

cities with a population exceeding 200.000 inhabitants are Braşov, Ploieşti, Brăila and Oradea. Also, there are still 13 other cities that concentrate a greater number of 100.000 inhabitants. The number of Romanians or people with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is about 12 million. Shortly after the 1989 revolution, Romania’s population was over 23 million. But since 1991, it has entered a gradual downward trend, currently reaching about 20 million people. This is due to the free movement in countries outside the borders of Romania, but also because of the quite low birth rate. In July 2010, in the EU Member States there were approximately 2,5 to 2,7 million Romanian immigrants. With 2,8 million immigrants under observation by the World Bank at the level of 2010, Romania ranks 18 in the world in terms of emigration. About 45.000 foreigners are present in the local labor market, of which about 30.000 are workers. The number of immigrations in Romania remains low (10.000 people in 2008, 5% more than the previous year). The total number of work permits issued to foreigners in 2008 was 76.700, 30% more than in 2007. The main

Fertility rate of the country by region (dark green – 1.9-2.1; light green – 1.7-1.9; yellow – 1.5-1.7; orange – 1.4-1.5; pink – 1.3-1.4; red - <1.3)

immigrants coming to Romania are from the Republic of Moldova, Turkey, Middle Eastern countries, Israel, Greece and others. Romania is divided into 9 regions and 42 counties as following: Region

Capital

Muntenia Moldova Transilvania Dobrogea Banat Oltenia Crişana Maramureş Bucovina

Bucureşti Iaşi Cluj-Napoca Constanța Timişoara Craiova Oradea Baia Mare Suceava Romanian Colindători (Carol Singers)

Administrative division of Romania

County Alba Arad Argeș Bacău Bihor Bistrița-Năsăud Botoșani Brașov Brăila Bucharest Buzău Caraș-Severin Călărași Cluj Constanța Covasna Dâmbovița Dolj Galați Giurgiu

Capital Alba-Iulia Arad Pitești Bacău Oradea Bistrița Botoșani Brașov Brăila Municipality of Bucharest Buzău Reșița Călărași Cluj-Napoca Constanța Sfântu Gheorghe Târgoviște Craiova Galați Giurgiu

Gorj Harghita Hunedoara Ialomița Iași Ilfov Maramureș Mehedinți Mureș Neamț Olt Prahova Satu Mare Sălaj Sibiu Suceava Teleorman Timiș Tulcea Vaslui Vâlcea Vrancea

Târgu Jiu Miercurea Ciuc Deva Slobozia Iași Buftea Baia Mare Drobeta-Turnu Severin Târgu Mureș Piatra Neamț Slatina Ploiești Satu Mare Zalău Sibiu Suceava Alexandria Timișoara Tulcea Vaslui Râmnicu Vâlcea Focșani

Aromanians (Vlachs) from the Balkans at the beginning of the 20th century

The top 10 largest cities from Romania can be seen in the following table: Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

City Bucureşti Cluj-Napoca Timişoara Iaşi Constanța Craiova Braşov Galați Ploieşti Oradea

Region Muntenia Transilvania Banat Moldova Dobrogea Oltenia Transilvania Moldova Muntenia Crişana

Population 2.200.000 350.000 320.000 300.000 290.000 275.000 265.000 250.000 215.000 200.000

According to the population census data of 2004, the population of the Republic of Moldova on the right bank of the Dniester comprised 3.383.332 people (excluding Transnistria). In the same year, another census took place in Transnistria, where 555.347 people were registered. Summing up these two results, it is concluded that the total population of the Republic of Moldova (including Transnistria) accounted for 3.938.679. Compared to the 1989 census, the population of the country decreased by 396.681 persons or 9.14% of the total population (7.5% in Moldova and 24% (according to other data 18.1%) in Transnistria). Most

Major ethnic groups of the Republic of Moldova (1989 Census)

of the population is concentrated in the Central Region (including Chișinău), where 50% of the total population lives on 34% of the country’s surface. According to statistics, the Republic of Moldova is experiencing a demographic decline over a period of 24 consecutive

Population Pyramid of the Republic of Moldova

Ethnic Map of the Republic of Moldova 67

Population Density in the Republic of Moldova

years. This factor is also caused by the fact that fewer children are born in the country. In 2013, the number of newborns decreased by 4% compared to 2012. The birth rate in the Republic of Moldova was in a continuous decline until 2002 when it constituted 9.9 ‰, after which it was observed a nonessential growth tendency of up to 11.0 ‰ in 2011. The rate level is higher in the rural area (11.8 ‰) than in the urban area (9.8 ‰). Of the total number of newborns of 39.182 children, 51.5% were boys, with the male ratio being 106 boys per 100 girls. In 2012, 22.4% of the children were born out of wedlock. In the last decade, 68 to 70% of the newborns belonged to mothers from the 20-29 age group. Generally, the mean age of mothers increased from 25.5 years (2001) to 26.7 years (2010). The reasons for the low birth rate are complex: the low socio-economic level, especially in younger families; the high cost of childbirth in Moldova and the increasing economic role of women. In the same year, the infant mortality rate was 11 deaths per 1.000 68

babies. Most deaths (57.5%) were due to circulatory system diseases, followed by tumors (14.5%), digestive diseases (9.1%), accidents, intoxications and traumas (7.8%) and respiratory tract diseases (4.8%). The deaths of children under the age of 1 year old were caused by perinatal conditions, which accounted for 42.2% of all children, congenital malformations, chromosome deformations and abnormalities (27.1%), respiratory diseases (11.8%), accidents, intoxications and trauma (7%). The life expectancy in the Republic of Moldova is 71 years (67 years for men and 75 years for women). The average life expectancy of urban residents is of 73.50 years, 4 years longer than in rural areas. The marriage rate stands at 7.3 ‰. Most men who married in 2011 belonged to the 25-29 age group (37.2%), while the women belonged to the 20-24 age group (46.7%). The average age at first marriage was 26 years for males and 24 years for women. The divorce rate stands at 3.1 ‰. Moldova is currently at the top of the countries affected by the migration processes.

Gagauz living in the Republic of Moldova

Bulgarians living in the Republic of Moldova

Migration takes place in two directions: internal (from village to town) and external (for work, educational purpose, business or tourism). According to official statistical data, about 370.000 emigrants (the informal figure stands at about 800.000 citizens) went abroad only for the purpose of employment. More than 60% of them work in the Russian Federation due to the relatively low travel expenses, visa-free entry or Russian language skills. Most of those who leave for work in Russia come from rural areas (64.6% of the total). Among the EU countries, the most popular destination is Italy, where 18.3% of migrants work. Other major destinations include Ukraine, Portugal, France, Spain and Greece. Approximately half of all migrants are employed in construction, the remainder working in private households of citizens, services and commerce. The Republic of Moldova is also affected by the phenomenon of intellectual exodus. Of those who leave, intellectuals represent 18%. This group of migrants consists of engineers, doctors, teachers, lawyers and economists. Most immigrants come from Ukraine, Turkey, Romania, Russia, Israel and other states. Most have immigrated for work and for family reasons, the rest for studies.

The Russian and Ukrainian populations are concentrated in the urban environment, especially in the Chișinău and Bălți municipalities, and in the Transnistrian region. Ukrainians represent the majority in some villages from the north of the country. The number of Russians decreased in the last 15 years by 171.412 people or 30.4%. Ethnic Gagauz people represent 4.4% of the population, a number which increased by 0.3% compared to 1989, being the fourth largest ethnic group in the country. Găgăuzia is the only ethnic group in the Republic of Moldova with territorial administrative autonomy (UTA Gagauz-Yeri), in which 86.7% of the Gagauz citizens live. The Gagauz language is used as the spoken language in family by 54% of the population of the autonomous territory. In the Republic of Moldova there live approximately 12.800 Gypsies, representing 0.3% of the population. According to other sources, the Gypsy population would actually be more numerous, ranging from 15.000 to 20.040, as some leaders of the Gypsy community claim. At the same time, there are no exact data confirming that the number of Gypsy population is higher than the one presented in the official data. Almost half of the entire Moldovan population (excluding the autonomous territories of 69

Russians living in the Republic of Moldova

Ukrainians living in the Republic of Moldova

Transnistria and Găgăuzia) own Romanian passport and citizenship, which represents an important point of view regarding the unification of the Republic of Moldova with Romania. Small and medium-sized cities have lost their importance due to a number of factors: the economic crisis, de-industrialization, rising unemployment and the reduction of the income of the population; the degradation of the public utilities infrastructure (roads, water and sanitation systems) due to the lack of financial resources for rehabilitation; the sudden halt in the provision of public services (heat supply or provision of public transport services). This has favored the reduction of the urban population. The attractiveness of the city of Chișinău as a capital and large economic, political and cultural center, and to a lesser extent the city of Bălți, has been maintained. Thus, over 48.5% of the urban population lives in Chișinău, and if we add here the municipality of Bălți, then about 60% of the urban population lives in two cities of the Republic of Moldova. In the other 63 cities there lives about 40% of the population. A positive impact on the development of the two cities had the presence of developed infrastructure, the skilled labor force and a

larger market, which attracted investment, especially in the capital. According to the last three censuses, the female population of the country is dominant. Thus, in 2014 the number of females represented 51.8%, in 2004 represented 51.9% of the total population and in 1989 stood at a level of 52.3%. The number of women registered in the last census was 1.452.702 people, exceeding by more than 100.000 the number of men. Thus, 100 female accounted for 93 men, compared with 92.7 in 2004 and 91.2 in 1989. In the Republic of Moldova, it is obvious that the demographic aging process is sharpening, primarily because of the reduction in the number of young people under the age of 15 and, at the same time, due to the increasing number of the elderly population (60 years and over). Although the pace of the aging process in the Republic of Moldova is much higher than in other European countries, it is still among the countries with low demographic aging. In 1989, these population categories consisted of 29.6% population younger than 15 years and 12.6% population older than 60; in 2004 there were 21% and 14.3%, respectively. At the 2004 census there were 97 persons aged over 100 years old, 85 of whom were women and

Administrative Divisions of the Republic of Moldova

79 of them were living in rural areas. The aging process is more pronounced in rural areas. At the same time, the proportion of women aged 50 years old and over is higher than men of the same age. The evolution of the demographic population aging is primarily determined by the decrease in birth rates and the reduction of fertility due to the unstable socio-economic situation. The Republic of Moldova is divided into 32 districts, 3 municipalities and 2 autonomous territories as following: Rank City 1 Chișinău 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Tiraspol Bălţi Bender (Tighina) Rîbniţa Cahul Ungheni Soroca Orhei Dubăsari

Region Chișinău Municipality Stînga Nistrului Bălţi Bender Municipality Stînga Nistrului Cahul Ungheni Soroca District Orhei Stînga Nistrului

Population 650.000 157.000 125.000 111.000 55.000 35.000 34.500 27.000 25.000 24.000

District

Capital

Anenii Noi Basarabeasca Briceni Cahul Cantemir Călărași Căușeni Cimișlia Criuleni Dondușeni

Drochia

Dubăsari

Edineț Fălești

Florești Glodeni

Hîncești

Ialoveni

Leova

Nisporeni Ocnița Orhei Rezina Rîșcani Sîngerei

Soroca

Strășeni

Șoldănești Ștefan-Vodă Taraclia

Telenești

Ungheni Municipality

Ungheni Capital

Chișinău

Bălți

Bender (Tighina)

Autonomous Territory

Capital

Transnistria

Tiraspol

Găgăuzia

Comrat 71

Economy & Transportation Economy

On 21 December 1989, Romania had a GDP of 800 billion RON, or about 53.6 billion $, and an average exchange 14,92 RON per $. Romania’s exports totaled 5,9 billion $ in 1989. The external debt, worth 11-12 billion $, was fully paid in February 1989. Around 58% of the national income was achieved by industry and 15% by agriculture. The employed population represented over 73% of the occupied workforce. The minimum wage was about 2.000 RON, or 135 $. Romania had over 8 million employees and 3,6 million pensioners. The banking landscape consisted of five institutions: the National Bank of Romania, the Romanian Foreign Trade Bank, the Bank for Agriculture and Food Industry, the Investment Bank and the Savings Bank House. Romania’s main industries are textiles and footwear, metallurgy, machinery and machinery assembly, mining, wood processing, construction materials, chemical, food and oil refining. Of lower important than the previous mentioned are the pharmaceutical industry, heavy machinery and household appliances. Currently, the machinery industry (Dacia) is very broad and oriented towards the market. Romanian IT industry is experiencing a steady annual increase. Romania’s economic power is concentrated primarily on the production of goods by small and medium enterprises in industries such as precision machinery systems, motor vehicles, chemical industry, pharmaceutical, household appliances and clothing. In 2006, Romania managed to equalize (according to the dollar parity) the GDP per capita the country had in 1988. Compared to the EU’s average GDP per capita in 2007 of 26.208 $ and the world average of 8.191 $, Romania had a level of 7.523 dollars, almost 3,5 times lower than the European average and below the world average. In 2009, the underground economy represented about one third of Romania’s gross domestic product, according to estimates made by the company A.T. Kearney. Almost two thirds of these amounts derive from people who work on the black market, while the rest of them derive from undeclared income revenues. In 2013, the underground economy accounted for 40 billion € or 28,4% of the gross domestic product, 72

Romania’s Export Tree Map

according to a report made by the Council of Europe. The level is slightly lower compared to 2011 when the percentage was 30% of GDP. The main industries in Romania are machine building industry, chemical, petrochemical, construction materials, wood processing and light industry. In the automobile industry, there are produced oilfield equipment for terrestrial and marine oil rigs at Ploiești, Târgoviște, Bacău, București and Galați, mining machineries at Baia Mare and Petroșani, machine tools at București, Oradea, Arad, Râşnov and Târgoviște, as well as products of the precision mechanics industry. Tractors are produced in Brașov, Craiova and Miercurea-Ciuc, while other agricultural machineries are produced in București, Piatra Neamț, Timișoara and Botoșani. Locomotives are produced in București and Craiova, wagons in Arad, Craiova, Drobeta-Turnu Severin, cars in Pitești and Craiova, trucks in Brașov, ships in Constanţa, Giurgiu, Olteniţa and aircraft in București, Bacău, Brașov and Craiova. Before 1990, Romania was producing over 40.000 tractors a year. In 2001, their number had fallen to 5.300 pieces, and in 2006 domestic companies

Romania’s GDP is still recovering after the 1989 Revolution

Net salary per county in Romania (2016)

reported the manufacturing of 3.300 units. After the plant in Brașov was closed in 2007, domestic production in the field collapsed to just a few dozen units a year, domestic production being performed by Mat Craiova and Mechanical Ceahlău. The electrical and electronics industry is represented by companies located primarily in București, Iaşi, Timișoara, Craiova and Piteşti. The chemical industry has developed in recent decades due to the existence of a wide range of raw materials existing in the country: enormous quantities of salt, sulfur, potassium, resinous wood, reeds, gas and animal products. Salt manufacturing developed in Borzești, Băile Govora, Râmnicu Vâlcea, Târnăveni and Giurgiu. Sulphuric acid is produced at Baia Mare, Zlatna, Copșa Mică, Turnu Măgurele, Valea Călugărească and Năvodari. Romania has an agricultural area of 14,7 million hectares, of which only 10 million are occupied by arable land. After an assessment made in November 2008, approximately 6,8 million hectares of arable land wasn’t worked. Agriculture amounted to 6% of the country’s GDP in 2007, compared to 12,6% in 2004.

About 3 million Romanians are working in agriculture or about 30% of all employed people as for August 2009, compared to only 4 to 5% in Western countries. Romanian agriculture is far from what is practiced in Europe both as production and as technology. Products “Made in Romania” are present in small amounts in the foreign market, while imports grow from year to year. The former “granary of Europe” in the interwar period became a net importer in certain segments like: meat,

Ship Building Industry in Romania

Bucharest Sky Tower

Republic of Moldova’s Export Tree Map (2013)

fruit and vegetables. Tourism is the economic sector that has the biggest valuable development potential and can become a source of attraction for both investors and foreign tourists but the strong competition from neighboring countries (Hungary, Bulgaria, even Croatia) and the extent of the problems related to competitiveness in Romanian tourism leads to a difficult situation. Agrotourism represents a great development potential as Romania is one of the few EU countries that preserves its rural-style environment. Other important tourist spots that could be exploited more intensively are: the Prahova Valley, Danube Delta, Black Sea, the regions of Maramureș and Bucovina, the Apuseni Mountains, Olt Valley and so on. Cities likely to be major attractions for foreigners are: Sibiu (European Capital of Culture in 2007), Băile Herculane, Brașov, Cluj-Napoca, Sighișoara, Constanţa, Iași, Suceava, Târgoviște, Bucharest and others. In 2009, the Black Sea coast of Romania was visited by 1,3 million tourists, of which only 40.000 were foreigners. In 2008, Romania’s exports have increased by approximately 25% to a level of 49 billion $. Rompetrol is the largest exporter with amounts reaching to 1,6 billion $. After 1990, the Republic of Moldova entered a strong economic downturn, of which it only recovered in 2000. The agricultural sector has the most important weight in the economy. The main Moldovan products are fruits, vegetables, wine and tobacco. The Republic of Moldova imports oil, coal and natural gas, mainly from Russia. The construction of the Giurgiulești oil terminal, which increased Moldova’s access to the international oil market and reduced its chronic energy

dependence on Russia was completed at the end of 2006. As part of the ambitious liberalization of the economy in the early 1990’s, Moldova introduced a convertible currency, liberalized prices, ceased granting preferential loans to state-owned firms and companies, began the privatization process, eliminated controls for exports and froze interest. Although many attempts to stimulate investment and the development of the economy are currently undergoing, the major role in the economic growth is represented by the diaspora. The World Bank data show that 1/3 of the country’s GDP is provided by Moldovans working abroad (about 1.7 billion $). Agriculture plays an important role in the Moldovan economy and contributes to more than 16.2% to GDP. Agricultural production and processing accounts for about 50% of export earnings. Over 40.7% of the total land area is owned by 390.380 individual agricultural producers. The area of cultivated land is

City Gate Towers in Bucharest

(5.2%). Due to the agricultural character of the country, the most developed industrial branch is the food industry. Approximately 550.000 to 600.000 tons of milk are produced annually in Moldova, of which about 28% are purchased for processing. The dairy industry is represented by 23 companies, of which only 12 are viable, most of which are located in the northern part of the country. The sugar industry of the last ten years has been marked by the arrival of German company Südzucker, which bought control packages in 4 sugar factories from Drochia, Fălești, Donduşeni and Alexăndreni. Annual sugar production went down from 149.000 tons in 2006 to 87.6000 tons in 2011. The Republic of Moldova is provided with 5% of its own energy and fuel resources, the rest being imported. The main fuel supplier is the Russian Federation, followed by Ukraine and Romania. Natural gas is the main type of fuel in the country’s energy balance and its share currently accounts for 42% (including liquefied gas). Consumption of liquid fuel (petrol, diesel) accounts Republic of Moldova’s GDP by sector for 40% of the total volume of energy used, while the estimated at 1.483 thousand ha, which represents 43.8% consumption of solid fuel (coal and wood) accounts for of the surface of the country. Of the total cultivation less than 10%. Electricity balance in the Republic of Moldova area, about 60.6% is intended for cereal crops (mainly wheat, which represents 18.5% of arable land and maize, includes own production plus import and consumption representing 22.1%), sunflower (25.7%) and fodder of electricity. The Cuciurgan power plant (privatized

Republic of Moldova’s Nominal GDP vs Other Countries

Mileștii Mici Winery contains the world’s largest wine cellars

garments; the production of leather, articles made out of leather and footwear (including travel goods and leather goods). Approximately 330 enterprises with domestic, foreign or mixed capital are operating in the light industry. In total, more than 26.000 employees operate in light industry enterprises. The largest foreign investors in the Republic of Moldova are: France Telecom (Orange), TeliaSonera (Moldcell), Lafarge, Société Générale, Veneto Banca, QBE, RosGosStrah, Bemol, Lukoil, GazProm, RAO EES, Petrom, Rompetrol, BCR, Banca Transilvania, Alpha Bank Romania, Südzucker, METRO AG, Raiffeisen Bank and others. The average salary in the Republic of Moldova has registered a steady positive growth after 1999, being in quantum of 5.906 lei or 298 euros in 2018. The economy returned to a positive growth of 2.1% in 2000 to 7.5% in 2008. Although the Moldovan economy is poorly integrated into the world economy, the consequences of the financial and economic crisis have been felt. The factor that prompted the crisis in Moldova is related to the country’s dependence on remittances from abroad, which declined in 2009 by 30%, as well as on the reduced competitiveness of domestic products. In 2010, the economic and financial situation stabilized. The GDP grew in real terms by 6.9%, exports increased by 12% and imports by 13.7%. Decreases registered in 2009 were recovered in all sectors, excluding industrial production, construction and transport. Currently, 15 financial-banking institutions operate in Moldova, of which 9 were foreign-owned in 2010. The banking system in the Republic of Moldova has a relatively small share of state-owned banks. The share of the state in the banking system is of 13.1% of the total assets, while the share of banks with foreign capital in the total assets in the banking system is of 41.5%.

by the Russian group Inter RAO UES) provides nearly 75% of the consumption of 4.1 billion kWh (previously, electricity was imported from Ukraine). Domestic output consists of about 1 billion kWh, including 95% produced by thermo-power plants, 4.9% produced by hydropower plants and 0.1% by other plants. On the right side of the Dniester River there are 3 electrothermal power stations: CET-1, CET-2 (in Chișinău) and CET-Nord (in Bălţi) with installed total power of 334.5 MW and thermal capacity of 1.796 Gcal / h. The electrical networks have a total length of approx. 63.400 km, the total pipeline length is of approximately 15.800 km and the storage capacity of oil products is of 600.000 tons. In order to improve the present situation in the energy sector, the Republic of Moldova has joined the Energy Community Treaty in 2010, which provides for the integration of the electricity and natural gas market into the regional energy markets of South Eastern Europe. An important component of the manufacturing sector of the Republic of Moldova is the light industry. This industrial branch comprises: manufacture of textile Transportation products (knitted items and carpets); manufacture of On 31.12.2010, public roads in Romania totaled 82.386 km, of which 16.552 km (20,1%) were national roads, 35.221 km (42,8%) were county roads and 30.613 km (37,1%) were communal roads. The realized investments do not guarantee the drivers a worry-free travel, because half of these restored areas are deficient and have an overpassed term of validity. Romania ranks 123 regarding roads quality in a top realized by the World Economic Forum (WEF). Romania is overpassed by countries like Albania, Bulgaria, Kyrgyzstan and Cambodia and African countries Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia. A study conducted in 2010 showed that 80% of the Romanian drivers are driving in an aggressive 76

MallDova Shopping Center in Chișinău

manner. Before 1989, under communist rule, there were built 113 km of highway, while during December 1989 and July 2015 there were inaugurated 585 more km. Romania has since July 2015 approximately 698 kilometers of highway, numerous sections of about 230 km being in execution. The most important highways in Romania are A1 (București – Nădlac) (to be totally finished in 2020), A2 (București – Constanța), A3(București – Oradea) (unfinished), A4 (Ovidiu – Agigea) and A10 (Sebeș - Alba-Iulia - Aiud – Turda). In August 2014, in Romania there were 500 km of express roads, but their main problem was represented by the bottleneck it occurs near big cities, due to the absence of two-lane bypasses. Some available expressways include routes like: București - Giurgiu, București - Centura Ploiești, Constanța - Mangalia, Brașov - Codlea, Cluj Turda, București – Urziceni – Buzău – Focșani – Bacău – Roman - Iași and Craiova - Filiași. The national railway company of Romania is CFR (Căile Ferate Române) that operates the network along with other private transport companies. The total number of railways in Romania amount to 22.247 km. Rail freight and passengers showed a dramatic decrease from the record levels of 1989, mainly due to

the lower gross domestic product during the 1990’s and due to the competition in railway transport. In 2004, on railways there were carried 8,64 billion passengers in 99 million travels and 73 million metric tons or 17 billion tonne-km freight. The combined total represents approximately 45% of the quantities transported in the country. In 2007, 1.600 trains were put into service, of which most were local trains. Until 2000, the state company CFR Marfă has held the monopoly in rail freight. In 2000, the Romanian Railway Authority has licensed the first private freight. In 2006, private operators accounted for 25% of the market for rail freight, and were about 30, of which the top leader was the Romanian Railway Group, followed by Servtrans Impex Bucharest, Unifertrans Bucharest and Transferoviar group Cluj-Napoca. In the same year, the transport market represented around 6,5 million tonnes / month. In 2007, the volume of goods transported by rail totaled about 800 million €, higher by 10% compared to 2006. In 2006, in rail freight transportation there were a total of 23.100 employees. Romania has rail links with its neighboring countries. If for Hungary, Serbia and Bulgaria border crossing doesn’t represent any problem, for Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova trains must change the gauge of

A2 Highway

Modern Romanian Train

CFR Marfă train transporting goods

1.435 mm to 1.524 mm. In Romania there are 62 airports. Air transport in Romania is performed between major cities but passenger traffic is low compared to other countries in Europe. 2,11 million passengers were registered in 2006 for domestic traffic. In present there are open to passenger traffic a numbers of 16 airports, two of them being localized in the capital, Henri Coandă Otopeni and Aurel Vlaicu. In 2008, air traffic reached to an amount of about 600 million €and 9,1 million passengers for the 16 airports in Romania. Of the 9,1 million air traffic passengers, 2,5 million passengers chose low-cost operators. In 2007, air traffic amounted to 7,8 million passengers. The Franco-Romanian Air Navigation company was founded in 1920 and offered air transportation for passengers, cargo and mail. In the following years, these companies have been set up: LARES (Romanian Air Lines), SARTA (Romanian Air Transport Society), TARS (Romanian-Soviet Air Transport). On 18 September 1954, TAROM (Romanian Air Transport) was established, a company which still functions nowadays and is the main air carrier of the country. In January 2012, on the Romanian market there were present the following low-cost airlines: Aer Lingus (Ireland), Air One (subsidiary of Alitalia, Italy), Blue Air (Romania), German Wings (low-cost division of Lufthansa), Pegasus Airlines ( Turkey), Niki (Austria), Ryanair, low-cost leader in Europe, Windjet (Italy) and Wizz Air (Hungary). Inland Romanian waterways are still at a very low level (below 1%) but they are experiencing a great growth potential due to navigable rivers and the Danube River. In 2006, in Romania there were 1.731 kilometers

of navigable waters of which: 1.075 km were navigable on the Danube, 524 navigable km on secondary rivers and 132 navigable km on the Danube – Black Sea channel. Romanian waterways are used more for export or import of goods than goods transport within the country. In the first quarter of 2010, external traffic (2.376 million tons capacity) exceeded the domestic traffic (2.207 million tons capacity). The port of Constanţa is the most important port of Romania, located on the shores of the Black Sea. The favourable geographical position and the importance of the Port of Constanța is emphasized by the connection with two Pan-European transport corridors: Corridor VII – Danube (inland waterway) and Corridor IV (railway). The two satellite ports, Midia and Mangalia, located not far from the Constanța Port, are part of the Romanian maritime port system under the coordination of the Maritime Ports Administration SA. Other important ports on the Black Sea coast are: Mangalia, Sulina and Năvodari. On the Danube, the most important ports are: Galați, Brăila, Tulcea, Giurgiu, Drobeta-Turnu Severin and Oltenița. Cernavodă and

Ships on the Danube near Brăila

Henri Coandă – Otopeni International Airport

TAROM is the national air carrier of Romania

Calafat - Vidin Bridge over Danube

Poarta Albă are the most important ports located on the Danube – Black Sea channel. Between Romania and Bulgaria there are two bridges over the Danube. One of them links Giurgiu to Ruse, while the second links Calafat with Vidin. Two bridges over the Danube are still in a project phase: Oryahovo - Bechet and Silistra Călărași. Urban transport is held in most towns by bus and minibus taxi (minibuses), which are quite well developed both in terms of carriage and tariffs. There are also medium-sized and large cities in Romania where transport is made by trams and trolley buses, as in Galați, Timișoara, Constanța (no tram), ClujNapoca, Brașov (no tram), Iași, Sibiu, Brăila and other cities. Bucharest is the only city in Romania that has a subway. Although construction of the underground has been scheduled for 1941, due to geopolitical factors, Bucharest’s metro was inaugurated in 1979. Today it is the most used mode of public transportation in Bucharest with an average of 600.000 passengers per day. In total, the metro network has a length of 63 km

and 45 stations. Taxis in Romania have either yellow or white colour, depending on the city you travel in. Taxi fares are usually cheap (about half an euro per km) but tourists must be cautious as there are many taxi drivers that tend to scam travelers. Always be sure to ask the

Romanian Taxi

Port of Constanţa

Public bus in Romania

Bucharest Metro

Bucharest Metro Map

driver to activate the taximeter. It is advisable to call the taxi company and ask for a cab so you may experience a pleasant drive. The public road network in the Republic of Moldova consists of 12.719 km, out of which 87% are paved. Of this total, 3.669 km are national roads while 6.834 km are local roads, but their quality doesn’t meet international standards. Public roads, the main internal transport route, connect the major cities of the Republic of Moldova, and their use takes advantage of the handicaps of the railways, although most of them are in a bad overall condition. In addition, the lack of fuel and its prices make it more difficult for interurban transport. Passengers travel on the territory of the Republic of Moldova is mostly made via regular buses and minibuses (about 17.000). A private minibus used in public transport is called Rutieră. The main railway junctions of the Republic of Moldova are in Chișinău, Tighina, Ungheni, Ocnița, Bălți and Basarabeasca. The direct external links with Odessa (in Ukraine) to the Black Sea and with the Romanian cities of Iași and Galați interconnects the Republic’s network. Through these connections, the Moldovan railway routes diversify and include the following destinations: Russia (Moscow and Sankt Petersburg), Belarus (Minsk), Ukraine (Kiev, Odessa, Nikolaev, Cernăuți, Herson, Ivano-Frankovsk, Krivoy Rog and others) Romania (Bucharest, Iași, Brașov, Cluj-Napoca, Constanța, Galați and others), Turkey (Istanbul), Bulgaria (Sofia), Czech Republic (Prague) and Germany (Berlin). Many of these routes are daily. In the Republic of Moldova, the Dniester and Prut Rivers are navigable, but shipping plays a minor role in the country’s transport system. In 1990, only 317 million tons-kilometers of freight were transported on inland waterways, compared to 15.007 million tons -kilometers on railways and 1.637 million tonskilometers on the road network. On the Dniester River, tours to Odessa are organized with medium capacity

Chișinău - Odessa Train

M3 National Road

ships (200 to 400 seats) and various fast ships and boats. In the absence of preferential agreements with Romania for the use of the Galați port or with Ukraine for the use of the ports of Reni or Odessa, the Republic of Moldova invested huge sums of money in the Free International Port of Giurgiulești on the Danube River, where the construction of an oil terminal was completed in 2006. The air route is one of the most preferred ways for foreign tourists visiting the country. Moldovan airlines, together with foreign companies, provide passenger transport services through regular and charter flights, providing direct connections with about 20 destinations and with most countries in the world through linked connections. In recent years there has been a reduction in the number of flights to the former CIS countries, but there is a clear trend of increasing flight numbers towards destinations from Western and Southern European countries. The main airport of the country is Chișinău International Airport. At the beginning of 2006, the Chișinău airport offered direct flights to international destinations such as Bucharest - Henri Coandă, Timișoara - Traian Vuia, Athens, Bologna, Budapest, Istanbul, Kiev, Larnaca, Lisbon, Moscow, Prague, Rome, Tel Aviv, Verona, London and Vienna. Transport by buses or by minibuses is much faster than by train between the capital and destinations such as Basarabeasca, Comrat, Cahul or Lipnic, as well as towards Bălţi, this time because of the topography that requires the compulsory passing of trains through Ungheni. Buses and trolleybuses start operating at 06:00 until 22:00 in most of the cities, while trolley buses and mini-buses usually operate until midnight. There is no subway system in Chișinău. There are numerous taxi companies in the capital. The taxi fare is in all cities less than 1 euro per km but people should be aware of scammers.

Air Moldova is the national air carrier of the country

ChiČ&#x2122;inÄ&#x192;u International Airport

Bread Truck in Chișinău

Taxi in Chișinău

Port of Giurgiulești

Trolleybus in Chișinău

Culture Romanian Proverbs

mamei tale! (Listen to your father’s teachings and do not forget your mom’s advices!) 9. Fapta bună este pentru om cunună. (The good deed is a crown for the man.) 10. Bob cu bob se umple sacul. (Grain with grain fills the bag.)

1. Fie pâinea cât de rea, tot mai bine-n țara mea. (No Romanian Holidays matter how bad is the bread, it still tastes better in Holiday my country.) 2. Cine sapă groapa altuia, cade singur în ea. (He who Anul Nou (New Year's Day / digs a pit for another, shall fall into it himself.) 3. La plăcinte înainte, la război înapoi. (To the pies Saint Basil) Unirea Principatelor Române / forward, from the war backwards.) 4. Cine fură azi un ou, mâine va fura un bou. (He who Mica Unire (Small Union Day) steals today an egg, tomorrow will steal an ox.) Dragobetele (Romanian 5. Capul plecat, sabia nu-l taie. (Sword doesn’t cut the Valentine’s Day) - Not a Public bent head.) Holiday 6. Răzbunarea e arma prostului. (Revenge is a fool’s Mărțișorul (Spring Festival) weapon.) Not a Public Holiday 7. Socoteala de acasă nu se potrivește cu cea din târg. Ziua Femeii (Women’s Day) – (Home accounting doesn’t match with the one at Not a Public Holiday fair.) Paștele (Orthodox Easter) 8. Ulciorul nu merge de multe ori la apă. (The pitcher doesn’t go many times to water.) 9. Mai bine burtos de la bere decât cocoșat de la Ziua Eroilor / Înălțarea muncă! (Better paunchy because of beer rather than Domnului (Heroes Day / Ascension) crooked because of work!) 10. Pauzele lungi și dese, cheia marilor succese. (Long Rusaliile (Pentecost, Whit and frequent breaks are the key to major successes.) Monday) Ziua Muncii (Labour Day)

Moldovan Proverbs

1. Când frații lucrează împreună, munții se schimbă în aur. (When the brothers work together, the mountains change into gold.) 2. Câinele flămând nu se teme de bătaie. (The hungry dog isn’t afraid of being beaten.) 3. Înalt ca bradul, prost ca gardul. (Tall as a tree, stupid as a fence.) 4. Albina în gura ține mierea cea mai dulce și în coadă acul cel mai otrăvitor. (The bee holds in its mouth the sweetest honey and the poison in the needle.) 5. Fuga e rușinoasă, dar e sănătoasă. (Running is shameful, but healthy.) 6. Ferește-mă Doamne de prieteni, că de dușmani mă feresc singur. (Keep me safe from friends, God, and I will keep myself away from enemies.) 7. După război mulți viteji s-arată. (After the war, many brave men will show up.) 8. Ascultă învățătura tatălui tău și nu uita sfaturile 86

Period 1 January 24 January 24 February 1 March 8 March Variable (April / May) Variable (May / June) Variable (May / June) 1 May

Ziua Independenței 10 May (Independence Day / King’s Day) - Not a Public Holiday Ziua Copilului (Children’s Day) 1 June Adormirea Maicii Domnului (Dormition of the Theotokos) Ziua Victimelor Fascismului şi Comunismului / Ziua eliberării de sub jugul fascist (Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Fascism and Communism) Not a Public Holiday Sfântul Andrei (Saint Andrew’s Day) Ziua Națională (National Day)

15 August

Crăciunul (Christmas)

25 December

23 August

30 November 1 December

Moldovan Holidays Holiday

Period

Anul Nou (New Year’s Day)

1 January

Crăciunul pe stil vechi (Old Calendar Christmas)

7 January

Ziua Apărătorilor Patriei (Day 23 February of Veterans of the Armed Forces and Law Enforcement Agencies) Mărțișorul (Spring Festival) Not a Public Holiday

1 March

Ziua Femeii (International Women’s Day) – Not a Public Holiday

8 March

Paștele (Orthodox Easter)

April / May (Variable)

Ziua Eroilor / Înălțarea Domnului (Heroes Day / Ascension)

April / May (Variable)

Ziua Muncii (Labour Day)

1 May

This gift called Mărțișor is offered on the 1 of March every year to celebrate the arrival of spring

The Republic of Moldova produces some of the most quality European wine

Ziua Victoriei şi a 9 May Comemorării Eroilor Căzuţi pentru Independenţa Patriei (Victory and Commemoration Day) Ziua Copilului (Children’s Day) – Not a Public Holiday

1 June

Ziua Independenței (Independence Day)

27 August

Limba Noastră (National Language Day)

31 August

Ziua Armatei Moldovenești (Day of the Moldovan National Army)

3 Septembrie

Crăciunul pe stil nou (New Calendar Christmas)

25 December

Romanian family in traditional costumes

Romanian bear parade takes place every winter before Christmas. People dressed as bears do a specific dance while their companions sing carols

Romanian Easter Eggs

Moldovans wearing the National Costume at a Festival

Aromanians (Vlachs) share the same ethnic origin as Romanians (Aromanian and Romanian languages only slightly differ but are intelligible one to another)

Traditional Moldovan Carpet

Romanian Traditional Folk Masks

Romanian Folk Group in Cluj

Moldovan women are known for their beauty worldwide

Alternosfera is one of the most appreciated rock bands in the Republic of Moldova & Romania

Romanian Personalities

Vlad TepeS Vlad Ţepeş (b. November 1431 in Sighișoara, Mureș county, Transylvania, Romania – d. December 1476 near Bucharest, Wallachia, Romania) was voivode of Wallachia three times between 1448 and his death. He was the second son of Vlad Dracul, who became the ruler of Wallachia in 1436. Vlad and his younger brother, Radu, were held as hostages at the Ottoman Empire’s court since 1442 in order to secure their father’s loyalty. Vlad’s father and eldest brother, Mircea, were murdered after Iancu de Hunedoara (John Hunyadi), RegentGovernor of Hungary, invaded Wallachia in 1447. Iancu installed Vlad’s second cousin, Vladislav II, as the new voivode. In November 1431, Vlad III, also known as Vlad Ţepeş or Vlad Drăculea (or Dracula, as it is known by foreigners) was born in Sighișoara, Mureș county. His father was Vlad II Dracul, while his mother was a Transylvanian noble. Mircea cel Bătrân (Mircea the Wise) was Vlad’s grandfather. Vlad was married two times in his life. His first wife was a Transylvanian noble, while his second one was Ilona Szilagyi, a cousin of Matei Corvin. The Wallachian Prince had 3 sons: Mihail and Vlad with his first wife and Mihnea I cel Rău (Mihnea the Evil) with Ilona Szilagyi. Vlad Ţepeş or Vlad the Impaler is famous in Romanian history for temporarily winning his country’s independence from the Ottoman Empire, but also for the way he used to punish the impious and his enemies. Perpetrators were impaled and this kind of act made him be characterized as a prince that applied cruel and demonic methods of torture. His father, Vlad II Dracul, was drawn into the Order of the Dragon. The order, which can be compared with the Order of Malta and the Order of Teutonic Knights, was a military-religious society, whose foundations were laid in 1387 by Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary and later of the Holy Roman Emperor and by his second wife, Barbara Cilli. Because he belonged to the Order of the Dragon, Vlad the Impaler’s father was nicknamed “drac” (devil). At those times the term devil and dragon were considered the same. As the son of Vlad II Dracul, Vlad III was nicknamed “Drăculea”, a named used by himself in official correspondence. The Turks called him Kazikli Bey.

Vlad the Impaler

In 1436, his father, Vlad II Dracul, became ruler of Wallachia and established himself at the royal court in Târgoviște. Vlad Ţepeş followed his father and lived with him for 6 years until 1442. Due to political reasons, Vlad was sent by his father as a hostage at the court of Sultan Murad II, along with his brother, Radu cel Frumos (Radu the Handsome). In 1447, Sultan Murad II liberated Vlad immediately after his father’s death, who was murdered due to orders given by Vladislav II, rival to the throne of Wallachia. His brother, Radu, remained hostage until 1462. Also in 1447, Vlad discovered that the boyars from Târgoviște tortured and buried alive his older brother, Mircea. In 1448, at the age of only 17 years old, accompanied by a Turkish army, Vlad was enthroned as ruler of Wallachia, but two months later he was defeated by Vladislav II, who regained his throne. On 20 August 1456, Vlad the Impaler killed Vladislav II and climbed for the second time on the throne of Wallachia. His first act of revenge was directed against the boyars from Târgoviște, who were guilty of his father and brother’s death. In the Easter Sunday of 1459, Ţepeş arrested all the boyar families who participated at the princely party. The oldest were impaled, while the others were forced to walk over a hundred kilometers from the capital city of Târgoviște to Poenari, where 93

as both were impaled. In the winter of the years 14611462, Vlad the Impaler organized a surprise campaign in the south of the Danube. More than 20.000 Turks died under the Wallachian’s weapons, the number of those killed being indicated by Vlad himself in a letter addressed to Matei. In the spring of 1462, Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror, leading a huge army of about 100.000 to 120.000 soldiers, the second largest at those times after the one that conquered Constantinople, plus 175 warships whose purpose was to conquer Chilia (a fortified city on the Danube, then in Moldova, now in Ukraine) headed towards the Danube. The total number of the Wallachian Prince’s soldiers didn’t exceed, by the most generous estimates, 30.000 soldiers. Although Vlad tried to stop the Turks on the Danube near the Turnu fortress, the Ottomans managed to cross the river using the cover of the night and headed straight towards Târgoviște. In these conditions, Vlad applied harassment

15th century drawing of Vlad the Impaler

they were forced to build a fortress on the ruins of an older outpost overlooking the Argeş River. Vlad Ţepeş soon became famous because of his brutal methods of punishment. According to the Saxon detractors of Transylvania, he often ordered the damned to be flayed of skin, boiled, decapitated, blinded, strangled, hanged, burned, roasted, chopped, beaten with nails, buried alive and many others. He also ordered his victims to have their nose, ears, genitals and tongue cut. But his favourite method of punishment was impaling, hence the nickname Ţepeş or Impaler, the one who impaled. The impaling method was also applied by Ţepeş against the Transylvanian merchants who failed to comply with his trade laws. The incursions he made against the Transylvanian Saxons were at the same time acts of protectionism designed to promote the commercial activities of Wallachia. Also in 1459, Vlad refused to pay tribute to the Turks (10.000 coins each year). It seems that earlier that year, Vlad Ţepeş made an alliance with Matei Corvin, which the Ottomans wanted to prevent. Moreover, the Sultan will try through Hamza Pasha, bey of Nikopol and Catavolinos, the Sultan’s adviser, to catch Vlad through guile. They were unsuccessful 94

Painting of Vlad the Impaler taking Pontius Pilate’s place and judging Jesus Christ

Vlad and the Turkish Envoys (by Theodor Aman)

tactics: the desolation of the earth, especially on the road towards Târgoviște, wells poisoning and attacking Turkish detachments that went for food. In this oppressive atmosphere where the hungry and frightened Turkish armies waded into the ravaged country, Vlad Ţepeş realized his greatest blow: the night attack of 16-17 June 1462, which was meant to demoralize even more the Ottoman army. The main target of the attack was the Sultan himself, but he escaped because his tent was confused with that of a vizier. But the psychological effect of the attack was very important. Many Turks were killed and the Sultan reportedly “left the camp hidden in a shameful manner”. Upon seeing “the great loss suffered by his army”, Mehmed II eventually ordered the withdrawal. Near Târgoviște, Vlad set up a landscape that stroke fear in the Sultan’s armies: a forest of impaled Turks that have been killed before or during the battle. At this sight, the Turks “were terrified” and the Sultan acknowledged that “he can’t take the country of a man who does such great things and deserves even more.” According to the Byzantine chronicler Chalkokondyles,

the Sultan named Radu the Handsome, Vlad’s brother, as Prince of Wallachia at Târgoviște, in the idea that he would attract to his side all those who were against the Impaler. The Pasha from Nikopol was to provide armed support to Radu. The period that followed was very unsettled for Wallachia as each of the brothers sought to strengthen their forces in order to eliminate the opponent. Unlike Vlad the Impaler who wanted to continue the fight against the Ottomans, Radu the Handsome offered the peace and friendship of the Sultan to the boyars. They eventually took the latter’s side. In these conditions, abandoned by most of the boyars but still having a sizable army with which it seemed that around 8 September he would have even acquired a last victory against his opponents, in October 1462, Vlad passed in Transylvania in order to meet with his ally, Matei Corvin. As Matei wasn’t so prepared or too determined to fight, he decided pretty quickly to change the initial plan, recognizing the existing situation in Wallachia 95

and ending his support for Vlad the Impaler. Moreover, to the king’s decision would have contributed an alleged framed letter from Vlad to the Sultan in which the Wallachian ruler would have apologized and, moreover, he would have obliged to help him against the Hungarian armies. As a result, in November 1462 Vlad the Impaler, instead of receiving the help of his ally, he was arrested on charges of treason and imprisoned for 12 years in Visegrád. After Visegrád, he was forced to live for nearly two years in Buda, with house arrest. In 1475, Vlad the Impaler will be released at the request of his cousin, Stephen the Great (Ștefan cel Mare), Prince of Moldavia, in the context of increasing Turkish pressure on the territories located north of the Danube. Also in 1475, Vlad was recognized as prince of Wallachia for the third time, but has enjoyed a very short period of reign. In December 1476, Vlad Ţepeş was assassinated. His body was decapitated and his head was sent to the Sultan, which was placed in a stake as a proof of the Sultan’s triumph over Vlad. It is hypothesized that “Drăculea” was buried at the Snagov Monastery, on an island near Bucharest. Recent examinations have shown that the “grave” of Vlad the Impaler from the monastery contained in fact few horse bones dated to the Neolithic Age and not the true remains of the Wallachian Prince. According to distinguished historian Constantin Rezachevici’s opinion, his remains would be located in the grave at the Comana Monastery, built by the Prince. The reinclusion of the Wallachian voivodship under the Hungarian sphere of influence became an urgent matter. Relevant is that Stephen the Great’s Moldova ceased paying tribute since 1473. There are many stories and anecdotes that Vlad Ţepeş bust in Bucharest, Romania capture Vlad the Impaler’s philosophy. He was known for his fierce call to honesty and order. Almost any crime, impalement. Being sure of the effectiveness of his laws, from lying and stealing to killing, could be punished by Vlad Ţepeş once left a golden cup in sight in the central square of Târgoviște. The cup could be used by thirsty travelers but had to stay in the market. According to historical sources, during his reign, the cup was never stolen and remained almost unused. Vlad III was also concerned that all inhabitants of the land would work and be productive to the community. He perceived the sick, vagrants and beggars as thieves. As a result, one day all the homeless and sick from Wallachia were invited to the royal court in Târgoviște for a feast. After the guests ate and drank, he asked them if they would like to never be poor again. After receiving a positive response, he ordered his soldiers to close the house in which the feast took place and to burn it. Nobody survived. Another story says that two monks who entered 96

Bran Castle, the place where the legend of Dracula started

Painting of Vlad ลขepeล at Esterhรกzy Castle

Wallachia, came to visit Vlad at his castle. The monks knew Vlad’s reputation and when he asked their opinion about him, they responded differently. One lied, saying that Vlad was tough, but still just a prince and the other openly condemned his methods of torture. Reports vary to say which of the two monks were impaled. Another legend says that he framed a theft to one of his counselors (a bag with 50 golden coins) and when he was asked by the prince how much was stolen from him, he said 100 golden coins. For this lie, he was impaled. Vlad the Impaler was also condemned of being a pagan by a high clergy priest for arresting a couple of boyars during the Divine Liturgy and for his methods of punishment. The Wallachian Prince responded for his actions with quotes from the Bible and made the priest be ashamed of himself. Especially, Vlad argued on the importance of the 10 Commandments, about which he argued that they must remain commandments, not entreaties. Vlad Ţepeş is considered a hero and a good person by all Romanians, who claim that he protected the country and made order in it. Some Romanians even think

Actor Ştefan Sileanu excellently portraying Vlad the Impaler in the Romanian production “Vlad Ţepeş”

about Vlad the Impaler as a saint. Besides the many Dracula movies that have only vague connections with the real Vlad the Impaler, only two of them got close to reality. In 1979, Doru Năstase directed a historical film about the life of the Prince. Vlad’s role was brilliantly played by actor Ştefan Sileanu. This is considered the most accurate movie so far about Vlad’s life. The other one is related to his childhood.

Comana Monastery, the only one that Vlad built, supposedly contains Vlad’s remains

Mihai Viteazul Mihai Viteazul (b. 1558 in Târgul de Floci, Wallachia, Romania – d. 9 / 19 August 1601 in Turda, Transylvania, Romania) was the Prince of Wallachia as Michael II, between 1593 and 1601, Prince of Moldavia (1600) and de facto ruler of Transylvania (1599–1600). He is considered one of Romania’s greatest national heroes and is seen by the Romanian historiography as the first author of Romanian unity. Mihai was born most probably in 1558 in Oraşul de Floci (or Târgul de Floci), nowadays a vanished village. His mother was called Tudora. She was the sister of Iane Epirotul, which became Ban (similar to voivode; capuchehaia) of Oltenia, meaning that he was the representative of Wallachia to Constantinople, thus was a very influential person. Tudora became a nun during the late reign of her son, taking the monastic name of Teofana. She died in 1605 or 1606 and was buried in the Cozia monastery. The identity of Michael’s father is disputed. Most researchers believe that he was the legitimate son of Pătraşcu cel Bun, while others claim that he was the illegitimate son of the same. At the age of 26 years old, Mihai got married to Stanca, the widow of Dumitru of Vâlcăneşti, the seneschal, and niece of Dobromir, great Ban of Oltenia. Stanca also had two brothers, Dragomir, former chamberlain of Alexandru Vodă and Ioan Monahul. Mihai and Stanca had two children: Nicolae and Florica. Michael also had an illegitimate daughter named Marula, from a woman named Tudora from Târgşor. Michael’s son, Nicolae, got married to Ancuţa, daughter of Prince Radu Şerban, with whom he had a daughter, Ilinca. Michael’s daughter, Florica, got married in 1603 with Preda the seneschal. Stanca, Michael the Brave’s wife died of the plague in 1603 and was buried in the church diocese of Cozia in Râmnicu Vâlcea. Mihai learned to read and write and, besides Romanian, he also learned Turkish and Greek. In his youth he was a merchant. He started his boyar career beside his uncle, Iane. Back when his uncle was great Ban of Oltenia, Mihai also became a small Ban (Bănişor) of the Mehedinţi county. In 1558, he already had this function. In 1590 he became great steward, while between 1591 and 1592 he became a respected seneschal. Shortly after, he became great Âğâ. Meanwhile, because the Ban of Oltenia actually lived in Constantinople, it is

Mihai Viteazul

possible that Mihai would have actually activated in this function in Craiova. Thus, Michael became between 1592 and 1593 Ban of Oltenia. The heavy taxes imposed by Alexandru cel Rău caused a boyar plot in the summer of 1593. It is possible that Michael would have been involved in this plot, but nothing is certain. What it is certain however, is that during this period, Mihai fled to Transylvania, because of Alexandru cel Rău. In Transylvania, Mihai stayed only for about two weeks, after which he went to Constantinople. Here, aided by his uncle Iane, Andronic Cantacuzino and English Agent Barton, he managed to receive from the Sultan the principality of Wallachia by offering him large sums of money and rich gifts. Mihai’s money came from loans made to creditors who followed him in the country after receiving the scepter in order to get back from him the money and interest rate. Mihai was appointed ruler of Wallachia in September 1593. In the month of October of the same year, he came to Bucharest. Here he was awaited by the creditors of the former ruler, who were demanding their money back. For this reason, in the first year of his reign, Mihai’s subjects were required to pay, in addition to the usual tribute, a larger number of other tributes, 99

which made the financial pressing become unbearable. Together with some big and small boyars, Michael decided to raise his hand against the Ottoman Empire. The timing was favorable because Pope Clement VIII demanded all the Christian monarchs to start the fighting against the Turks. Emperor Rudolf II, around which the Christian forces against the Ottomans would gather, has allied among others with Sigismund Báthory, Prince of Transylvania and Aron Vodă, prince of Moldavia, in 1594. Michael allied with him in the same year as the last two princes had. Following the alliance made with Sigismund, 2.000 Transylvanian soldiers led by the captain of the Făgăraş fortress arrived in Bucharest. On 13 November 1594, Mihai announced that he would pay his creditors, reason for he called all of them at the treasury. After all the creditors entered inside, the building was burned and attacked with artillery guns. Those who escaped the fire and the guns were killed by Michael’s soldiers. The Turkish garrison consisting of 2.000 soldiers was also massacred. After Mihai killed the creditors, he started the attack against the city of Giurgiu, which had an Ottoman garrison.

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Middle 19th century painting of Michael the Brave

Mihai receiving gifts from the Turkish envoys (by Theodor Aman)

The Turks resisted the attack. Meanwhile, Aron Vodă slaughtered the Turks from Iaşi. Other Turkish cities on the Danube were attacked by Mihai. A battle took place near Oraşul de Floci, another one took place at Hârşova on 1 January 1595 and at Silistra on 8 January 1595. In all these confrontations, the Turks were defeated. Meanwhile, at Constantinople the Sultan had decided to replace the rebellious princes. Bogdan, son of Iancu Sasul was to be put in Michael’s place and Ştefan Surdul in Aron Vodă’s place. In order to fulfill this plan, the Turkish armies marched towards the Danube. One of them went to Rusciuk, the other one to Silistra. Mihai went with his troops against the Turkish army that was headed for Rusciuk. While observing the Turkish army, Mihai learned that he was in danger of being attacked by Tatars from the west flank. To prevent the Tatar’s junction with the Turks, Mihai withdrew his camp farther north, and sent the Buzeşti brothers against the Tartars. The Tatars were beaten twice in a row by the Buzeşti brothers at 14 January 1595 near Putineiu and at 16 January 1595 near Stăneşti, but managed to make

the junction with the Turks. The enemy has managed to reach Şerpăteşti, where he was defeated by the troops led by Manta the cupbearer. The Turkish-Tatar army withdrew to Rusciuk where it was attacked by Mihai, who crossed the Danube on the ice. The Turkish army was defeated on 25 January 1959. Meanwhile, the second Turkish army from Silistra was destroyed by Mihalcea the Ban and Ştefan Surdul was either killed or fled. Since then, he is no longer mentioned in history. Mihai’s troops advanced across the right bank of the Danube, reaching the Haemus Mountains in the Balkans where they encouraged the local Christians to revolt against the Ottomans. Turtucaia settlement was set on fire, Babadag was robbed by the Moldovan army and the Turkish city of Brăila was conquered by the Christians. A large Turkish army under the command of Ferhat Pasha was sent by the Sultan in order to take revenge on Mihai. At Rusciuk, Sinan Pasha replaced Ferhat Pasha in the command of the army. The size of the Ottoman army varied between 40.000 and 300.000

Michael the Brave and his army (by Gheorghe Tattarescu)

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people according to different sources. Mihai’s army would have been numbered about 10.000 to 20.000 people, including the troops from Transylvania and the mercenaries. Even if the numbers are exaggerated or intentionally minimized for both armies, most likely there was a superiority of 2: 1 in favour of the Turks. Seeking military support, Mihai went to Sigismund, who in return for Wallachia’s vassalage in humiliating conditions, decided to offer his help. While negotiations were held, the Turks have completed preparations to cross the Danube. After a brief resistance, Mihai withdrew, being threatened by the Turkish army. The Turks crossed the Danube in 3 days and brought Mihnea as a pretender to the throne of Wallachia. Mihai decided to battle against the Turks at Călugăreni because here was a favorable field for him as the swampy place wouldn’t allow the proper conduct of the giant Ottoman effective. The Battle of Călugăreni took place on 13 August 1595 and ended with Mihai’s tactical victory. The day after the battle, Mihai withdrew his army to Bucharest, then to Târgoviște. The Turkish army has followed the Christian military, managing to occupy Bucharest, Târgoviște and restore the city of Brăila. In October 1595, Sigismund Bathory’s army composed of 22.000 Szekler, 15.000 soldiers and nobles and 63 cannons crossed in Wallachia, through Bran. In the same period, the Moldovan army led by Ştefan Răzvan and made up of 3.000 soldiers with 22 cannons also arrived. On 6 October 1595, Bathory’s army laid siege on the Ottoman fortifications at Târgovişte and on 8 October the city fell into the hands of the Christians. The Turkish army withdrew to Bucharest, but it was followed from behind by the Christian army. On 12 October, Bucharest was occupied by the Moldovan army, while the army led by Mihai chased the Turks to Giurgiu. Here, Mihai attacked the Turkish rearguard, broke the bridge over the Danube with the artillery, freed more than 8.000 slaves took by the Ottomans and laid siege on the city of Giurgiu. On 20 October 1595, the city of Giurgiu was conquered and Mihai took enormous amounts of money. Sinan Pasha was removed from the function of great vizier, the Moldo-Transylvanian armies retreated in their provinces, Brăila was taken from the Turks and Wallachia remained devastated after the 1595 campaign. Baba Novac, a Serbian outlaw and general in Mihai’s armies, played a vital role in the anti-Ottoman fights, while the 3 Buzeşti brothers were Michael’s most trusted men. Father Stroe, one of the Buzeşti brothers, a Romanian Orthodox priest, chose to fight not with the 102

word, but with the sword alongside Mihai Viteazul. He was dressed in his priest clothes during battles and took care of the army’s morale. During 1596, Mihai’s continued to harass the Turks. Babadag, Vidin and Pleven were attacked and the troops reached Sofia. In October 1596 there was a sneak attack of the Tartars. Buzău, Gherghiţa and Bucharest were attacked, but the Tatars withdrew without facing Michael’s army, who had gone against them. Mihai attacked the cities of Nikopol and Turnu, where he defeated the Turks. The Turkish commander offered to mediate peace between Mihai and the Sultan, a thing that the Wallachian prince has accepted as a temporary solution, because his Christian allies have not provided the promised aid and his finances were exhausted. Before accepting peace with the Turks, Mihai went to Transylvania to discuss with Sigismund of Transylvania. On 9/19 December 1596 the two met in Alba Iulia, where Sigismund wasn’t able to decide whether or not he wants to fight against the Turks. On 7 January 1597, Hasan Pasha of Belgrade announced that Michael the Brave received the flag of the reign from the sultan and that peace was established between the two leaders. During 1597, Mihai agreed with Emperor Rudolf II to fight together against the Ottomans. Rudolf sent Mihai the required subsidies for the maintenance of an army corps. On 9 June 1598, the treaty between Rudolf II and Michael the Brave was signed at the Dealu monastery. The Habsburg Emperor agreed to finance a corps of 5.000 army soldiers, plus possibly 5.000 more and Mihai agreed to recognize the king as overlord. Shortly after signing the treaty, the Ottomans learned of its existence and attacked Wallachia. Pasha of Silistra was defeated by Dumitru the governor, and Mihai himself crossed the Danube and besieged Nikopol on 10 September 1598. He defeated the Turks twice in Vidin and pushed the

Mihai Viteazul and Andrei Báthory’s head (by Theodor Aman)

Michael the Brave entering in Alba Iulia as a hero

Ottomans back to Constantinople. Ottoman sources of those times confirmed that the Turks were preparing to leave Constantinople as Mihai’s army was destroying everything in its way. On 5/15 November 1598, Michael crossed the Danube back to Wallachia as he didn’t receive the promised support from the Christian monarchs and the pope. In March 1599, the Turks made an incursion on the left bank of the Danube. In retaliation, Mihai sent his army on the right bank of the river. On 29 March 1599, Andrei Báthory was elected prince of Transylvania instead of his cousin Sigismund Báthory. This thing changed the political situation for Mihai because the new prince of Transylvania wanted peace with the Turks, exactly the opposite of what Mihai intended. Moldova had the same inclination as Transylvania, so Mihai was found surrounded by unfriendly neighbours. Having no other choice, Mihai renewed the treaty he had signed with Sigismund in 1595 with Andrei Báthory. Even before the renewal of the treaty, Andrei, who actually wanted the removal of Michael, summoned him to

leave the Wallachian throne in favour of Simion Movilă. Mihai disagreed with this request of the Transylvanian prince, who was in agreement with the Turks, refused to leave the throne of Wallachia and notified Rudolf II of Andrei Báthory’s real intentions. In August, Michael the Brave received an answer from the Habsburgs that they were against Báthory as well. Because the imperial army hesitated to get into action against Andrew, Michael went alone with his army in Transylvania on 5 October 1599. A second army corps of Mihai crossed the Carpathian Mountains near Turnu Roşu and the junction was made in 16/26 October at Tălmaciu. Szecklers joined Mihai, while Saxons declared themselves neutral. On 17/27 October 1599, Mihai’s army reached Şelimbăr, near Sibiu. Andrei Báthory tried a last minute reconciliation but to no avail. The Battle of Şelimbăr took place on 18/28 October 1599 and was ended with the victory of Michael the Brave and the death of Andrei Báthory. On 21 October / 1 November 1599, Michael the Brave fall entered victorious in Alba Iulia and was greeted as a hero by the local population. 103

Thus, he became ruler of Transylvania for 11 months. Michael the Brave was planning to attack Moldova since 1597 because of the hostile attitude towards him. In the spring of 1600, Mihai’s armies went from Transylvania and Wallachia towards Moldova. Polish troops sent against Mihai were defeated and Ieremia Movilă, prince of Moldva, withdrew to Hotin. Suceava and Neamţ Fortresses surrendered to Mihai and Ieremia Movilă lost a battle at Hotin against Mihai. Through a campaign that lasted three weeks, Michael has captured the entire Moldova. This year, Michael the Brave’s reign came to an end. The causes of the collapse were on the one hand the discontent of the Transylvanian Hungarian nobility, who had an agreement with imperial general Basta and on the other hand the enmity of the Polish king. Hungarian nobles didn’t want a Wallachian at the helm of Transylvania and were resented by Michael’s expenses that were imposed on them for the maintenance of his army. General Basta was encouraged by the imperial court to help the Hungarian nobility because the Habsburgs wanted the province of Transylvania to be under their control, not Mihai’s. On 18 September 1600, the Battle of Mirăslău took place

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between the armies of Mihai Viteazul and General Basta. Mihai suffered a serious defeat, and barely escaped with his life running away from the battlefield. During the same period that the battle of Mirăslău took place, Polish troops occupied Moldova. Mihai retreated through Alba Iulia, Sibiu, Făgăraş and Ţara Bârsei. Once there, he raised a new army of about 16.000 people, who passed back through the valley of the Buzău Mountains, and set camp in Bucov, near Teleajen. Here, he awaited the troops promised as aid by General Giorgio Basta, who resumed relations with Mihai as he faced the dangerous Polish army. Basta’s promised aid hasn’t arrived and in a fight held on 20 October against the Poles, Mihai has been able to withdraw. Simion Movilă was put on the throne of Wallachia by the Turks instead of Mihai Viteazul. Retired beyond Olt, at Craiova, Mihai still expected help from the Habsburgs. The Turks have made an incursion north of the Danube in September and by the end of 1600 they have tried a new incursion to Craiova. Mihai defeated the Turks, but the overall situation hasn’t improved. He tried once again to turn the odds in his favor, but a fight held on 25 November near Curtea de Argeş was unfavorable as it had been

Mihai Viteazul being assassinated by 2 Walloon mercenaries at Giorgio Basta’s orders

won by Poland. Thus, Michael was forced to withdraw with his family and the rest of his army in Transylvania. He walked on the Deva – Beiuş – Oradea – Debrecen – Tokay – Kosice - Bratislava route, reaching Vienna on 12 January 1601. From Vienna he was sent to Prague to get an audience with Emperor Rudolf II. The Emperor needed Mihai to regain Transylvania for himself because General Basta lost it in favour of the Hungarian nobility, who set up Sigismund Báthory on the throne of Transylvania. The Emperor offered Michael 100.000 thalers in order to assemble an army of mercenaries with which he would reconquer Transylvania. On 3 April 1601, Mihai went from Prague to Vienna and from there to Transylvania. Mihai’s army concentrated in Debrecen and General Basta’s army, who was offered by the Habsburgs as aid, in Satu Mare. The junction of the two armies was made in the Moftin village. The battle with the army of Sigismund took place at Guruslău, on the Someş Valley. The Battle of Guruslău was held on 3 August 1601 and was won by Mihai Viteazul. General Basta knew the Habsburgs didn’t want Transylvania to be led by a strong personality like Michael the Brave. Moreover, Basta wanted power for himself as a representative of the king. In the morning

Romanian Orthodox Icon of Saint Mihai Viteazul

Mihai Viteazul’s statue in Călugăreni

of 9/19 August 1601, when Mihai was preparing to leave the camp from Turda to Făgăraş, a detachment of 300 mercenaries were sent to arrest him. He resisted the arrest and a Walloon mercenary shot him, while another one stabbed him in the chest. Other mercenaries hit him with their halberds, after which they cut off his head. Mihai Viteazul’s body remained naked and thrown into the dust of the camp. After three days, a couple of walking Serbs buried him secretly. Radu Florescu took his head to Wallachia where he was buried at the Dealu monastery. Where the body of Michael the Brave was buried is unknown. Some sources claim that he was taken to Alba Iulia and buried in a church there, but the church was destroyed in 1714-1715. Other sources claim that he was buried near Turda, across the current village of Bogata, where today a church in the memory of the great ruler is elevated. Mihai Viteazul founded the monastery of St. Nicholas in Bucharest, known today as “Mihai Vodă” on the site of an old place of worship. To this monastery he offered 14 villages, of which 13 were purchased from his own money. The 14th village was offered by Stanca, his wife. On 21 August 1599, the church was dedicated by Mihai to the Simonopetra monastery of Mount Athos. Another church built by Mihai was the Clococioc (or Clocociov) monastery near Slatina, Olt County, built in 1594. During his reign in Transylvania, he built a place of worship in Alba Iulia (finished in 1597), a church in Ocna Sibiului, one at Luşărdea and one on the outskirts of the Făgăraş city. He repaired the church from Şcheii Braşovului and the Râmeţ monastery. Monasteries Golgota, Bistriţa, Coşuna, St. Anthony church, the Catholic Church in Târgovişte and Xenophon monastery on Mount Athos also received donations. Mihai Viteazul is considered a hero by the Romanian people and pressures on the Romanian Orthodox Church to canonize him as a saint are still being made in the present. 105

Stefan cel Mare Ştefan cel Mare (b. 1433 in Borzești, Bacău county, Moldavia, Romania – d. 2 July 1504 in Suceava, Moldavia, Romania) was voivode of Moldavia from 1457 to 1504. He was the son and co-ruler of Bogdan II of Moldavia who was murdered in 1451. Stephen fled to Hungary, and later to Wallachia. With the support of Vlad the Impaler, Voivode of Wallachia, he returned to Moldavia and forced Peter III Aaron to seek refuge in Poland in the summer of 1457. Teoctist I, Metropolitan of Moldavia, anointed him Prince. In 1433, Ştefan III, nicknamed cel Mare (the Great), was born in Borzești, Bacău county as the youngest son of Bogdan II and Oltea. Stephen was also the nephew of Alexandru cel Bun, ruler of Moldova. He was ruler of Moldavia for 47 years, a rule that has never been equaled in the history of Moldova. Stephen is well-known for his famous battles against the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Poland, but also for the churches and monasteries built during his reign, some of them being in UNESCO’s World Heritage list. His human, politician, strategist and diplomat qualities, his actions for defending the integrity of Moldavia, as well as his initiatives for the development of culture caused the admiration of illustrious contemporaries. Thanks to the folk tradition and chronicles he was turned into a legendary hero. Pope Sixtus IV called him “Athleta Christi” (Athlete of Christ) and the people sung ballads to him, one of the most famous saying: “Ştefan Vodă, great voivode, man like him doesn’t exist on Earth, maybe only on the proud Sun.” On 12 April 1457, Ştefan took the throne of Moldavia after he defeated Petru Aron, who had killed his father, Ştefan Bogdan II. Helped by the army of Vlad the Impaler, Prince of Wallachia, Ştefan cel Mare defeated Petru Aron in the battles of Doljești and Orbic, thus being enthroned on the “Justice Plain” as ruler of Moldavia. He recalled in Moldova the boyars that fled to neighboring countries, promising them to pardon their previous job at the former ruler. He also promised them that they will recover their assets and keep their high position in society. After a quarter of a century of fierce fighting between boyar groups for power, this step made by the new ruler has played a positive role as a 106

Ştefan cel Mare și Sfânt

considerable part of the boyars returned to the country. At the beginning of his reign, Ştefan III oriented his foreign policy towards Jagiellonian Poland. Polish King and Grand Lithuanian Prince, Casimir IV, tried to take advantage of the conflict for the throne between Peter Aron and Stephen. However, the Moldavian ruler didn’t await for the conflict to develop and took the initiative in the years 1458-1459 when he conducted raids in the southern parts of the Polish Kingdom. The rapid military attacks of the Moldovan army on Polish lands compelled Casimir IV to conclude an agreement with Moldova in April 1459. He agreed to expel Petro Aron from the country. As relations started to improve with Poland, the establishment of Petru Aron in Hungary worsened instead Suceava’s relations with the royal court in Buda. Ştefan also took the initiative this time. After failing to recover the Chilia Fortress from the Hungarians in 1462, Ştefan cel Mare has started a new attack in 1465, succeeding after a day and a night to retake this strong fortress. The regaining of the Chilia Fortress strengthened the country’s defense capabilities at the southern border. At the same time, the inclusion of the

city from the Danube delta within Moldova’s borders has worsened relations with Wallachia and the courts from Istanbul, Buda and the Genoese city of Caffa (now Feodosia). In 1467 it took place the battle of Baia (first citadel of Moldavia) against the Hungarian king Matei Corvin (Matthias Corvinus). Matei was angered after Ştefan reimbursed the fortress of Hotin to the Polish king Casimir. The Hungarian army was defeated and Matthias was wounded by three arrows and a lance blow. During the reign of Ştefan cel Mare, Moldova already stretched over all the provinces from the Eastern Carpathian Mountains to the Dniester river. The overarching concern of Stephen’s reign has been the fight for independence. In this context, his efforts to centralize the state and his gradual internationally affirmation were inextricably linked. Another important factor of Ştefan’s military power was the fortification system. Existing cities were strengthened and equipped for the first time with guns, while others were built again. The borders of the Moldavian Principality were defended by the Soroca, Tighina (now Bender) and Cetatea Albă Fortresses at the Dniester river, by the Hotin (Khotyn) and Suceava Fortresses to the north, by the Neamț Fortress towards the Carpathians and by

the Roman Fortress towards the Siret river. A special attention was given to Metropolitan Teoctist until 1477 and to Metropolitan Gheorghe after him as they were permanent members of the royal council and participated actively in the development of the country’s domestic and foreign policy. Of particular significance in the political work of Stephen the Great were the dynastic ties. The three official marriages of the voivode partially accomplished this program. Ştefan cel Mare got married for the first time on 5 June 1463 with Eudochia of Kiev, sister of Prince Simion Olelkovici (Olelkowicze). Through the Kievan pathway it was expected that Ştefan would join the forces of the groups that were promoting a firm policy against Jagiellonian Poland and a political rapprochement with Moscow and the Lithuanian dynasty. It was also expected that Moldova would turn into a contact country of the Orthodox world from the Balkans with the rest of Europe, especially with Russia. However, the marriage of Stephen the Great with Eudochia lasted only four years. She died on 4 September 1467 and was buried with great honor at Old Probota Monastery. From his first marriage, Ştefan had Elena, Peter (or Petraşcu) and maybe Alexander. Elena got married to Ivan the Young, son of the great Prince

Stephen the Great and his henchman, Purice (by Theodor Aman)

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Ivan III of Moscow. Elena’s marriage was intended to strengthen the international positions of Moldova and Russia in Central and South-Eastern Europe. A new dynastic alliance of Ştefan cel Mare was done in 1472 through his marriage to Mary Mangop, descendant of the Komnenian Byzantine Imperial family. The main goal of the new alliance was to continue the policy of raising the Moldovan authority in the Orthodox Christian world. Mary Mangop died early in 1477 and was buried with great honor at the Putna monastery. From his second wife, Ştefan had two sons, Ilie and Bogdan, who both died at an early age. In 1480, Ştefan got married to young lady Maria Voichiţa, daughter of Radu the Handsome, in order to continue the dynastic traditional relations of Moldova with Wallachia. As the Ottomans enhanced their expansion, the dynastic ties with neighboring Wallachia strengthened the positions of both countries on the Lower Danube. This marriage lasted 24 years until the death of Stephen the Great. His wife, Maria Voichiţa lived 7 more years after his death. She was buried at the Putna monastery in 1511 together with her husband and Mary Mangop. From his marriage to Maria Voichiţa, the

Ştefan cel Mare monument in Chișinău, Republic of Moldova

heir to the throne of Moldova, Bogdan-Vlad, was born. This name was was given by Stephen in memory of his grandparents, Bogdan II of Moldova and Vlad Dracul of Wallachia. Anna and Maria-Cneajna were also born from this marriage. On 10 January 1475, there took place the Battle of Podul Înalt (High Bridge) or Battle of Vaslui where Ştefan’s army of nearly 40.000 soldiers, plus 5.000 Széklers and 2.000 Polish troops defeated the 120.000 Ottoman Turks sent by Mehmed II the Conqueror and led by Hadâm Suleiman Pasha in what it is considered Islam’s most humiliating defeat. The Turks wanted to punish Ştefan because he meddled in Wallachia’s affairs. The place chosen for the decisive battle was near Vaslui, on the Racova River that flows into Bârlad, which had around a marshy area bounded by forests. This place didn’t allow a wide deployment of the enemy armies so that their large number would become ineffective. On the hill to the valley, footmen solders were posted, while on the flanks it was placed the artillery consisting of about 20 guns. Ştefan with his advisers installed their tents behind the main armed forces, not far away from 108

Stephen the Great statue in Iași, Romania

the valley where the decisive battle took place. The great Turkish army staggered and fell apart in a terrible clutter. The swamp where the battle took place, the fog and the unknown land contributed to the disorder made in the Turkish camp, which eventually vanished. However, in 1976, the Turks led by Mehmed II the Conqueror himself returned and attacked the fortresses of Suceava, Neamț and Hotin, but failed to conquer them. Upon discovering that Stephen was preparing a new army and that the Hungarians and Poles were approaching to the borders of Moldavia with a great army, Mehmed the Conqueror decided to retire. He was harassed by Ştefan’s army and left without victory, thus meaning that he couldn’t subject the country and its lord. In 1497, the King of Poland led an army of about 80.000 men in Moldova, with the objective of conquering the country’s capital, Suceava, who resisted the siege for three weeks. In such circumstances, King John Albert concluded a truce with Ştefan cel Mare, whereby Poles would definitively renounce at military actions against Moldova and retreat on the way they had come so that the Polish army “would not destroy the country elsewhere”. The king, however, didn’t comply with the truce and the Moldavian ruler decided to punish him. Thus, after Ştefan had withstand the invasion led by the

new Polish king John Albert, he managed to destroy the Polish army at the Battle of Codrii Cosminului. In the following year, Ştefan cel Mare fought back, managing to arrive near Lvov, with his army. At the end of 1499, the Moldavian ruler signed a peace treaty with Poland at Hârlău, which was based on equality. In 1503, Ştefan concluded a peace treaty with Sultan Bayezid II, which provided the independence of Moldova in exchange for an early tribute to the sultan. On 2 July 1504, old and suffering from gout, Ştefan cel Mare died in Suceava, his capital. His body was buried in the Putna monastery. During his reign, Moldova experienced an unprecedented development. Fighting from equal to equal with his more powerful neighbours, Ştefan cel Mare managed to impose Moldova as a state with almost equal rights. He built 44 churches and monasteries, according to tradition, one after each battle won. During his life, he lost only 2 battles, thus being considered a true military genius. On 15 July 1992, Ştefan cel Mare was canonized by the Romanian Orthodox Church as Ştefan cel Mare şi Sfânt (Stephen the Great and Holy). On 21 October 2006, in a show entitled “Great Romanians”, Ştefan cel Mare was voted by approximately 21,30% of the total number of voters as being “The greatest Romanian of all times”.

Romanian Orthodox Icon of Ştefan cel Mare şi Sfânt (Stephen the Great and Holy)

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George Enescu George Enescu (b. 19 August 1881 in Botoșani, Romania – d. 4 May 1955 in Paris, France) known in France as Georges Enesco, was a Romanian composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, and teacher. He is regarded by many as Romania’s most important musician. The great composer, violinist, teacher, pianist and conductor George Enescu was born on 19 August 1881 in Liveni-Vârnav, Botoșani county, Romania. He was born into the family of tenant Costache Enescu and his wife, Maria, daughter of priest Cosmovici. Enescu was the 8th child and his true name was Gheorghe, but his parents spoiled him “Jorjac”. He showed an extraordinary inclination for music since childhood as he started playing the violin since the age of 4 years old. He received his first musical guidance from his parents and from a famous fiddler, Niculae Chioru. At the age of 5 years old, he held his first concert and began composition studies under the direction of Eduard Caudella. Between 1888 and 1894, George Enescu studied at the Vienna Conservatory with renowned professors of the time such as Siegmund Bachrich and Josef Hellmesberger Junior (violin), Ernst Ludwig (piano) and Robert Fuchs (harmony, counterpoint and composition). At Josef Hellmesberger Junior’s recommendation, professor of violin and son of the Vienna Conservatory director, George Enescu was sent by his father to study in Paris. Thus, he perfectionated his studies at the Paris Conservatory between 1895 and 1899, under the guidance of professors like José White and Pierre-Joseph-Martin Marsick (violin), Jules Massenet and Gabriel Fauré (composition), Ambroise Thomas and Théodore Dubois (harmony) and André Gédalge (counterpoint).” During his studies in Paris, he composed the 4 “school symphonies. These are Romanian Poem op. 1 (1897) for orchestra and male choir, Sonata no. 1 for piano and violin in D major, op. 2 (1897), Suite no. 1 in G minor, old-style piano, op. 3 (1897), as well as Sonata no. 2 for piano and violin in F minor, op. 6 (1899). These works have brought fame and recognition to the young Romanian composer. Although what he wanted most was to compose music and not become a violin virtuoso, his intelligence, perseverance and participation in violin competitions organized at the Conservatoire de Paris brought Enescu 110

George Enescu and Alfred Cortot in 1930

the 2nd Prize in 1898 and a year later, the 1st prize, with which he graduated on 24 July 1899 the violin class at the Conservatoire de Paris. On this occasion, Enescu was given a precious Bernardel violin, engraved with his name. As a performer he established and managed in Paris, two teams of instrumental music: a piano trio in 1902 and a string quartet in 1904. He has performed in Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, UK and USA. The best known compositions of George Enescu date back to the early years of the early 20th century. These include the two Romanian Rhapsodies (1901-1902), Suite no. 1 for Orchestra in C major, op. 9 (composed in 1903 and performed in 1911 at the New York Philharmonic Orchestra under the baton of renowned composer and conductor Gustav Mahler) and Symphony no. 1 in E flat major, op. 13 (1905). In 1913, he established and sustained from personal funds the George Enescu National Award for Composition, granted annually since 1946. Organized in order to encourage Romanian creation, this composition contest offered the winners, along with generous amounts of money, the chance of interpreting their works in concerts. George Enescu was also a founding member

George Enescu

(1920) and President (1920-1948) of the Romanian Composers Society in Bucharest. During the First World War, in parallel with his creation activity, George Enescu has given concerts in Romania for the wounded in hospitals. After the war, he went on tournaments as violinist and conductor in Switzerland, France, Netherlands, Spain, USA, Portugal, Canada and many other countries. The musician has conducted the George Enescu Symphony Orchestra in Iași, whose founder was between 1918 and 1920, as well as the Romanian Philharmonic Society’s orchestra (1898-1906), the Ministry of Education’s orchestra (1906-1920) and the Bucharest Philharmonic Orchestra (1920-1946). Enescu was often invited at the Peleș Castle in Sinaia by Queen Elizabeth of Romania, whose literary pseudonym was Carmen Sylva, to give concerts and violin recitals. A number of songs (Lied) written in the German language is the result of the artistic collaboration between the great composer and the queen-writer.

The most popular work of the composer, for which he has worked for over 10 years, is “Oedip” (Oedipus), op. 23. Completed in 1931, the artistic creation was dedicated to Maria Rosetti-Tescanu (former Cantacuzino), the one who will become George Enescu’s wife in 1937. During work on his opera “Oedipus”, George Enescu finished a series of symphonic and chamber creations, representative for the composer’s mature style: Symphony no. 2 in A major, op. 17 (1914), Suite for Orchestra no. 2 in C major, op. 20 (1915), Symphony no. 3 in C major, op. 21 (1918-1921) as well as the String Quartet in E flat major, op. 22, no. 1 (1920), Piano Sonata in F sharp minor, op. 24, no. 1 (1924) and Sonata for piano and violin no. 3 in A minor, in Romanian folk, op. 25 (1926). After these masterpieces, George Enescu composed even more. The most renown are: Sonata for Piano and Cello in C major, op. 26, no. 2 dedicated to the great cellist Pablo Casals, Village Suite no. 3 in D major, op. 27 (1939), 2 unfinished symphonies (reconstructed 111

and orchestrated by composer Pascal Bentoiu), String Quartet in G major, op. 22, no. 2 (1951), Chamber Symphony for 12 solo instruments, op. 33 (1954) and Vox Maris, op. 31, symphonic poem for mixed choir with tenor and soprano solo, large orchestra (1954). International recognition and reputation have offered George Enescu several opportunities to give classes of musical interpretation, stylistic analysis and musical forms at the École Normale de Musique in Paris, École Instrumental “Yvonne Astruc” in Paris, Accademia Musicale Chigiana of Siena (Italy), University of Illinois (USA), the Mannes Music School in New York, at Brighton and Bryanston (England) and many others. He taught composition at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts (USA) and at Conservatoire Américain in Fontainebleau (France). Yehudi Menuhin, Christian Ferras, Ivry Gitlis, Ida Haendel or Arthur Grumiaux, are just a few of the most famous violinists who have mastered in performing arts under the guidance of George Enescu. Among the distinctions he has been awarded as a sign of appreciation and recognition, there can be included the titles of officer and knight of the French Legion of Honor (1913 and 1936), Honorary Member (1916) and Active member (1933) of the Romanian Academy in Bucharest and corresponding Member of the Académie des Beaux Arts in Paris (1929), Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia in Rome (1931),

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Painting of George Enescu

Statue of George Enescu in front of the National Opera

Institut de France in Paris (1936) and the Academy of Arts and Sciences in Prague (1937). In the aftermath of the Second World War, George Enescu left Romania for good and lived in Paris, where he died in 1955. The memory of the great Romanian musician is perpetuated through the Festival that bears his name, through various symposiums held in Romania and abroad, and last but not the least through exhibitions, concerts and publications made within the “George Enescu” National Museum in Bucharest. Composer, conductor, violinist, pianist and teacher George Enescu went down in history as one of the foremost cultural personalities of the 20th century. He assumed the role of ambassador of music both at home and worldwide and involved in promoting Romanian music, thus contributing to the international recognition of Romanian composers, conductors and performers. He was buried in Père-Lachaise cemetery in Paris, in a white marble tomb. In recent times, there has been a strong revival of opera music in several countries, including Italy, Germany, Austria, UK, USA and Portugal.

Constantin BrâncuSi Constantin Brâncuși (b. 19 February 1876 in Hobița, Gorj, Romania – d. 16 March 1957 in Paris, France) was a Romanian sculptor, painter and photographer who made his career in France. Considered a pioneer of modernism, one of the most influential sculptors of the 20th century, Brâncuși is called the patriarch of modern sculpture. As a child he displayed an aptitude for carving wooden farm tools. Formal studies took him first to Bucharest, then to München, then to the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris from 1905 to 1907. His art emphasizes clean geometrical lines that balance forms inherent in his materials with the symbolic allusions of representational art. Constantin Brâncuși was born on 19 February 1876 in Hobiţa, Peştişani village, Gorj County, Romania. Constantin was the 6th child of Radu Nicolae and Maria Brâncuși. In 1883, the young boy left his village, but he was eventually found by his mother in TârguJiu and brought back to Hobiţa. After he spent one year in the school from the local village, the following year Constantin moved to Brediceni, where he was punished because he scratched his desk with a knife. In his second year of school, Brâncuși started an apprenticeship at a barrels merchant. While being in school, his father died in 1885. In 1887 it took place Brâncuși’s third running away. Before finishing primary school, he ran once again to Târgu-Jiu where he became a disciple in the dye house of Ion Moşculescu. However, he was once again caught and brought back to Hobiţa. At the age of 12 years old, Constantin Brâncuși ran from home again and earned himself a living by initially working as a shop boy in Slatina. In 1889, he left for Craiova where he got hired in the inn of the Spirtaru brothers, located near the Station Square where he sometimes worked up to 18 hours per day in order to get more money. He remained for almost 9 years in the capital of Oltenia. In the meantime, he got hired at Ion Zamfirescu’s “goods and colonial shop”, while between 1894 and 1898 he followed the School of Arts and Crafts in Craiova. There, Constantin learnt mechanics, carpentry, foundry, metalworking, wheelwrights and woodcarving. He obtained excellent grades. Between 1898 and 1902, Brâncuși followed the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest. In his first year as a

Constantin Brâncuși

student, he obtained an “honorable mention” for his work, “Bust of Vitellius”. For two years, with the help of Dr. Dimitrie Gerota, Constantin realized “Ecorşeu”, a study for the representation of the human body for which he was awarded the bronze medal. The precision details of this work made the “Ecorşeu” to be used in Romanian schools of medicine after a few copies have been made. In 1903, Brâncuși received his first order for a public monument, the bust of General Doctor Carol Davila, who was installed at the Military Hospital in Bucharest. This is the only public monument of the great Romanian artist in Bucharest. This bust was commissioned by a council composed of his former professor Dimitrie Gerota in order to help Brâncuși pay his trip to Paris. Payment for the monument was divided into two tranches, the first half being paid before he started working, while the second installment after Brâncuși finished the bust. When completed, the work was presented before the council, but the reception was poor as different people within the council expressed opinions contrary to the general’s physical characteristics. For example they asked the sculptor to make the doctor’s nose smaller. They also argued between them for the positioning of the straps. Angered by the council’s inability to understand 113

a period of recovery, he thought that he didn’t have the powers or time to travel the road to Paris on foot, so the last piece of road he travelled it by train. Brâncuși succeeded at the entrance examination of the prestigious École Nationale Supérieure des BeauxArts, where he worked at Antonin Mercie’s workshop until 1906 when he left school because he reached the age limit. He refused to work as a practitioner in the studio of Auguste Rodin, uttering the words that would become famous: “Rien ne pousse à l’ombre des grands arbres” (Nothing grows in the shadows of big trees). In 1906, Constantin Brâncuși made his first exhibition at the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts and Salon d’Automne in Paris. In 1907, he created the first version of the “Kiss” theme, a version that will continue in various forms until 1940, culminating in “Poarta Sărutului” (Gate of the Kiss) of the Monumental Ensemble in Târgu-Jiu. Also this year, he rented an atelier in Rue de Montparnasse and in contact with the Parisian artistic avant-garde, befriended Guillaume Apollinaire, Fernand Léger, Amedeo Modigliani and Marcel Duchamp. He began his work on “Prayer”, an order for a monument that Brâncuși’s studio in 1920 will be displayed in the “Dumbrava” Cemetery from sculpture, Brâncuși left the courtroom, to everyone’s Buzău. He returned briefly in Romania and participated surprise, without receiving the second half of the money at the “official exhibition of painting, sculpture and needed for his departure to France. Thus, he decided to architecture.” The exhibition jury chaired by Spiru Haret offered the second prize at par to Brâncuși, Paciurea, travel the road to Paris by foot. The road from Bucharest to Paris took him at Steriadi, Petraşcu and Theodorescu-Sion. Art collector first to Hobiţa, where he said goodbye to his mother. Anastase Simu bought his sculpture “Somnul”. Until He continued on and stopped in Vienna for a period during which he worked as a decorator at a furniture workshop. In Vienna he began visiting museums with inaccessible works of art in Romania. Here, he was fascinated by the Egyptian sculptures that influenced his work. In 1904, he left Vienna for München, but after six months he started walking through Bavaria and Switzerland to Langres, France. In the vicinity of Lunéville, Constantin was caught by a torrential storm and got infectious pneumonia. In critical condition, he was received at a nun hospital. After 114

Masa Tăcerii (Table of Silence) in Târgu-Jiu, Romania

Coloana Infinitului (Endless Column) in Târgu-Jiu, Romania

1914 he regularly participated at exhibitions in Paris and Bucharest, ushering the cycles “Păsări Măiestre”, “Muza adormită” and “Domnișoara Pogany”. Brâncuși opened his first exhibition in the USA at the Photo Secession Gallery in New York City in 1914, causing a huge sensation. American collector John Quin bought lots of his sculptures, thus ensuring the Romanian a favorable artistic material existence. In the same year, the Interior Minister of Romania rejected the monument of Spiru Haret ordered a year before. Brâncuși will keep the work in his workshop and will entitle it “Fântâna lui Narcis” (Fountain of Narcissus). The following year, he started executing his first works in wood, including “2 Cariatide” and “Fiul risipitor” (The Prodigal Son). In 1919 in Paris, the volume “La Roumanie en images” was exhibited. It also consisted of five reproductions of works made by Brâncuși. Brâncuși also participated at the “La Section d’Or” group exhibition in France, the “Romanian Art” group exhibition at the invitation of Camil Ressu in Romania, and at the “Dada Festival”, where he signed a manifesto entitled “Contre Cubisme, contre Dadaiseme”. In the “Little Review” magazine in New York, it appeared the first large study with 24

reproductions of works made by Brâncuși, signed by American poet Ezra Pound. Moreover, the sculptor would eventually perform a famous portrait of the poet. At the Wildenstein Galleries in New York, Brâncuși opened his second solo exhibition. It is being said that whenever proud art critics came to his workshop, Constantin used to kick them out because he didn’t like proud people. It is known that when the famous banker David Rockefeller, who really appreciated Brâncuși’s art, came to visit him at his workshop, he asked the artist: “How can I help? Can I get you any specific furniture?”. To this question, Brâncuși sharply replied: “Take that broom and clean the workshop!”. Until 1940, Brâncuși’s creative activity was carried out in all its magnitude. His most renown works from the cycle “Pasărea în văzduh” and “Ovoidului”, as well as his wood carvings date from this period. At the same time, Brâncuși went at the most important collective exhibitions of sculpture in the United States, France, Switzerland, Holland and England. In his workshop from Impasse Ronsin, in the heart of Paris, Constantin created a world of his own with a frame and a Romanian atmosphere. In Romania, in the era of socialist realism, Brâncuși was considered as one 115

of the representatives of cosmopolitan bourgeois formalism. In December 1956, at the Art Museum of the Republic in Bucharest it was opened Brâncuși’s first personal exhibition in Europe. Constantin Brâncuși was nicknamed in Romania the god-like peasant artist. Until the last moments of his life, Constantin lived as a simple Romanian peasant or rather as an ascetic, despite the fact that he had huge amounts of money. In the spring of 1957, Constantin Brâncuși called Archbishop Teofil Ionescu, priest at the Orthodox Church in Paris. After confessing his sins and receiving the holy Eucharist, the Romanian artist told the priest: “I die grieved in spirit because I can’t return to my country.” The great sculptor Constantin Brâncuși died at the age of 81 years old in Paris, France. He was buried in the Montparnasse cemetery in Paris. At his death, the Romanian communist government refused to receive the legacy of Brâncuși, his Parisian workshop, considering the sculptor a representative of the decadent bourgeoisie. Brâncuși’s studio thus was acquired by the French state. In 1963 there appeared in all parts of the world more than 50 books, monographs and thousands

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of articles and studies about Brâncuși, definitively establishing his place as a brilliant artist and even as “one of the greatest artists of all time”, according to Jean Cassou. Only in 1964, Brâncuși was “rediscovered” in Romania as a national genius and therefore the monumental ensemble from Târgu-Jiu with “Coloana Infinitului” (Infinite Column), “Masa tăcerii” (Table of Silence) and “Poarta sărutului” (Gate of the Kiss) could be arranged and cared for after being left derelict for a quarter of a century and had almost been torn down. In 2008, the Romanian government returned one of the few works of Brâncuși located in Romania, “Cuminţenia Pământului”, purchased in 1911 by engineer and art lover Gheorghe Romaşcu directly from the artist. The work was returned to the family after a lengthy process and is estimated at 20 million €. In fact, in 2014, the Romanian government was invited to bid for the artistic work as it was sold on the market. The most significant recent transaction of a work by Brâncuși was acquired at Christie’s Auction House in Paris. The wood sculpture “Madame L.R.” was bought for the price of 26 million € (excluding fees and taxes included).

Poarta Sărutului (Gate of the Kiss) in Târgu-Jiu, Romania

Nicolae Ceausescu Nicolae Ceaușescu (b. 26 January 1918 in Scornicești, Olt county, Romania – d. 25 December 1989 in Târgoviște, Romania) was a Romanian Communist politician. He was general secretary of the Romanian Communist Party from 1965 to 1989, and as such was the country’s second and last Communist leader. He was also the country’s head of state from 1967 to 1989. A member of the Romanian Communist youth movement, Ceaușescu rose up through the ranks of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej’s Socialist government and, upon the death of the latter in 1965, he succeeded to the leadership of Romania’s Communist Party as General Secretary. The one who would become the first president of Romania, Nicolae Ceaușescu, was born on 26 January 1918 in Scornicești, Olt County. He grew up in a family

of peasants that had 10 children. His father Andruţă and mother Alexandrina (born Lixandra) lived in a house that had only two rooms. Nicolae only finished four classes at the local school from his village. Little Ceaușescu had no books and often walked barefoot to school. In 1929, at the age of only 11 years old, after graduating from primary school, Ceaușescu left his village and went to Bucharest where he undertook an apprentice stage at a cobbler. Alexander Săndulescu, an active member of the RCP (Romanian Communist Party) has initiated his disciple in conspiracy missions. The following year, Nicolae became Member of the Romanian Communist Youth movement. Between 1936 and 1940, Ceaușescu was jailed for his activities in the Communist Party. While in prison, Ceausescu became a protégé of his cellmate, communist leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, who would later become the undisputed leader of the Romanian Communist Party since 1952. He escaped from prison shortly before the Soviet occupation of Romania. Between 1944 and 1945, Nicolae activated

Nicolae Ceaușescu, president of Romania (left) and Todor Zhivkov, president of Bulgaria (right)

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as secretary of the Communist Youth Union. In 1945, Ceaușescu got married to Elena Petrescu (born 7 January 1919), a communist activist. Between 1948 and 1950, after the fully accession to power of the communists in Romania, he headed the Ministry of Agriculture. The following 4 years, he was Deputy Minister of the Armed Forces. In 1952, Nicolae Ceaușescu became member of the Central Committee (CC) of the Romanian Workers’ Party (Partidul Muncitoresc Român - PMR), just few months after Dej got rid of the “Muscovite faction” led by Ana Pauker, Vasile Luca and Teohari Georgescu, from the party leadership. In 1954, he became a full member of the PMR’s Politburo and eventually rose up to occupy the second position in the party hierarchy. In the autumn of 1956, while being at Cluj, Ceaușescu had an important role in repressing the sympathy movements towards the Hungarian revolution. On 4 December 1957, having the generallieutenant rank in the army (being head of the Higher Political Army and Deputy Minister of the Armed Forces), Ceaușescu led the military units that have suppressed the peasant uprising from Vadu Roșca (Vrancea county) who resisted forced collectivization. 9 peasants were killed by bullets other 48 were injured. 18 peasants were jailed for “rebellion” and “conspiracy against the social order”, spending 15 to 25 years in prison at Gherla and Aiud. Three days after the death of Gheorghiu-Dej in March 1965, Ceaușescu took over the position of Secretary General of the Romanian Workers’ Party (which was the name of the Romanian Communist Party at the time, after the forced assimilation in 1948 of a wing of the Social Democratic Party). Once in power, one of the first actions of Ceaușescu was to rename the Romanian Workers’ Party in the Romanian Communist Party. At the same time, he argued that Romania had become a socialist country and decided to change the official name of the country from the Popular Republic of Romania (R.P.R.) in the Socialist Republic of Romania (R.S.R.). In December 1967, he was given the presidency of the State Council. The Economic Council was born and the Defence Council arose next year. Imperceptibly, the State Council was transformed from an honorific organ into a leadership organ, thus doubling or taking over the responsibilities of the government led by Gheorghe Maurer. In 1969, at the 10th Congress of the Romanian Communist Party, two thirds of the Permanent Presidium members had been promoted after 1965 by Ceaușescu’s care. The takeover 118

Young Ceaușescu in 1936

was now perfect and completed. In 1971, during the visits Nicolae made in China and North Korea, he became fascinated by the idea of total national transformation , as it was foreshadowed in the Korean Workers’ Party program and already being implemented under the aegis of the Cultural Revolution in China. Shortly after his return to the country, Ceaușescu began converting the local system after the North Korean model, being influenced by the philosophy of President Kim Il-Sung (Juche). North Korean books on this subject were translated into Romanian and widely distributed in the country. Starting from 1972, Ceaușescu started to implement a project for “systematizing” the urban and rural localities. Presented by the propaganda machine as a major step on the way of “building the multilaterally developed socialist society”, the program debuted in villages by mass demolition of households and resettlement of the affected peasant families in apartment buildings. Village demolition is actually a culmination of the forced industrialization policy, which led to the dissolution of Romanian rural society.

Nicolae Ceaușescu and Erich Honecker, General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany

The climax of this program was however represented by the demolition of many historical monuments, including churches, and the remodeling of Bucharest in “Ceaușist” style. Over a fifth of downtown Bucharest was affected. Casa Poporului (People’s House), currently the headquarters of Parliament, is representative referring to this subject. 400 architects headed by chief architect Anca Petrescu, designed the building. Three districts of Bucharest (Uranus, Antim and partially Rahova), as well as 17 churches, were wiped off the face of the. Every day, over 20.000 workers were working in three shifts. In five years it has sprung on Earth the second largest administrative building in the world after the Pentagon, with a volume of 2.500.000 cubic meters, with over 7.000 rooms, some the size of a football stadium. The total bill rose up to approximately 2 billion $, also taking into account that people were facing severe cold and food shortages. Protests made by some international nongovernmental organizations have played an important role in stopping these megalomaniac plans and perhaps saved what is nowadays left of the historical monuments blacklisted by the dictator. In 1974, Ceaușescu assumed the title of President of the Socialist Republic of Romania. Through

his able led foreign policy, he gave the impression that he was trying to free the country from Soviet domination, thus managing to draw the sympathy and appreciation of great political leaders such as Charles de Gaulle and Richard Nixon. Within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, Romanian delegations opposed to all proposals coming from the USSR. For example, Romania was one of the only two European communist countries that have participated in the Olympic Games held in Los Angeles, United States, in 1984. Moreover, Romania was the only country in the Eastern bloc, excluding the USSR, who at those times had diplomatic relations with the European Community, with Israel and with the Federal Republic of Germany. A treaty on the list of the favored countries by the European Community from the Eastern bloc, including Romania, was signed in 1974. Early in his career as head of state, Ceaușescu has enjoyed some popularity, adopting a political course independent from the Soviet Union. In the 1960’s, Nicolae had put an end to Romania’s active participation in the Warsaw Pact, although formally, the country will continue to be part of this organization until its dissolution. By refusing to allow the Romanian army to take part in the invasion of Czechoslovakia 119

along with troops of other member countries of the Warsaw Treaty and through his attitude of actively public condemning this act, Ceaușescu managed for a while to attract both the sympathy of his compatriots, as well as that of the Western world. In 1980, it was signed an agreement aiming at the exchange of industrial products between Romania and the European Community. This has led to Romania’s official visit by two US presidents, Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. In an effort to pay the large external debt of the government, accumulated through poorly managed industrial companies in the 1970’s, Nicolae ordered the export of much of the country’s industrial and agricultural production. Shortages of food, fuel, energy, medicine, and other basic necessities drastically reduced living standards and increased anxiety. Ceaușescu also instituted an extensive personality cult and appointed his wife, Elena, and several family members in high positions in the government and the party. His secret police maintained a rigid control on freedom of expression and media, and tolerated no internal dissent or opposition. In 1989, Ceaușescu’s regime collapsed after supposedly the dictator ordered his security forces to open fire against the antigovernment demonstrators from Timișoara on 17 December. The demonstrations spread to Bucharest, and then across the country, and on 22 December 1989, the Romanian army sided with the demonstrators. The same day, Ceaușescu and his wife fled the capital by helicopter but were captured by the military. On 25 December 1989, the Ceaușescu couple were tried and convicted in a hurry by a special military court on charges of mass murder and other

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Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife, Elena, planting a tree (Communist Propaganda Material)

Nicolae Ceaușescu’s nationalistic propaganda material

crimes. Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu were then shot by a firing squad. Their bodies were buried in the Ghencea cemetery. If in 1989, the killing of the Ceaușescu family didn’t spark many regrets, 20 years later the Romanians perception of their first president has changed. According to a CURS poll, 31% of those surveyed believe that in the history textbook, Nicolae Ceaușescu should be presented rather as a man who has made a lot for Romania, while 52% believe that he should be presented as a man who did good and bad equally. On 21 July 2010, Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena were exhumed for DNA sampling after 21 years at the request of their son, Valentin Ceaușescu, and their groom, Mircea Oprean, in order to determine whether or not they were buried there. DNA samples proved that indeed, the former dictator and his wife were buried in the Ghencea cemetery in Bucharest.

The Dictator inspecting a work site (Communist Propaganda Material)

Mihai Eminescu Mihai Eminescu (b. 15 January 1850 in Ipotești, Botoșani, Romania – d. 15 June 1889 in Bucharest, Romania) was a Romantic poet, novelist and journalist, often regarded as the most famous and influential Romanian poet. Eminescu was an active member of the Junimea literary society and worked as an editor for the newspaper “Timpul” (The Time), the official newspaper of the Conservative Party (1880–1918). Notable works include “Luceafărul” (The Vesper/The Evening Star/The Daystar), “Odă în metru antic” (Ode in Ancient Meter) and the five “Letters” (Epistles/Satires). In his poems he frequently used metaphysical, mythological and historical subjects. Mihai Eminescu (born Eminovici) was born in Botoșani on 15 January 1850 as the 7th of the 11 children of Gheorghe Eminovici, originally from a family of Romanian peasants from northern Moldavia and Raluca Eminovici, born Juraşcu, daughter of a steward from Joldeşti. He spent his childhood in Botoșani and Ipoteşti in his parental home and in the surroundings in a complete freedom of movement and contact with people and with nature. He evoked this state with a deep nostalgia in his poetry (“Fiind băiet păduri cutreieram” or “O, rămîi”). Between 1858 and 1866, he intermittently followed school in Cernăuţi (now Chernivtsi, Ukraine). Mihai finished his 4th grade as the 5th of 82 students then he studied 2 years at a gymnasium school. He left school in 1863, then started it again in 1866. Meanwhile, he got employed as a clerk at various institutions in Botoșani (the courthouse and city hall) or wandered with the Tardini-Vlădicescu theater band. 1866 is the year of Eminescu’s first literary manifestations. In January 1866, Aron Pumnul, his beloved gymnasium teacher of Romanian language died and the students realized a brochure, “The tears of the gymnasium teacher learners”, where the poem “La mormîntul lui Aron Pumnul” signed by Mihai Eminovici also appeared. On 25 February / 9 March, he debuted in Iosif Vulcan’s “Family” magazine from Pest with the poem “De-aş avea” (If I had). Iosif Vulcan changed his name from Eminovici to Mihai Eminescu. The poet and his family members also adopted this name. In the same year, 5 more poems signed by Eminescu appeared in the “Family” magazine. From 1866 until 1869, Eminescu wandered

Mihai Eminescu

along the Cernăuţi – Blaj – Sibiu – Giurgiu - Bucharest route. In fact, these were years of knowledge through direct contact of the people, the language, customs and Romanian realities. He intended to continue his studies, but didn’t realize this project. He worked as prompter and role copyist in Iorgu Caragiali’s band. Mihai had the same attributions at the National Theatre where he met Ion Luca Caragiale. Eminescu continued publishing in the “Family” magazine, wrote poems, dramas (Mira), novel fragments and translates various manuscripts from German. Between 1869 and 1872, Eminescu was a student in Vienna. He followed the Faculty of Philosophy and Law, where he became fascinated by Schopenhauer and Kant’s philosophies. Mihai also went to courses from other faculties. He activated among the student societies, where he befriended Ioan Slavici. Eminescu also met Veronica Micle in Vienna, for whom he developed a very passionate and deep love. The poet started collaborating with the “Convorbiri Literare” (Literary Talk) magazine and became a publicist for the “Albina” newspaper in Pest. Between 1872 and 1874, Eminescu studied in Berlin. The “Junimea” magazine 121

granted him a scholarship provided he obtained his doctorate in philosophy. He regularly followed two semesters, but didn’t go at the examinations. Eminescu returned to his native country and lived in Iași between 1874 and 1877. He held the following functions there: director of the Central Library, substitute teacher, school inspector for Iași and Vaslui counties and editor of the newspaper “Courier of Iaşi”. Mihai continued publishing in “Convorbiri Literare”. Meanwhile, the poet became good friend with writer Ion Creangă. Mihai invited Ion to collaborate with the “Junimea” magazine. His material situation was uncertain and besides this, he had lots of troubles in his family, while also confronting with his love feelings towards Veronica Micle. In 1877 he moved to Bucharest, where until 1883 he fulfilled the function of editor, then chief editor of the newspaper “Timpul”. He conducted an exceptional journalistic activity, but unfortunately his health situation started to deteriorate. This is the period when he started writing his most renown great poems (Letters, Evening Star, etc.). In June 1883, the poet got seriously ill, being hospitalized in Dr. Şuţu’s hospital. He was then transferred to an institute near Vienna. In December of that year, the book “Poems” appeared, having the preface and texts selected by Titu Maiorescu. In fact, this is the only book printed during Eminescu’s lifetime. Some sources doubt Eminescu’s disease and come with arguments in this aspect. Since 1883 until his death in 1889, Eminescu wrote very little or practically nothing. Mihai Eminescu died in dubious circumstances differently interpreted by various sources on 15 June 1889 in Dr. Şuţu’s hospital, at the age of 39 years old. There are many theories about his cause of death, some claiming he died because he was hit in the head with a rock by one of the hospital’s pacient, some claiming that he died because of syphilis, while other claim that he died because he was poisoned with mercury. He was buried in Bucharest, in the Bellu cemetery. The coffin was carried on shoulders by four students from the Normal School Institute. Above all, Mihai Eminescu was a great patriot, a literary genius, a devoted Christian and a misunderstood person. His poems are famous in Romania even nowadays and his figure stands out as a symbol of national emancipation and culture. Mihai Eminescu was the first person that made out of the Romanian language a true work of art at times when the Romanian poetry, uncertain, was only at the beginning of its road. Erudite through the complexity of accumulated knowledge (he studied 122

Mihai Eminescu just 2 years before his death

philosophy, law, medicine, was interested in economics, sociology and other disciplines) he had a successful career as a journalist. His entire journalistic activity was made in the service of the right to national existence of the Romanian people, supporting in his articles the cause of the Romanians from Transylvania and Bukovina. Mihai strongly asserted the autochtony of Romanians, pointing out that there is no ethnic or linguistic distinction between Romanians of all the historical Romanian provinces. He considered that laws should be made taking into account the “needs of the people so that explanation or enforcement by law wouldn’t contradict their spirit”. Eminescu also strongly criticized the intervention of foreigners who have entered the “overlaid blanket” in national issues and the poor organization at central and local level that didn’t represent the people’s interests. His works have been translated into many languages and have been appreciated in countries on all continents.

Portrait of Mihai Eminescu by Nestor Heck (IaĹ&#x;i, 1884)

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Henri Marie Coanda Henri Marie Coandă (b. 7 June 1886 in Bucharest, Romania – d. 25 November 1972 in Bucharest, Romania) was a Romanian inventor, aerodynamics pioneer and builder of an experimental aircraft, the “Coandă-1910”, described by Coandă in the mid-1950’s as the world’s first jet, a controversial claim disputed by some and supported by others. He invented a great number of devices, designed a “flying saucer” and discovered the Coandă effect of fluid dynamics. Henri Marie Coandă was born in Bucharest on 7 June 1886 as the second child of a large family. His father was General Constantin Coandă, former professor of mathematics at the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest and former Prime Minister of Romania for a short time in 1918. His mother, Aida Danet, was the daughter of French physician Gustave Danet, native of Brittany. Since childhood, the future engineer and physicist was fascinated by the miracle of wind, a thing that he will recall later. Henri Coandă studied at the “Petrache Poenaru” school in Bucharest then followed the courses of the “Saint Sava” High School, where he attended the first three classes. In 1899, at the age of 13 years old, he was sent by his father, who wanted to guide him towards a military career, at the Military High School in Iași. In 1903 he finished his high school studies with the rank of sergeant and continued to study at the School of Artillery, Engineering and Marine in Bucharest. The following year, Henri was sent to the Technische Hochschule from Berlin-Charlottenburg while being detached to a field artillery regiment in Germany. The Romanian was very passionate about technical problems, especially about the aviation technique. In 1905, Coandă built a rocket plane for the Romanian army. Between 1907 and 1908, he also attended university courses in Liege, Belgium and at the Montefiore Institute. In 1908, Henri Coandă returned to Romania and was framed active officer in the 2nd Regiment of Artillery. Due to his nature and inventive spirit that was irreconcilable with the military discipline, he asked and obtained permission to leave the army after which he took advantage of the regained freedom and undertook a long journey by car on the route Isfahan - Tehran Tibet. In 1909 he went back to France and enrolled in the School of Aeronautics and Superior Construction, 124

Henri Coandă

newly founded in Paris, whose graduate he becomes next year as head of the first promotion of aircraft engineers. With the support of engineer Gustave Eiffel and scientist Paul Painlevé, which helped him obtain the necessary approvals, Henri Coandă conducted preliminary aerodynamics studies and built in the workshop of Joachim Caproni the first aircraft with reactive propulsion. In fact, it was a jet plane with no propellers, conventionally called “Coandă-1910”, which he presented at the second international aeronautical Salon in Paris in 1910. In the same year, during a test flight realized in December at the Issy-les-Moulineaux airport near Paris, the machine piloted by Henri Coandă lost control due to his lack of experience, has hit a wall located near the take-off area and it set on fire. Fortunately, Coandă was projected from the plane right before the impact and had only minor contusions on his face and hands. He also got scared pretty bad. For a while, Coandă abandoned the experiments due to the lack of interest from the public and scientists of those times. Between 1911 and 1914, Henri Coandă worked as technical

director at the aviation plants in Bristol, England and built aircrafts with highly performant propellers, made by his own conception. In Reims, Henri Coandă presented an aircraft with two coupled engines that acted a single propeller. In his capacity as technical director of the Bristol aviation plants, Henri Coandă designed more “classic” aircrafts (with propellers), known as BristolCoandă. In 1912, one of them won the first prize at the International Competition of the Military Air Force in England. During WWI, Henri Coandă worked at “SaintChamond” and “Delaunay-Belleville SIA” in Saint Denis. During this period he designed three types of aircrafts, of which the best known is the Coandă-1916, having two propellers close to the empennage. Coandă -1916 was similar to the Caravelle transport aircraft, to whose design he actually participated. While still in France, he built a highly regarded reconnaissance aircraft of the era, the first sled-car powered by a jet engine, the world’s first aerodynamic train and others. In 1926, while being in Romania, Henri Coandă set up a device for liquid detection into the soil. It is nowadays used in petrochemical prospecting in a more advanced form. In the Persian Gulf, the Romanian

inventor built an underwater concrete tank for storing oil. In 1934, he got a French patent for his “Method and device for diverting a stream of fluid that penetrates into another fluid”, which basically refers to the phenomenon called nowadays “Coandă Effect”, consisting of diverting a stream of fluid flowing along a convex wall, a phenomenon first observed by him in 1910, while he was testing an engine which was equipped on his jet plane. This discovery led him to important applied research on disc-shaped aircrafts called “Aerodina Lenticulară” (which looked like a flying saucer), sound attenuators inventions and others. The first observations he made on the Coandă Effect occurred while studying the world’s first airplane jet, Coandă -1910. After the plane took off, Henri Coandă noticed that the flames and incandescent gas from the reactor tended to stay near the fuselage. Only after more than 20 years of studying together with other scientists, the Romanian engineer formulated the principle behind the so-called Coandă Effect, named in this manner by Professor Albert Métral. In 1969, Henri Coandă returned to his native country as director of the Institute of Technical and Scientific Creation (INCREST). The following year, he became a

The Coandă-1910 experimental aircraft

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member of the Romanian Academy. Henri Coandă died in Bucharest on 25 November 1972 at the age of 86 years old. Henri Coandă had 250 patents in very different areas. Worth mentioning here are the recoilless cannon, a military aircraft equipment, a seawater desalination plant and the “Aerotube Express” project, a mean of transport that could’ve reached 500 km/h. Henri Coandă has also tested a similar system to the Hyperloop variant designed by Elon Musk. He said that using his invention, people could’ve travel between Bucharest and Ploiești in less than 8 minutes with a speed of about 500 kilometers per hour. A quality of Coandă’s Hyperloop which has caught the attention of various scientists, as well as the wide public, was that people could’ve travelled between Los Angeles and San Francisco in about half an hour, which meant that the maximum speed wouldn’t have exceed 1.200 kilometers per hour. On 11 October 2010, at the commemoration of the 100th year anniversary since the first flight in the world of an aircraft jet created by Henri Coandă, the National Bank of Romania has put into circulation

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The Bristol - Coandă monoplane

about 1.000 commemorative silver coin copies, for numismatic purposes, with a nominal value of 10 lei. The coin is round, has a diameter of 37 mm, is made of 999‰ silver, has a proof quality and weighs about 31 g. The edge of the coin is reeded. The silver coins of the numismatic emission “100 years anniversary since the construction of the first jet aircraft by Henri Coandă” have legal tender in Romania.

The blowing slats from the Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft’s leading edges and the wing and the trailing edge represent aerodynamic features that contribute to the Coandă airflow over the wing

Nadia Comaneci Nadia Comăneci (b. 12 November 1961 in Onești, Bacău, Romania) is a Romanian former gymnast who, at the age of 14, became the first gymnast in Olympic history to be awarded the perfect score of 10.0 at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. She would eventually go on to receive six more perfect 10’s in Montreal as well as three gold medals. Four years later, she won two gold medals at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. She won a total of 9 Olympic medals and 4 World Championship medals during her career. Nadia Comăneci was born on 12 November 1961 in Onești, Bacău county, in the family of Gheorghe and Ştefania-Alexandria Comăneci. She was named after “Nadezhda” (Hope), the heroine of a movie from those times. Nadia has a younger brother whose name is Adrian. She started gymnastics at the age of 6 years old in her hometown, where she was discovered by Béla Károlyi, the coach with whom the future star of world gymnastics achieved the greatest successes. The gymnast with outstanding qualities for this sport realized several performances since the early years of her career. At the age of 10 years old, Nadia conquered all the five gold medals of the Romanian Cup at the children’s category children only to win her first title of absolute champion of Romania in the exact day when she turned 11 years old. In 1972, she ranked No.1 in the team competition and obtained the same place in the individual competition at Romania’s national junior championship. In 1973, at Romania’s Internationals she ranked No.1 in all competitions: uneven bars, floor, balance beam and leaps. In the ROM vs ITA competition she ranked No. 1 in the team competition and the same place in the individual all-around. In 1975, at the age of only 13 years old, she attended the tournament champions in London where, on the podium of the Empire Pool, Nadia conquered the trophy of the competition. That same year, at the European Championships in Skien (Norway), Nadia obtained 4 gold medals and 1 silver medal, thus becoming the youngest continental champion in history. In the pre-Olympic competition, she ranked No. 1 in the individual all-round: and uneven bars, 2nd at leaps and floor and 3rd at balance beam. The highlight of Nadia’s career, which brought

Nadia Comăneci

her world fame, was at the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games when she obtained the title of absolute Olympic champion. The little Romanian, called at that time the “Fairy from Montreal”, received the perfect score of 10.0 for the first time in gymnastics history and won 3 gold medals in the individual all-around, balance beam and uneven bars, 1 silver medal with the team and 1 bronze medal in the floor competition. Also that year she ranked No. 1 in the CAN vs ROM team competition, after which she ranked once more on the first place in the ROM vs USA team competition and individual allround. In the America’s Cup competition she ranked No.1 in the individual all-round competition. In the Chunichi Cup, held in Japan, she obtained the 1st place at uneven bars, balance beam, floor, leaps and individual all-round. Nadia obtained the same results in the Balkan Championships. 127

In 1977, at Romania’s Internationals she ranked No.1 in the individual all-round competition and at the European Championship she got the 1st place in the same competition and at the uneven bars, while at leaps she obtained the 2nd place. At the 1978 World Championship, Comăneci ranked No.2 in the team competition, No. 1 at balance beam and No. 5 in the individual all-round. In the 1979 Champions All competitions, she got the 1st place in the individual all-round, while at the European Championship, Nadia obtained the same place in the same competition. In addition, she got the 1st place in the leaps and floor competition and the 3rd place in the balance beam one. At the World Cup, Nadia Comăneci ranked No. 4 in the individual all-round, leaps and floor competitions and No. 2 at the balance beam, while at the World Championships she obtained the 1st place in the team competition. In the following year, Nadia obtained the 1st place in the individual all-round at Romania’s Internationals and the 2nd place in the team competition, 2nd in the individual all-around, 1st in the balance beam, 1st in the floor and 5th in the leaps

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Nadia Comăneci being rewarded by the Socialist Republic of Romania after her performances at the 1976 Montreal Summer Olympics

Nadia during training in the 1970’s

competition at the Olympic Games held in Moscow. In 1981, in the Universiada competition, she obtained the No. 1 spot in the team and individual all-round competitions. In 1984, Nadia retired from gymnastics, occasion on which she was awarded with the “Colanul de Argint” Olympic Order for her glowing performances that have amazed and delighted millions of sports fans, turning her into a symbol of world gymnastics. After she retired from competitions, Nadia became a member of the Romanian Gymnastics Federation and helped at the Romanian junior gymnasts training. Nadia Comăneci fled to the United States after the 1989 Romanian Revolution. She nowadays lives in Norman, Oklahoma. Nadia recalled that Ceaușescu banned her to leave the country and forced her to work on a small salary at the Gymnastics Federation. Although she became the first Olympic champion with a perfect score of 10.0 in gymnastics history, her life in Romania has changed very little. Nadia was kept under surveillance by Ceaușescu’s guards, even when she washed her clothes or went shopping. Former gymnast said that her life was caught in a trap. She was so scared that she threatened she will end her days. When coaches Béla and Maria Károlyi left the country in 1981, the authorities became even more suspicious. In November 1989, Nadia eventually decided to flee from communist Romania. She joined a group of Romanians who secretly went to the Hungarian border in the middle of the night. She walked for hours through the snow, but nothing seemed harder than the last years spent in Romania. Finally, she arrived in

Austria, where she was received as a champion. From there, Nadia Comăneci fled to the United States. In April 1996, Nadia married a former US gymnast, Bart Conner, with whom she has a son, Paul Dylan. On the occasion of celebrating the 90th anniversary of the Romanian Gymnastics Federation, Nadia named honorary president. In a ceremony held in Washington in 1998, Nadia was rewarded with the “Flo Hyman” award for outstanding achievements in sport. In 1999, in Vienna, Nadia was declared the world athlete of the 20th century. In 2000, she was awarded the National Order “Star of Romania”, while in March 2002 the former gymnast was elected honorary president of the Romanian Olympic Committee. On 29 June 2001, Comăneci became a naturalized citizen of the United States of America, while also retaining her Romanian citizenship, thus making her a dual citizen. In December 2003, Nadia published her first book, “Letters to a Young Gymnast”. At Paul Dylan’s baptism, many celebrities like Placido Domingo, Angela Gheorghiu and her partner, Robert Alagna, George Clooney or Arnold Schwarzenegger responded to the Romanian athlete’s invitation. Several personalities from Romania such as Gheorghe Hagi and his wife, Octavian Belu,

Mariana Bitang and Viorel Paunescu, also attended at the event. In Romania, Nadia Comăneci, alongside former footballer Gheorghe Hagi, tennis player Ilie Năstase and boxer Leonard Doroftei are considered symbols and promoters of sport activities. Currently, Nadia Comăneci is involved in several charitable projects related mainly to helping children from disadvantaged areas of the Earth. Nadia created a charity clinic in Bucharest in order to help orphans from Romania. Nadia and her husband are owners of the “Bart Conner Gymnastics Academy”, Perfect 10 Production Company and of other several other sports equipment shops. They are also publishers of the International Gymnastics Magazine. Nadia Comăneci is Vice Chairman of the Board of Special Olympics, Honorary President of the Romanian Gymnastics Federation, Honorary President of the Romanian Olympic Committee, Romanian Ambassador of Sports, Vice President of the Board of the Muscular Dystrophy Association and member of the International Gymnastics Federation Foundation. She was awarded twice with the Olympic Order, awarded by the IOC.

Nadia Comăneci together with former football legend Gheorghe Hagi in 2007

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Ana Aslan Ana Aslan (b. 1 January 1897 in Brăila, Romania – d. 20 May 1988 in Bucharest, Romania) was a Romanian biologist and physician who discovered the anti-aging effects of procaine, based on the drugs Gerovital H3 and Aslavital, which she developed. She is considered to be a pioneer of gerontology and geriatrics in Romania. In 1952, she founded the Geriatric Institute of Bucharest. This institute was the first of its kind in the world and was recognized by the World Health Organization. Although her work was controversial, she received international attention. The daughter of intellectual parents of Armenian origins, Sofia and Mărgărit Aslan, Ana attended the Romaşcanu College in Brăila and after her family established in Bucharest, she followed the Central School. In 1915, she enrolled in the Faculty of Medicine. During World War I, she took care of soldiers from the military hospitals behind the front near Iaşi. After she returned to Bucharest in 1919, Ana worked together with the great neurologist Gheorghe Marinescu. Three years later, she graduated from university and was appointed assistant at the Clinic II in Bucharest led by Professor Daniel Danielopolu, who helped and instructed the young woman in her thesis research on vasomotor innervation, which she presented in 1924. After her residency, Ana Aslan worked in several hospitals in Bucharest between 1922 and 1925, was a cardiologist at the CFR hospital between 1931 and 1946, lecturer at the Medical Clinic of the Faculty of Medicine in Bucharest, physician and head of department at the University Clinic of the “Filantropia” Hospital between 1943 and 1947, as well as professor of internal medicine in Timişoara between 1945 and 1949. Ana also held the functions of secretary of the Romanian Academy of Medicine (1947-1948), president of the Society of Medical Sciences in Timişoara (1947-1949), head of the department for elderly problems at the Institute of Endocrinology since 1949 and director of the Institute of Geriatrics in Bucharest since 1952, the first in the world with this profile, set up by her with the support of Dr. Constantin Ion Parhon, presidium chairman of the Grand National Assembly. In 1974, the institute changed its name to the National Institute of Gerontology and Geriatrics, proposed as a model in 1964 by the President of the World Health Organization. 130

Ana Aslan

While she worked in Timişoara, Ana Aslan made a procaine experiment on a young rheumatic bedridden. The experiment was successful as she managed to improve the man’s condition. Upon noticing the fantastic results of the experiment, she continued it on elderly sufferers at a Social Complex of the Ministry of Labour and Social Care, thus managing to highlight the importance of Novocain in improving age-related dystrophic disorders. In 1952, Ana Aslan invented vitamin H3 (Gerovital), which was based on Novocain, an anesthetic used in diseases of old age, arteriosclerosis, vitiligo, scleroderma, etc. In 1956, the research results are presented by Ana Aslan at the European Congress of Gerontology in Karlsruhe, where she was received with some skepticism, and at the European Congress of Gerontology in Basel. For two years she has experienced the product on thousands of people, the results being favorable. The process of natural aging was decreased by 40% and in 1958, GH3 started being produced on a large scale, being commercialized in pharmacies and patented in over 30 countries. In 1961, the Romanian scientist continued her researches and invented the “Aslavital”, together with pharmacist Elena Polovrăgeanu. Aslavital contains, besides procaine, an active and anti-heterogeneous factor, patented and produced widespread since 1980 and used to treat prophylactic and curative forms of aging, predominantly related to brain and cardiovascular diseases, mental and physical fatigue,

2016 stamp featuring Ana Aslan

intellectual overwork, memory disorders and others. Within the Institute, Ana has established a geriatric ward whose field of activity was the aging process in terms of medical, social, economic, psychological, demographic, ecological and cultural aspects. The action of geronto- prophylaxis took place at a national level and allowed the development of multidisciplinary research (medicine, psychology, sociology, economics etc). The study of human longevity, the intergenerational study on the social image of the elderly and the study of demographical aging were only few of the issues that have proved that fundamental and applied research of social gerontology were becoming the most current and necessary. On this basis, in 1997, the National Institute of Geriatrics and Gerontology has developed a National Program for medico-social assistance of the elderly population in Romania. Ana Aslan has published over 300 papers, studies, communications and articles, the most important of them being: “Novocain - eutrophic and regenerating factor in preventive and curative treatment of old age” (1952, in collaboration with C.I. Parhon), “Gerovital H3 treatment in aging” (1973), as well as “The technique and action of the Gerovital H3 treatment”, published after 34 years of use in the Romanian Journal of Gerontology and Geriatrics (1985). She was a member of the Academy of Sciences of New York, of the World Union of Prophylactic Medicine and Social Hygiene, the National Society of Gerontology of Chile, honorary member of the European Centre for Applied Medical Research, member of the Board of International Association of Gerontology, president of the Romanian Society of Gerontology and adviser at the World Health Organization. She was named titular member of the Socialist Republic of Romania Academy on 1 March 1974.

Ana Aslan received many awards and prizes such as the International Prize and “Leon Bernard” medal given by WHO (1952), Order of Labour, Class III, Romania (1958), Scientific Distinction, Class I, Romania (1967), Merito della Repubblica, Commander Degree, Italy (1969), Gold Medal, Nicaragua (1971), Hero of Socialist Labour, Romania (1971), Cross of Merit, First Class of the Order of Merit, Germany (1971), Extraordinary Professor Diploma of the First International Course for Development in Gerontology and Geriatrics, Fuengirola, Spain (1971), Professor Honoris Causa and Doctor of Honor of the Baragança Paulista University, Brazil (1973), Knight of the order “Les Palmes Académiques”, France (1974), “De Orange Nassau” Order, Commandor Degree, Netherlands (1975), International Award “Dag Hamarskjoeld”, Florence (1977) and many others. Numerous celebrities have used the products invented by Ana Aslan, including J. F. Kennedy, I. B. Tito, Pablo Neruda, Charlie Chaplin, Salvador Dali, Indira Gandhi, Charles de Gaulle, Nikita Khrushchev, Aristotle Onasis, Marlene Dietrich and many others. She treated many old people without opportunities at the Institute without charging them, for which she was charged with the amount of 1.500.000 lei, the equivalent expenditure. After many years of lawsuits, she was acquitted in 1987. Ana Aslan died at the age of 91 years old at the Elias Hospital due to complications resulting from an operation for colon cancer. Following the indications of Elena Ceauşescu, Ana was transported directly from the hospital mortuary to the chapel of the Orthodox Bellu Cemetery. Funeral expenses were paid by the Romanian Academy. The medical and researcher activity of Ana Aslan, together with the school which was under her leadership, were unanimously internationally appreciated and recognized as an undeniable Romanian priority.

Ana Aslan’s grave in the Bellu Cemetery, Bucharest, Romania

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Moldovan Personalities

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Grigore Vieru Grigore Vieru (b. 14 February 1935 in Pererîta, Hotin County, Kingdom of Romania, now Briceni district, Republic of Moldova – d. 18 January 2009 in Chișinău, Republic of Moldova) was a Moldovan poet and writer. He is mostly known for his poems and books for children. His poetry is characterized by vivid natural scenery, patriotism, as well as a venerated image of the sacred mother. Vieru wrote in the Romanian language. Grigore Vieru was born in a family of Romanian plowmen, son of Paul and Eudochia Vieru. He graduated from the seven-grade school in his native village in 1950, after which he attended the middle school in the town of Lipcani, which he finished in 1953. He made his editorial debut in 1957 (while he was still a student) with a children’s lyrics booklet, “Alarma”, which was appreciated by literary critics. In 1958, Vieru graduated the Faculty of Philology and History at the “Ion Creangă” Pedagogical Institute from Chişinău. In the same year, his second collection of children’s lyrics booklet appeared (Muzicuţe), and was hired as editor at the “Scînteia Leninistă”children’s magazine. In 1960, he married Raisa, a Romanian and Latin teacher. The couple had together two children: Vieru-Teodor and Călin. Grigore was editor at the “Nistru” magazine, a publication of the Writers’ Union of the Republic of Moldova. Between 1960 and 1963, Vieru was editor at the Moldovan Book Publishing House (Cartea Moldovenească), where he also published two children’s verses booklets: “Făt-Frumos şi Curcubeul” and “Bună ziua, fulgilor!”. In 1964, he published the “Legămînt” poem in the Nistru magazine, which he dedicated to poet Mihai Eminescu. In 1965, his “Versuri pentru cititorii de toate vîrstele” volume appeared, for which he was awarded the Republican Prize of the Comsomol in the field of literature for children and youth. Later, the Nistru magazine published the poem “Bărbaţii Moldovei” with a dedication to Nicolae Testemițanu. The whole printing process was stopped and the dedication was removed. In 1968, a logical turning point took place in the destiny of the poet following the publication of the lyrics volume “Numele tău”, with a preface realized by Ion Druţă. The book was appreciated by literary critics as the most original poetic publishing. In the year of

Grigore Vieru

its publication, the book became an object of study at the university courses of contemporary national literature. Three poems in the volume are entitled “Tudor Arghezi”, “Lucian Blaga”, “Brîncuşi”, while other two are dedicated to Nicolae Labiş and Marin Sorescu. Thus, such dedications appeared for the first time in post-war Bessarabian poetry. In 1969, he published “Duminica cuvintelor” at the Lumina publishing house, with illustrations realized by Igor Vieru. The book became instantly beloved by preschoolers and became “compulsory” in any kindergarten. A year later, Lumina published “Abecedarul”, signed by Spiridon Vangheli, Grigore Vieru and painter Igor Vieru. There has been a fierce struggle for a few years prior to its emergence, a struggle in which the Bessarabian teachers also engaged as the work was being considered nationalistic by the authorities. Also in 1970, the selective lyric volume for children “Trei iezi” was published. Only a few days after its appearance, following a denunciation, the volume was withdrawn from the bookstores because the Romanian tricolor was found “hidden” in the “Curcubeul”. In 1973, Grigore Vieru crossed the Prut River as part of a delegation of Soviet writers and attended the meeting with the editors of the “Secolul XX” magazine. In 1974, Zaharia Stancu, the president of the Union of Writers in Romania, made an official invitation to Grigore Vieru. The poet accepted it and visited Transylvania, accompanied by poet Radu Cîrneci. In the same year, the lyrics volume “Aproape” had been 133

published, with color illustrations by Isai Cîrmu. In 1982, the children’s musical “Maria Mirabela” realized by director Ion Popescu was released, the texts for the songs being signed by Grigore Vieru. In 1988 he was awarded the most prestigious international distinction in the field of children literature, the Andersen Honorary Diploma. At the end of the 1980’s, Grigore Vieru was in the front line of the Bessarabian National Liberation Movement, his texts (including songs based on his lyrics) playing a major role in the awakening of the national conscience of the Bessarabians. Vieru was one of the founders of the People’s Front and was among the organizers and leaders of the Great National Assembly of 27 August 1989. He actively participated in the debates of the 13th Supreme Session of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova, in which Romanian was voted as the official language of the country and the script was switched to Latin. In 1989, Vieru was elected deputy of the people. He gathered around him the most popular musicians and songwriters from Bessarabia and made a tour in the region of Moldova, Romania. A year later, Grigore

Portrait of Grigore Vieru (by Paul Mecet)

Vieru was elected Honorary Member of the Romanian Academy, while in 1991 he became a member of the State Commission on Language Problems. In 1992, the Romanian Academy proposed him for the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1993, the poet was elected as a correspondent member of the Romanian Academy. At the age of 60 years old, in 1995, Vieru was officially celebrated in Bucharest, Iaşi and the Union of Writers in Chişinău. In the same year, the poet was elected member of the Board of Directors for the Romanian Broadcasting Society. In 1996, he was decorated with the Order of the Republic. In 1997, the Litera publishing house from Chişinău published the anthological volume “Acum şi în veac”. Three years later, Vieru was decorated with the “Eminescu” Romanian Government Medal to mark 150 years since the birth of the Romanian national poet. On 16 January 2009, the poet suffered a serious traffic accident near Chişinău. 48 hours after the accident, Grigore Vieru’s heart stopped beating, amid multiple traumatisms and organs failure. Grigore Vieru was buried on 20 January 2009 in Chişinău in the central cemetery located on the Armenian street. Several tens of thousands of people 134

Young Moldavian poet Grigore Vieru

assisted at the funeral. Chişinău no longer experienced funerals of such proportions since the funeral of Doina and Ion Aldea Teodorovici. The day of 20 January 2009 was declared a mourning day in the Republic of Moldova. At 10:00 o’clock, the whole Republic held a moment of silence. Grigore Vieru was decorated posthumously with the National Order “Star of Romania”. Several schools in the Republic of Moldova, a boulevard in Chişinău and a street in Iaşi and Buzău are named after Grigore Vieru. On 11 February 2010, three days before his birthday, the bust of the poet was installed in the Aleea Clasicilor in Chişinău. Such was the life of Grigore Vieru, the poet, who served poetry with dedication during his lifetime. He was also an exponent of the dominant ideas in the Moldovan national consciousness that he expressed artistically and enriched them with his soul. He was a fruitful poet, always sensitive to the murmur

Grigore Vieru in 1972

of the heart and to the struggles of the times. A word about poet Grigore Vieru produces emotion, a natural experience imposed beyond all that is produced in life. Along with other illustrious creators, he represented a poetic school where poetry was the life and soul of a man.

The Moldavian poets Grigore Vieru, Ion Vatamanu and writer Serafim Saca in the 1970’s

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Maria Cebotari Maria Cebotari (b. 10 February 1910 in Chișinău, Bessarabia, Russian Empire, now Republic of Moldova – d. 9 June 1949 in Vienna, Austria) was a celebrated Bessarabian soprano and actress, one of the world’s greatest opera and singing stars during the 1930’s and 1940’s. Beniamino Gigli considered Cebotari one of the greatest female voices he ever heard. Maria Callas was compared to her and Angela Gheorghiu named Maria Cebotari among the artists she admires the most. Her funeral was “one of the most imposing demonstrations of love and honor any deceased artist has ever received” in the history of Vienna, with thousands of people attending it. Born in a modest family, the parish priest discovered Maria’s talent and urged her to pursue specialized studies. She studied at Florica Niţă’s normal girls’ school and at the Metropolitan Chapel of Chişinău, which was then headed by Mihail Berezovschi. She then finished the “Unirea” Conservatory in Chişinău (1924-1929). In 1926, she was discovered by Count Alexander Virubov, the former director of the Moscow Art Theater. The count sought a girl who could also sing in Russian and was instantly fascinated by her voice and beauty, eventually falling in love with her. Together with the Russian Art Theater Company, she had many performances in Bucharest, after which she went to Paris to perform on the great scenes of the French capital. After her arrival in France, Virubov proposed to her. Because she was a minor, a letter exchange followed between the count and her parents. Maria’s parents didn’t give their consent for the marriage and threatened to contact the French police in order to stop their relationship. Meanwhile, her father died, and after a while, Maria Cebotari decided to marry Alexander Virubov. Together they went to Berlin, where the count played in a movie. In 1929, Maria Cebotari went to Berlin, where she took singing and music lessons for three months, from Oskar Daniel, a very good teacher. Shortly after, Maria Cebotari learned German so well that she was able to pass the examination of the director of the Dresden State Opera, conductor Fritz Busch. Impressed by her voice, Busch offered her a contract on the spot and on 15 April 1931, Maria debuted as an opera singer in the role of Mimi in the opera La Bohème by Giacomo Puccini at the Dresden Semperoper. The 136

Maria Cebotari

play was a huge success and the performance was so good that it seemed to have been perfectly written for her. Until 1943, she already became a world acclaimed soloist. Between 1935 and 1943, Maria performed on the stage of the Berlin State Opera. Later, she was employed as a permanent soloist at the Vienna State Opera, where she remained until her death. Maria soon found out that she was seriously ill and she will die. The moment she confessed about the fact that she would soon die caused tears and applauses from the audience as she was asked several times to come back on the scene for ovations. After this play, Maria Cebotari enjoyed great successes and collaborated with the Berlin Opera, where she played in La Bohème and Madame Butterfly. Shortly after, she became known in all over Europe, her repertoire covering coloratura, soubrette, lyric and dramatic roles. She interpreted the works of Mozart, Tchaikovsky or Verdi. In 1936, she also made her film debut, playing in the musical “Mädchen in Weiß”. In 1937, while casting for the film “Starke Herzen im Sturm”, Maria met actor Gustav Diessl, whom she fell in love with. Maria Cebotari divorced Virubov and

married Diessl in that same year. She starred in a total of 8 films, all of them casted in Germany or Austria, where she played alongside the stars of the cinema at that time, including her second husband, Gustav Diessl. Maria Cebotari also played in the Romanian-Italian co-production “Odessa in fiamme” (Odessa in flames) (1942), a film that was later censored by the communist authorities and recently rediscovered in the Italian archives. In her private life, Maria Cebotari wasn’t lucky enough. Because he didn’t receive another role in any other movie, her husband started gambling, thus wasting all the money Maria had earned. At only 24 years old, Maria Cebotari was awarded the highest honorary title in Germany and Austria, namely that of Kammersängerin. Nearly ten years after their marriage and after two infarcts, her husband died. Unfortunately, only a year later, she also died of liver cancer on 9 June 1949, at the age of only 39 years. She was buried together with her husband in the Döblinger cemetery in Vienna, Austria. In the world of theater she starred in: “The Marriage of Figaro”, “Turandot”, “Traviata”, “Phantom Waltz”, “Parsifal”, “Das Rheingold”, “Rigoletto”, “Il Trovatore”, “Julius Cesar” and “Orpheus and Eurydice”, “Iphigenia in Aulida”, “Andre Chenier”, “Faust”, “ The

Abduction from the Seraglio”, “Dona Diana”, “Evghenii Onegin”, “Danton’s Death” and many others. For her outstanding voice, ennobled by a special lyricism and drama, composer Richard Strauss wrote “Salome”. Much of her work was dedicated to artistic tours in Prague, Paris, Rome, Milan, Antwerp, Copenhagen, Zürich, Florence, London, Basel, Brussels, Amsterdam, Salzburg, Palermo, Wiesbaden, Bern, Bucharest, Riga and other places. At the invitation of famous music personalities, she took part in many musical festivals in the major cities of Europe. On 5 October 2004, at the Chişinău House of Filmmakers took place the premiere of “Aria” by Vlad Druck, based on Dumitru Olărescu’s script. The movie was about the life and the work of soprano Maria Cebotari. The film was relaunched in a new projection in 2013. Referring to this film, the author and filmmaker Dumitru Olărescu stated that he had used a lot of articles from the press of the time as well as the personal journal of Maria Cebotari. He considered that this film was made out of a sense of duty and love, and that he tried everything possible “to bring Maria Cebotari back home.” As an interpreter of the works of Mozart and Strauss, she was unmatched until nowadays. Also, due to her roles in films, she was one of the most beloved

Maria Cebotari featuring on a German newspaper from June 1935

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singers of her generation. Maria Cebotari’s misfortune, however, was that she sang and activated during the time of Nazi Germany, fact for which she was unfairly accused of collaborating with this regime. Until 1989 in the eastern bloc, people weren’t allowed to speak about the soprano, who was considered a collaborator of the Third Reich by the Communist regime. Even during the period when she was the most beloved, respected and famous singer in the world, she said: “Never and in no circumstance has it crossed my mind to say that I am anything else than a Romanian from Bessarabia, or simply, Romanian”. This subject is a tragic one in the artist’s destiny and efforts have been made by researchers and art lovers to contribute to the truthful elucidation of the reality of those times.

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1994 Maria Cebotari stamp from Republic of Moldova

Maria Cebotari & Gustav Diessl

Eugen Doga Eugen Doga (b. 1 March 1937 in Mocra, Moldavian SSR, now Republic of Moldova) is a renowned composer from the Republic of Moldova, member of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova (1992). He writes music in all kinds of genres and styles, which makes him one of the most prolific and versatile composers. He has his own easily recognizable style. Eugen is the creator of three ballets: “Luceafărul”, “Venancia”, “Queen Margot”, the opera “Dialogues of Love”, more than 100 instrumental and choral works including symphonies, 6 quartets, “Requiem”, church music, and others, plus music for 13 plays, radio shows, more than 200 movies, more than 260 songs and romances and more than 70 waltzes. He is also the author of works for children, as well as the music for the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympic Games in 1980 in Moscow. Eugen Doga was born on 1 March 1937 in the village of Mocra in Transnistria (then in the USSR, now in the Rîbnița district of the Republic of Moldova). He grew up in times of war and hunger and had a harsh life as his father died during the Second World War. After graduating from the village school, he was admitted at the “Ştefan Neaga” Music School in Chişinău (19511955) then studied at G. Hohlov’s violoncello classes at the State Conservatory of Chişinău (1955-1960) and finally at Professor Solomon Lobel’s composition classes at the “Gavriil Muzicescu” Institute of Art in Chişinău (1960-1965). He began his musical career as a violoncellist at the Radio Orchestra (Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic Television Orchestra for Television and Radio Broadcasting) during his studies (19571962). Eugen later became a professor at the “Ştefan Neaga” Music School in Chişinău (1962-1967) and was a member of the editorial and repertory college of the Ministry of Culture of the Moldavian SSR (1967-1972). He was also a member of the CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union). After being paralyzed at his left hand, Doga understood that he couldn’t return to the cello and thus decided to focus more on composition. His first work, “Floare dalbă de livadă” (1957) was composed in a single day and was dedicated to his colleague Maria Bieșu. The domain which brought him international reputation is compositional art. Doga debuted in 1963 with a string quartet. He is the author of valuable

Eugen Doga

works in the field of film and stage music. Apart from his passion for cinema, he is the author of several original compositions (chamber works, ballet and songs that have become schlagers). He created many cantatas including: “Curcubeul alb”; “Primăvara omenirii”; “Vocea omenească” and symphonic poems such as “Inima veacului”. He composed a symphony, instrumental chamber music, romantic music, the symphonic poem “Mama”, the cycle for stage orchestra “Ritmuri citadine”, the “Marș gigant” coral cycle, 4 string quartets, stage songs such as “Codrii mei frumoși”, “Cântec despre orașul meu”, “Cred în ochii tăi”, “Florile dragostei”, “Iubește, iubește”, “Am visat ploaia”; children songs like “Imn soarelui”, “Fie soare într-una”, “Moș Crăciun” and many others. Eugen Doga also works in the field of film music, becoming one of the most famous cinema and TV movies composers in the post-Soviet era. He debuted at the Moldova cinema studio in 1967, creating the music for the comedy “Se caută un paznic”. He composed music for more than 200 films, including: “Nunta la palat”, “Singur în fața dragostei”, “Zece ierni pe o vară”, “Explozie cu efect întârziat”, “Durata zilei”, “Casă pentru Serafim”, “Lăutarii”, “Șatra”, “Gingașa și tandra mea fiară”, “Anna Pavlova”, “Patul lui Procust” and many others. 139

Eugen Doga in Vienna, Austria in 2015

Eugen Doga also contributed to the development of animation films in the Republic of Moldova, composing the soundtrack of the “Capra cu trei iezi” and “Maria Mirabela” films, as well as that of TV show “Guguță”. The Moldavian composer also created music for performances like: “Radu Ștefan, întâiul și ultimul”; “Pe un picior de plai”; “Ce frumoasă este viața”; “Păsările tinereții noastre”; “Sfânta sfintelor”. He created the “Luceafărul” and “Venancia” ballets. The varied spectrum of genres approached demonstrates the composer’s interest in the most diverse modalities of music expression for different thematic and stylistic areas. His music is, in all hypostases, engaging, vibrant and sincere. It manages to captivate the listener through the melodious generosity and the authenticity of the emotion it communicates. Politically, Eugen Doga has been a member of the CPSU since 1976. He was elected as deputy of the people in the Supreme Soviet of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. in the 9th and 11th legislatures, then as deputy in the first Parliament of the Republic 140

of Moldova. He was also a member of the Leading Committee of the Union of Composers in the USSR and the Union of Composers of Moldova, as well as Vice President of UCM. Composer Eugen Doga was a friend and colleague of the poet Grigore Vieru, with whom he created beautiful works. At the end of 2015, the Alexandru Diordiţă pedestrian street from Chişinău was renamed to Eugen Doga Street. Eugen Doga expressed his support for the unification movement of the Republic of Moldova with Romania. He currently lives and works in Moscow, Russia. Eugen Doga is considered a genius and one of the most romantic composers. He is also included on the list of the 20 best and most frequently performed composers of the 20th century. In recognition of his merits in the field of composition, Eugen Doga was decorated with high state awards of the Republic of Moldova as well as of the USSR, including the titles of Emeritus Master of Art in Moldova, People’s Artist of the Moldovan Socialist Soviet Republic (1967), People’s Artist of the

USSR (1987), winner of the “Boris Glăvan” Prize of the Moldavian Comsomol, winner of the State Prize of the Moldovan Socialist Soviet Republic (1980) and of the USSR (1986). In 1972, he received the “Silver Shell” at the San Sebastian International Film Festival for the music soundtrack of the movie “Lăutarii” directed by Emil Loteanu and in 1976 he won the “Golden Shell” for the soundtrack of the movie “Șatra”. In 1997, he was decorated with the Order of the Republic and in 2000 with the Order of the Star of Romania in the rank of officer. In 2008, he was awarded the Order of Merit to the Fatherland (awarded by Russia), the Dinamo Order of Romania in the rank of Commander, the “Mihai Eminescu” Medal and the Golden Medal “Person-2000” (USA, 1998). On 30 December 1992, composer Eugen Doga was elected as a member of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova. Also, the International Cinematography Institute in Moscow awarded him the title of Doctor Honoris Causa. 2007 was declared by the authorities of the Republic of Moldova as the “Eugen Doga Year”. On 26 August 2008, the President of the Republic of Moldova, Vladimir Voronin, awarded him the 2008 State Prize and the title of “Laureate of the State Prize” for his exceptional contribution to the development of national and universal music. On 26 March 2014, President of Romania, Traian Basescu, decorated

Eugen Doga at his 80th anniversary

Eugen Doga with the National Order “Faithful Service” (Serviciul Credincios) in the rank of Grand Officer. The year 2017 was declared the year of Eugen Doga in the Republic of Moldova as a tribute to the 80th anniversary of the great artist. Nowadays, the composer spends his time between Chişinău and Moscow, where he writes music for movies and has grandiose spectacles. Eugen Doga is a man who likes his work, sports and action, a man who spends most of his time in front of the piano. The composer lives mainly isolated with his wife Natalia and his daughter, Viorica. He loves the truth and always says what he believes without fearing the consequences or using dirty words. Eugen Doga is truly an artist who has dedicated himself entirely to music.

Moldovan composer Eugen Doga in the 1990’s

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Alecu Russo Alecu Russo (b. 17 March 1819 in Chișinău, Bessarabia, Russian Empire – d. 5 February 1859 in Iași, United Principalities of Moldova and Wallachia, now Romania) was a poet, writer, essayist, memorialist and Romanian literary critic, ideologist of the 1848 generation. He is the author of “Cântarea României”, which was anonymously published. Without ever explicitly claiming this work, he provided one of the most famous literary paternity litigations in the history of Romanian literature. Russo is credited with having discovered one of the most elaborate forms of the Romanian national folk ballad “Mioriţa”. He was also a contributor to the Iaşi periodical “Zimbrul”, in which he published one of his best-known works, “Studie Moldovană” (Moldovan Studies), in 1851-1852. He participated in the 1848 Revolution in Moldova. Alecu Russo was born in the family of a noble boyar, but with a relatively modest social situation. He spent his childhood in the countryside among the peasants. In 1829, a horrible cholera epidemic ravaged his family. Following his mother’s death, Alecu Russo was sent by his father to study in Switzerland. He continued his studies at the François Naville Institute in the Vernier village near Geneva. While at the Institute, he had his first literary attempts. Young Russo wrote the poems “La mort d’Alibaud” and “Epitaphe d’Alibaud” in French. Louis Alibaud had been a young man who undertook an assassination attempt against King Louis Philippe, but was unsuccessful and sentenced to death. Most of his works were written in French and were published after his death. After finishing his studies in Switzerland, he went to Vienna, where he remained to study for a year. In 1837, he returned to Moldova, probably at the Negrișoara estate, in Bistriţa, where his father had rented some land. Together with Vasile Alecsandri, he made a trip to the Neamţ lands, where the two of them came in contact with the beauty of the folklore and the Romanian landscape. All these travels and impressions will become ethno-psychological material for the famous Piatra Teiului. In 1840, Alecu established himself in Iași, following some disagreements with the family. Impressed by the places and inhabitants of the city, Alecu Russo wrote “Iașii și locuitorii lui în 1840” (Iași and its inhabitants in 1840) (in French). He also wrote “Studie 142

Alecu Russo

naționale”, a work that was published posthumous under the care of Vasile Alecsandri. Prince Mihail Sturdza entrusted Russo with a post of a civil servant at the district court in Piatra Neamţ. In 1845, Alecu Russo wrote “Băcălia ambițioasă” and “Jicnicerul Vadră sau Provincialul la Teatrul Național.” At Mânjina, the estate of Costache Negri, he got acquainted with several progressive Wallachian intellectuals, including Nicolae Bălcescu. A year later, in the “Albina Românească” gazette, a programmatic study in the spirit of the “Introduction” from “Dacia Literară” was published: “Critica criticii” (Critique of critique). Following the representation of the “Jicnicerul Vadră” comedy, Alecu Russo was exiled at the Soveja Monastery, where he wrote the “Soveja, Ziarul unui exilat politic la 1846” (Soveja. The newspaper of a political exiled in 1846), published posthumously by Alexandru Odobescu. In 1847, he wrote the “Poezia populară” and “Decebal și Ștefan cel Mare” articles, which were published posthumous in the “Foaia societății pentru literatură și cultură română” in Bucovina. “Poezia populară” became a fundamental work of folklore research. Just a year later, Alecu participated in the Revolutionary Movement of Moldova alongside Vasile Alecsandri. The revolution failed and Russo was forced into exile first

Bucovina and then in Transylvania. He then settled in Paris. He stopped for only a few days at the Hurmuzachi family (where several refugees gathered (C. Negri, V. Alecsandri, Al. I. Cuza, and others) and then went for Vienna with the intention of reaching to Paris. On his way, he met with a group of Romanian revolutionaries (including Bălcescu) who were returning from Paris and were heading for the country. Alecu Russo joined them and reached Bucharest. After failing to re-enter into Moldova, he went back on the road, stopping in Transylvania. In Sibiu he met other revolutionaries (C. Negri, Iancu Alecsandri) and got acquainted with Simion Bărnuțiu. On 2 May 1848, he was present in Blaj at Câmpia Libertăţii, where Romanians from Wallachia, Moldova and Transylvania gathered together. In May-June, he went from Blaj to Brasov, where signed together with other revolutionaries, “Prinţipiile noastre pentru reformarea patriei” (Our Principles for Reforming the Homeland) and “Proclamaţia partidului

Portrait of Alecu Russo (by Mișu Popp)

naţional către români” (The Proclamation of the National Party to the Romanians). On 15 June, Alecu was present in Lugoj at the meeting presided over by revolutionary patriot Eftimie Murgu. On 23 June he was in Sibiu, from where he sent an enthusiastic letter to Bălcescu, congratulating him for the successes achieved by the revolutionary movement in Wallachia: “Vivat! Victory! I am proud of you; the glory of your revolution reflects on us and on all the Romanians! Once again, vivat and glory, the future may not be for us, but we will not despair without leaving a last memory about us! ... Long Live Romania!” On 9 July 1848 he was arrested in Dej, where he made a break on his way to his revolutionary friends from Bucovina. Brochures and leaflets with revolutionary character were found upon him. On the same day he was taken to Cluj, where he remained in jail until September. While in prison he wrote several poems published by Vasile Alecsandri in Alecu Russo’s bust in Chișinău, Republic of Moldova

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the “Foaia societății pentru literatură și cultură română” in Bucovina in 1868 (No. 6-7). That same autumn, Russo arrived in Bucovina to his friends where he continued the revolutionary activity. In 1850, the French version of “Cântarea României” was published in “România Viitoare”, the political magazine of the exiled Romanians in Paris. A year later, he returned to Moldova, where he published “Studie Moldovană” (Moldovan Studies) in the Zimbru periodical under the pseudonym Terenție Hora. In 1855, after a longer absence in journalism, Alecu Russo published “Cugetări” in Vasile Alecsandri’s “România Literară”. An adept of a literary and linguistic conservatism (without being against the Western influences), as well as a bitter critic of the “restorers” of the language, of the “Latinists” and of the “Transylvanianism”, Alecu Russo saw the evolution of the Romanian language and literature with a thoughtful mind, also taking into account the tradition: “If the Romanian people would also have a language and

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literature, the public spirit will abandon the paths of the pedantic and will turn to the true source: the traditions and the customs of the village, where the forms and the style are still hidden; and if I were to be a poet, I would inspire myself from the Romanian mythology, which is as beautiful as the Latin and Greek; if I were to be a historian, I would go through all the huts to discover a remembrance or some rust of a weapon; if I were to be a grammatical, I would travel all the Romanian coasts and I would inspire myself from the language.” The Bank of Moldova seized the 1858 production of his two estates (Tețcani & Mircești) and the writer was struggling with big financial difficulties. He died on 5 February 1859 of tuberculosis in Iași, shortly after one of his patriotic ideals for which he had fought was finally achieved: the Union of the Principalities of Moldova and Wallachia. He was buried at the Bărboi Monastery in Iași in a brick pit in the courtyard of the church. Later, he was deposited in the common crypt inside the building.

Alecu Russo’s tomb at the Bărboi Monastery in Iași, Romania

Maria Biesu Maria Bieșu (b. 3 August 1935 in Volintiri, Republic of Moldova, then Romania – d. 16 May 2012 in Chișinău, Republic of Moldova) was a Moldovan opera singer. Debuting in 1961, she eventually went on to become the lead vocalist of the Moldova National Opera Ballet. Her artistic excellence brought her international recognition and invitations to sing in other countries, including Italy, where she performed at the Milan Opera from 1965 to 1967. Maria Bieșu was born in the village of Volintiri, Cetatea Alba County, Romania (nowadays Volontiri village, Ștefan Vodă district, Republic of Moldova) in the family of Luca and Tatiana Bieșu. She inherited the musical talent and love for singing from her mother, who was the best singer in her native village. In 1951, Maria Bieșu graduated from the Volontirovca School (the name of the Volintiri village during the Moldovan Socialist Soviet Socialist Republic) and continued her studies at an agrarian institution in the city of Leova. During her student years, she actively participated in various cultural activities: singing, dancing and conducting a choir. Maria Bieșu became popular in the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova (R.S.S.M.) during her student years, being the soloist of the “Fluieraș” folk music orchestra. She debuted with the song “Struguraș de pe colină” in a district competition, where famous Tamara Ciobanu and Serghei Lunchevici also participated. Then, at the Republican Festival, the Culture Minister stepped up on stage to urge her to study at the Conservatory. In 1955, Maria Bieșu sang a Liszt romance and a fragment of Dama de Pică in front of the examination committee of the Conservatory in Chișinău with such a beautiful voice that a suspicious silence fell across the room, after which the examiners exclaimed in chorus: “Bravo, Marie!”. She received the highest grade and thus Maria was admitted without examinations at the State Conservatory of Chișinău in the class of pedagogue Suzana Zarifian. She graduated from the Conservatory in 1961 in the class of Professor Paulina Botezat and immediately after the graduation exams she was invited to the State Opera and Ballet Theater in Chișinău. She has had a difficult life with health problems because the only source of her existence was a modest scholarship. In 1964, she made a famous tour through

Maria Bieșu

several cities of the Soviet Union, after having performed the role of Madame Butterfly in Ruse in 1963. In a series of performances, reputed Muslim Magomaev, who evolved in the role of Scarpia, was her partner in Tosca. Magomaev claimed he never knew a better interpreter of the title role than the Moldavian artist. When invited to evolve in the role of Scarpia, the great baritone always conditioned that Maria Bieșu was to be invited in the role of Tosca. Upon speaking about the Moldavian soprano, Muslim referred to the voices of Maria Callas and Renata Tebaldi, saying that the voice of Maria is truly Italian. In 1965, the young soloist, together with a group of opera soloists went on a kind of internship at the La Scala Theater in Milan, Italy. There, under the guidance of Master Enrico Piazza, the former assistant of the great Arturo Toscanini, she prepared to perform the main soprano roles in Italian from the operas Tosca, Madame Butterfly, Aida and Il Trovatore. Antonio Guiringuelli, general manager of the La Scala Theater, said that “this young woman doesn’t need any lessons, she has 145

an innate gift”. Maria Bieșu has performed various roles: Floria Tosca, CioCio-San, Norma, Aurelia, Olga, Natalia, Ruxandra, Iolanta, Cuma and other famous characters from operas with various themes. The Moldovan opera singer was awarded the Third Prize at the “P. I. Tchaikovsky” International Contest in Moscow in 1966; The First Prize and the Golden Cup for the best interpretation of Madame Butterfly in the homonymous opera at the “Miura Tamaki” International Canto Contest in Tokyo in 1967 and the “Irina Arkhipova” Fund Prize and Golden Medal. In the same year, Maria Bieșu was invited by the Great Theater in Moscow to perform in the role of Tatiana in the opera Evgheni Onegin by Aleksandr Pushkin. The soprano impressed Moscow’s musical world with her vocal qualities

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and conductor Boris Khaikin, besides the warm congratulations upon the end of the spectacle, offered her a permanent collaboration. Together with Khaikin, Maria Bieșu has performed in numerous performances at the first theater of the former USSR and released a number of creations on radio and discs. After her great success in Tokyo, she enjoyed a fruitful concert activity. Maria Bieșu evolved on the stage of the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow and on the scenes of opera theaters in Paris, Sydney, Tokyo, Warsaw, Helsinki, Tbilisi, Leningrad and others. She had solo tournaments in cities from Japan, Australia, Cuba and Israel and was even offered a contract for a theatrical season at the Metropolitan Opera of New York but eventually refused it in order to remain close to her mother and sister. The Moldavian

Maria Bieșu at the Chișinău Opera and Ballet Theater in 1972

The Coryphaeuses of the Moldavian cinema: Emil Loteanu, opera singer Maria Bieșu and composer Eugen Doga (2002)

artist had great collaborations with directors Eugen Platon, Eleonora Constantinov and Mihai Timofti, conductors L. Hudolei, I. Alterman, L. Gavrilov, A. Mocialov and Alexandru Samoilă. Maria Bieșu became president of the Union of Musicians of the Republic of Moldova in 1987 and Vice-President of the World Music Union of Moscow in 1992. Elena Vdovina, a musicologist from the Republic of Moldova said that “Maria Bieșu’s voice impresses to the depths of the soul through its unrepeatable timbre pervaded by beauty, warmth and freshness. She taketh through the unusual elegance of her vocalisms, the filigree technique, the immaculately compact and diaphanous staccato and through the surprisingly pure legatto of the vertiginous frills.” Maria Bieșu’s life has been complicated in the early 1990’s. The prima donna was unable to maintain her repertoire intact, lost numerous audiences, as well as some of her friends and colleagues from the theater which were separated by the new frontiers and statutes. Maria Bieșu was constrained by circumstances to reorient. Thus, she started to propagate the idea of an Opera Music Festival. She dreamed that Chișinău would become a center of opera music and opera singers from all over the world would gather in the Moldavian capital. In September 1990, the first International Festival of Opera and Ballet entitled Invită Maria Bieșu was inaugurated in Chișinău. Over the years, the festival’s coordinates started expanding and a diversity of genres and programs were introduced. After the death of Maria Bieșu, the name of the festival was changed to the Maria Bieșu International Festival. Nowadays, the Maria Bieșu International Festival has

become one of the main symbols of culture in the Republic of Moldova and Chișinău became one of the capitals of European opera music. Maria Bieșu died on 16 May 2012 at the Republican Hospital of the Curative-Sanatorial and Recovery Association of the Moldovan Government Apparatus. Maria Bieșu had been suffering from a rare form of leukemia for 7 years. On 18 May, the Government of the Republic of Moldova decided to change the name of the Chișinău Opera and Ballet Theater to Maria Bieșu. The prima donna of the National Opera was buried on 19 May 2012 in the cemetery located on Armenească Street in Chișinău. A reunion in the memory of the artist took place in the Opera and Ballet Theater Square. 19 May was declared a national mourning day in the Republic of Moldova. Nature has endowed Maria Bieșu with distinguished qualities, necessary for an opera singer: voice, musicality, acting talent. Maria Bieșu was definitely made for stage art. She knew how to generate and live a proper mood for each of the character she interpreted. In the record of the famous singer, over thirty different roles regarding style, conception and complexity were included. One of the artistic heights reached by Maria Bieșu was in the role of Norma in the homonymous work by Vincenzo Bellini. This accomplishment confirmed the enormous potential of the singer and strengthened her career as an actress with an extraordinary dramatic force. Maria Bieșu was an excellent singer, but equally important was her concert activity. In this field of activity, Maria Bieșu has been remarked through her fine sense of style, the subtle work with the musical and poetic text, the depth of the content reproduction, the emotional fullness and the sincerity of the interpretation.

Moldovan stamp with Maria Bieșu, the prima donna of the National Opera

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Pantelimon Halippa Pantelimon “Pan” Halippa (b. 1 August 1883 in Cubolta, Soroca district, Bessarabia, Russian Empire – d. 30 April 1979 in Bucharest, Romania) was a Bessarabian and later Romanian journalist and politician. One of the most important promoters of Romanian nationalism in Bessarabia and of this province’s union with Romania, he was the president of Sfatul Țării, which voted for the union in 1918. He then occupied ministerial positions in several governments, after which he suffered political persecution from the Communist régime and was later incarcerated in the Sighet prison. Son of church teacher Nicolae Halippa and Paraschiva, Pantelimon attended the primary school in his native village at Cubolta, then the courses of the Edineț School and the Theological Seminary in Chișinău. After graduating from the Theological Seminary in 1904, he enrolled at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at the University of Dorpat (today Tartu, Estonia). A year later, the Bolshevik Revolution broke out and Halippa had to give up studies. He returned to Chișinău, where he approached the young Romanian intellectuals, collaborating on the “Basarabia” magazine, the first Romanian publication of the epoch, on whose pages he printed the Romanian national anthem (Deșteaptăte, Române! – Awaken thee, Romanian!), for which he was persecuted by the Tsarist authorities. He took refuge in Iași and enrolled at the Faculty of Letters and Philosophy, whose courses he attended between 1908 and 1912. During this period he collaborated with the “Viaţa Românească” magazine, in which he published the “Scrisorile din Basarabia” (Letters from Bessarabia). In 1908, he printed in Chișinău with Cyrillic characters “Pilde și povețe”, the first literary book in Bessarabia, and in 1912 the work “Basarabia, schiță geografică” (Bessarabia, geographic sketch). Upon his return to Chișinău in 1913, he published together with Nicolae Alexandri and with the help of Vasile Stroescu the newspaper “Cuvânt Moldovenesc”, whose director he became. In his writings, Halippa continuously advocated for the unification of Bessarabia with Romania. His political activity intensified and in 1917 he established the National Moldavian Party. Pantelimon Halippa fought against the Tsarist absolutism and was arrested by Russia’s last Tsar, Nicholas II. Then, after the proclamation of the Republic after the 148

Pantelimon Halippa

first revolution of 1917, Pantelimon Halippa, as a representative of the Bessarabian peasantry, became a member of the Parliament of Petrograd during the regime led by Social Democrat Kerenski. Pantelimon Halippa tried to negotiate with the representatives of the new government of Russia for the recognition of the autonomy of Bessarabia, but failed. On the eve of the outbreak of the Bolshevik Revolution, Pantelimon Halippa met with Lenin and Trotsky. Lenin, who was trying to obtain the support of the oppressed nations from Russia in an attempt to overthrow Kerenski’s government, told Pantelimon Halippa that he would agree to proclaim the independence of all the nations embedded in the former Tsarist Empire. Pantelimon Halippa was known both by Kerenski’s social democrats and by the Bolsheviks, because in 1905 when he was a student at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at the University of Tartu, Estonia, he participated in the antiTsarist revolution and became one of the leaders of the populist movement.

In 1918, Halippa was at the forefront of the prounionist wave, for which he was elected vice-president and then president of the assembly, which on 27 March 1918 voted for the Union of Bessarabia with Romania. He also participated at the meetings in Cernăuţi and Alba-Iulia that proclaimed the Union of Bucovina, respectively Transylvania with Romania. On 12 August 1918, he was elected president of the newly formed political party, the Peasant Party of Bessarabia, fulfilling the function of state minister for Bessarabia until the completion of the union. After 1918 he held several positions: Minister, Secretary of State for Bessarabia (1919-1920), Minister of Public Works (1927), Minister of Public Works and Communications (1930), Adinterim Minister at the Ministries of Labor, Health and Social Protection (1930), Minister Secretary of State (1928-1930, 1932, 1932-1933), senator and deputy in the Parliament (1918-1934). He constantly pursued the cultural advancement of Bessarabia. In 1923, he became an emeritus member of the Sovereign Sanctuary of Romania and, in the same year, on 29 December, he represented the Freedom Lodge in Chișinău at the Annual Convention of the Grand National Lodge of

Pan Halippa (left), Ștefan Holban and Metropolitan Gurie Grosu at a religious event in Nisporeni in 1930

Romania (MLNR). In 1925, he was part of the Foreign Relations Committee of the MLNR. He has also served as a guarantor in Romania of the Supreme Council of 33 from Santo Domingo. Pantelimon Halippa was the founder of

Sfatul Ţării members on 10 December 1918 (Pantelimon Halippa can be seen sitting on a chair – 8th person from left to right)

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the Popular University of Chișinău (1917), the Moldovan Conservator, the Bessarabian Society of Writers and Journalists and the “Luceafărul” Editorial Society and Bookstore of Chișinău (1940). In 1932, he edited and led the magazine “Viața Basarabiei” (Life of Bessarabia) and the daily newspaper with the homonymous name. In 1950, he was arrested and imprisoned without any trail at Sighetu Marmației. After two years, he was handed over to the NKVD, taken to Chișinău, judged and sentenced to 25 years of forced labor in Siberia. In 1955, he was transferred to the Romanian authorities to spend the remainder of his prison sentence at Gherla. He was then transferred to the Aiud prison where he was detained until 1957. Finally, he was released by pardon on 11 April 1957. In the last years of his life, he focused on writing memoirs on the history of the Union of Bessarabia with Romania in the hope of a new 27 March. He died on 30 April 1979, at the age of 95, in Bucharest, in the house located on Al. Donici Street, No. 32. He was buried in the family’s tomb in the cemetery of the Cernica Monastery near Bucharest. He was married to Eleonora Circău and had only one son. He wrote over 280 poems, articles, sketches, translations, memoirs and managed to edit only one volume during his lifetime, “Flori de pârloagă” (1921, Iași), prefaced by Mihail Sadoveanu. He also wrote several historical studies: Bessarabia do prisoedineniâ k Rossii (1914), Basarabia inainte de sub dominatia Rusă (1812-1825), B. P. Hașdeu (1939). Posthumous, “Povestea vieții mele” (The story of my life) (1990) and a journalistic volume (2001) were published in the “Patrimoniu” magazine in Chișinău. During his lifetime, he also contributed to the “Testament pentru urmași” (1991). A corresponding member of the Romanian Academy since 1918, he was excluded in 1948 and then reinstated in 1990 as a correspondent member of the Romanian Academy. On 23 August 2010, the interim President of the Republic of Moldova and the President 150

Pantelimon Halippa in prison

of the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova, Mihai Ghimpu, offered posthumously the “Order of the Republic” to Pantelimon Halippa, as well as to a group of fighters against the communist totalitarian regime of occupation. A street and a small market in the Center district of Chișinău are named after him.

Ciprian Porumbescu Ciprian Porumbescu (b. 14 October 1853 in Șipotele Sucevei, Northern Bucovina, Austrian Empire, now Shepit, Putyla Raion, Ukraine – d. 6 June 1883 in Stupca, now Ciprian Porumbescu, Suceava County, Romania) was a Romanian composer. He was among the most celebrated Romanian composers of his time. His popular works include Crai nou, Trei culori, Song for the 1st of May, Ballad for violin and piano and Serenada. In addition, he composed the music for the Romanian patriotic song Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire (Unity is Written on Our Flag), which was used for Albania’s national anthem, Hymni i Flamurit. His work spreads over various forms and musical genres, but the majority of his work is choral and operetta. Ciprian Porumbescu (born Ciprian Gołęmbiowski – Gołemb in Polish meaning pigeon) was born at Șipotele Sucevei in a modest country house as the son of Emilia and priest Iraclie Gołęmbiowski. The future composer will first use the name Gołęmbiowski, then, for a short period of time Gołęmbiowski-Porumbescu and later just Porumbescu. Because of poverty, Ciprian Porumbescu couldn’t enjoy a continuous and complete musical training. His destiny as a musician had begun a long time ago when he was just a child. He listened to Carol Miculi’s piano in the village of Stupca, where his parents soon moved. Ciprian received his first violin lessons at the school in Ilişeşti in the nearby village, and then in Suceava, where he began studying piano and pipe organ. The Stupca village represented his home, his favorite place after which he craved for a long time during the months spent in Italy. He started studying music in Suceava and Cernăuţi, where he led the choir of the “Arboroasa” Cultural Society. Between 1873 and 1877, he studied Orthodox theology in Cernăuţi. He was working hard, studying a lot, and the only rest periods were the summer holidays spent at Stupca. In one of these months, Ciprian met Berta Gordon, the girl of the evangelical pastor from Ilişeşti, whom he fell in love with. Their families, of different confessions, didn’t allow the marriage, and Berta’s father always tried to separate the two young lovers from each other by sending his daughter abroad in England. It is being said that in the last months of his life, Ciprian Porumbescu sang at the violin through the open windows his love and sadness. People remained astonished and often forgot to leave.

Ciprian Porumbescu

In 1871, upon the occasion of the 400th anniversary of the Putna Monastery, he participated at the celebrations together with Mihai Eminescu, Ioan Slavici, A.D. Xenopol, Nicolae Teclu and others and amazed the assistance with his wonderful violin song. Then, after obtaining a scholarship, Ciprian continued his studies at “Konservatorium für Musik und darstellende Kunst” in Vienna where he conducted the “România Jună” Student Society choir. During this period he frequently visited Eusebius Mandyczewski, a composer from Bucovina, from whom he learned in particular the theory of music. There, in 1880, he created the collection of 20 choral and unison songs, united in Colecțiune de cântece sociale pentru studenții români (The collection of social songs for Romanian students) (Cântecul gintei latine, “Cântecul tricolorului”, “Imnul unirii - Pe-al nostru steag”), the first work of its kind in Romanian literature. In October 1877, after a telegram sent to Iaşi on the occasion of the events held there in the memory 151

of Prince Grigore Ghica, Austria-Hungary decided to take action against these patriotic manifestations and the members of the “Arboroasa” Cultural Society were arrested under accusations of high treaseon and a trial took place. Only for Ciprian Porumbescu the nearly three months of imprisonment would turn to be fatal. He was at Stupca in his childhood house when he was arrested. They took him to Cernăuţi on a rainy autumn day and the cold water penetrated through his clothes. The Austro-Hungarians allowed him to take with him only his violin and a grammar of French language. The cold walls of the dungeon and the poor food contributed to his poor health and his tuberculosis has worsened irremediably. However, an episode of almost biblical serenity took place in the prison where he was incarcerated with ordinary inmates. One of his cellmates started crying while listening to him singing a Doina. When he got out of jail after eleven weeks, he was already carrying death in his chest. He returned to the University in Cernăuţi and then, with great difficulty, left

to fulfill his dream and continue his studies in Vienna. From Vienna he returned to Braşov where he activated as a music teacher at the Romanian High School and also conducted the choir of Saint Nicholas Church in Scheii Braşovului, a place too cold for him. After this period, the most beautiful stage of his artistic life began. On 11 March 1882, the premiere of “Crai nou” took place (first Romanian operetta, premiered in Brașov in the Festive Hall of the Romanian Gymnasium), a play in two acts written by Ciprian Porumbescu on the text of the poem written by Vasile Alecsandri. Its tremendous success required the show to take place again on 12 and 23 March on the same stage. In the same year, the operetta was also mounted in Oraviţa. Among his most famous works are Rapsodia română pentru orchestra (Romanian Rhapsody for Orchestra), Serenadă (Serenade), La malurile Prutului (On the banks of the Prut), Altarul Mănăstirii Putna (Altar of the Putna Monastery), Inimă de roman (Heart of Romanian), Odă ostașilor români (Ode to the

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Ciprian Porumbescu Memorial House in Stupca (now Ciprian Porumbescu)

tuberculosis. The grave of Ciprian Porumbescu is located in the cemetery of the Stupca village, near the altar of the Church of Saint Demetrius. It has been included on the List of Historic Monuments in the Suceava County since 2004 with the code SV-IV-m-B-05697. In 1950, the main music education institution in Romania was named after the great composer (Ciprian Porumbescu Conservatory of Bucharest), and bore this name until 1990. His whole musical creation falls within the romantic trend, fully demonstrating the technical and expressive elements of this current. In his works, Porumbescu inserted patriotic themes, expressive elements of a special musicality that define it as a style, in which he displays a series of personal experiences, thoughts and ideas as the only way in which he can be heard. Ciprian Porumbescu was one of the most famous composers of his times. In addition, he composed the music for the famous patriotic song “Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire” which is used nowadays by Albania for its national anthem, “Hymni i Flamurit”. He also wrote the melody of the former Romanian anthem, Trei culori. In 1972-1973, film director Gheorghe Vitanidis made a very popular artistic film in two series, with Vlad Rădescu debuting in the role of the composer.

Statue of Ciprian Porumbescu in the Stupca village

Romanian soldiers) and others. Ciprian Porumbescu died in his house in the village of Stupca (nowadays known as Ciprian Porumbescu in honor of the great composer) under his father’s and sister’s eyes on 6 June 1883 at the age of 29 years old. He was suffering from

Ciprian Porumbescu on a Moldovan Stamp

Grave of Ciprian Porumbescu in the cemetery of the Saint Demetrius Church in Stupca

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Bogdan Petriceicu HaSdeu Bogdan Petriceicu Haşdeu (b. 26 February 1838 in Cristinești, Hotin district, northern Bucovina, Bessarabia, Russian Empire, now Ukraine – d. 25 August / 7 September 1907 in Câmpina, Romania) was a Romanian writer and philologist, who pioneered many branches of Romanian philology and history. Academician, encyclopedist, jurist, linguist, folklorist, journalist, historian and politician Haşdeu was one of the greatest personalities of Romanian culture of all time. Haşdeu was born in Hotin, Bessarabia, by that time under the occupation of the Russian Empire. He grew up in his parents’ estate in Cristineşti, Bessarabia, being raised by his stepmother. His ancestors were boyars. His father, Alexandru Hâjdeu (son of Tadeu Hâjdeu), was a renowned scholar who knew ten foreign languages, including Persian, was a historian, journalist, and wrote in Latin about the Bessarabian flora. Bogdan Petriceicu Haşdeu studied at the Kharkov University. After completing his studies, he served as an officer in the Russian army. In 1856, when southern Bessarabia was returned to Moldova, he went to this region in order to escape the forced occupation and denationalization practiced by the Russian administration. The Russians demanded his extradition but following the refusal of the Romanian authorities, they canceled his inheritance rights over some of his family estates that remained in the Russian part of Bessarabia. Later, however, this right was recognized by court. In 1857, he was appointed as member of the court in Cahul. After seven months he resigned. In 1858 he moved to Iaşi, where he worked as a high school teacher and librarian of the university. He donated 4.000 volumes to the university library. During this time, Haşdeu laid the foundations of several publications, among others, the magazine “Din Moldova” (18621863), in which he published lyrical poems, fables, novels, critics and others. Between 17 May 1876 and 1 April 1900, he was the director of the State Archives of Bucharest, contributing to the publication of the “Arhiva istorică” and “Cuvinte din bătrâni” documents, both from the Romanian archives, as well as from the foreign ones. Being the first head of the State Archives, he began publishing copies of the documents from foreign archives regarding Romanians. In 1877, he was elected 154

Bogdan Petriceicu Haşdeu

as member of the Romanian Academy as a tribute to his entire work until then, but also as recognition of his encyclopedic spirit. Since 1878, he has been professor of comparative philology at the University of Bucharest. He has printed some of his lessons full of originality and extensive knowledge on foreign literature and the Romanian language. aşdeu also got involved in politics. He was a partisan of Mihail Kogălniceanu and supported the 2 May 1864 coup d’état of Alexandru Ioan Cuza. Subsequently, he supported the foreign Hohenzollern dynasty then on the same line of pan-European ideas, became a member of the Liberal Party. He was a Liberal deputy in the Romanian Parliament. After the death of his only daughter, Iulia, in 1888, he became a mystical and fervent practitioner of Spiritism. For this reason, he built the Iulia Haşdeu Castle in Câmpina. He died on 25 August 1907 in Câmpina, leaving behind a vast and perennial work. Despite some very hard criticisms of his working methods, Haşdeu remains a great cultural personality, a tireless researcher and a pioneer of several areas of Romanian philology and history. His most famous historical works are: “Ioan Vodă cel Cumplit” (1865, 2nd edition in 1894), the monumental “Historical Archive of Romania” (Arhivă istorică a României) and “Critical History” (Istoria

critică). He published the “Historical Archive of Romania” (1865-1867) in Iaşi, in which many ancient Slavic and Romanian documents were edited for the first time. The Archive is a collection of three large volumes of foreign and internal documents that talk about the history of the Romanians. A large number of Romanian and foreign documents have been published for the first time. The work contributed to the development of the historical studies, carrying forward the work started by Şincai’s “Chronicle”, by Nicolae Bălcescu and Laurian’s “Historical Store”, and by Kogălniceanu’s chronicles. In the “Ancient History of the Romanians” (Historia antică a Românilor) (1875), although incomplete, he began the critical investigations on the history of Romania. “Critical History” (Istoria critică) (1873-1874) aims at studying the 14th century, the era of the establishment of the Romanian state formations in the northern Danube territory. Only a volume and a small part of the second volume were published. Volume I comprises three studies: Territorial Coverage, Nomenclature and the Nature’s Action on Man. His most important philological works are: “Cuvente den bătrâni” and “Etymologicum Magnum Romaniae” (which was the beginning of a large encyclopedic dictionary of the Romanian language).

Unknown photo of Bogdan Petriceicu Haşdeu

Iulia Haşdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu’s daughter

He also edited the 1577 “Psaltirea lui Coresi”, which was published in 1881. Through his work “Cuvente den bătrâni” (1878-1879), Bogdan Petriceicu Haşdeu became the first exegete of apocryphal literature in Romania. In this work with an archaic title, published in 2 volumes, he introduced a series of documents and studies of great value. Volume I is entitled “The Romanian language spoken between 1550 and 1600” (Limba română vorbită între 1550-1600). The second volume is entitled “The Romanian People’s Books in the 16th century” (Cărțile poporane ale românilor în secolul XVI) in connection with the unwritten folk literature. It contains a collection of texts known as Codex Sturdzanus. The texts are published with transcription in Latin letters and with a study over each of them. The volume ends with a series of monographs on various linguistic issues, such as the duplication or tripling of the defined article and so on. Besides these historical and philological works, another significant one is the “Columna lui Traian” 155

magazine (1870-1877), the best philological journal in Romania, in which he established through his studies the basis of the ethno-psychological science in Romania. Haşdeu has consecrated the last years of his life to other concerns: he wrote philosophical articles and poems, many literary satires (Sarcasm și Ideal - 1897), and, since the death of his daughter, Iulia, he has dedicated himself entirely to Spiritism (Sic cogito - 1892). A spirit with a vast culture and with a rare vivacity, Haşdeu often had brilliant glimpses in combining details to conjure historical or philological theories to unravel the most difficult and obscure issues. Unfortunately, he didn’t pursue for a long time the study of a matter in order to make a perfect work, but instead has gone many times throughout his life from a series of preoccupations to others. Bogdan Petriceicu Haşdeu’s fictional works, including the “Răzvan și Vidra” drama, give the impression of an originality of thought, and the author often digresses with his profound erudition and vast imagination. He wrote novels, poems and plays. Among the novels we mention a satirical one, “Duduca Mamuca” (1861), for which he had a trial in Iaşi about a fragment of this novel, which was considered immoral, even obscene, but eventually was acquitted after he defended himself in court. After this scandal he arrived in Bucharest in 1863, where he published

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(as a protest) the censored version of the novel entitled “Micuța” (1864). “Volumul de poezii” (1873) includes occasional poems, fables, social and political poems, and a translation of Ovid’s “Sadness”. Among the plays, the most famous one is “Răzvan și Vidra” (1867), which was very criticized at the time by the critics of the “Convorbiri Literare” journal. It depicts one of the darkest epochs of the Romanians’ past, the end of the 16th century, which was marked by struggles for the throne among the boyars. The details of the epoch are described with a perfect knowledge of men and things. The dialogue is natural and very vivid. However, there is a tendency towards declamation, especially in what regards nationalism. Despite its criticism, the play is still successful even nowadays, especially because of the warmth and sympathy with which the peasant society is presented. Some of his writings have provoked the reaction of some critics. Such were the articles published by Gheorghe Panu in “Convorbiri Literare” and a booklet by Ion C. Massim. He published false documents about a federal republic in Iaşi during the 3rd century. Thus, Haşdeu published an act, the socalled “Diplomă Bârlădeană”, a writing that would have been dated back to 1134, according to which there would have been a prince of Bârlăd named Ivancu Rotislovovici, dependent on the throne of Galicia, who would have ruled the land of Moldavia.

Bogdan Petriceicu Haşdeu Museum in Câmpina, Romania

Bogdan Petriceicu HaĹ&#x;deu in 1882

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O-Zone O-Zone was a Moldovan Eurodance trio that was active from 1998 to 2005 and consisted of Dan Balan, Radu Sîrbu and Arsenie Todiraș. The group gained global popularity with their song “Dragostea Din Tei” and their subsequent album DiscO-Zone. The group reunited in 2017 for 2 concerts in Chișinău and Bucharest. One year after launching the “Dragostea Din Tei” song in Romania, the three boys from O-Zone launched this hit across Europe, ranking 1st in 27 countries around the world. O-Zone occupied 1st place on Eurocharts for 13 weeks and sold over 8 million discs. Although considered the most successful group in Europe in 2004, O-Zone disbanded on 13 January 2005. The three members of the band started up individual projects, continuing on solo careers. The group was initially created by two members: Dan Bălan and Petru Jelihovschi (who died in 2012 due to overdose). However, Jelihovschi had no intention of pursuing a musical career, so he separated from Bălan.

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The first two albums of the group were Dar, Unde Eşti (Where are you - 1999) and Number One (2002). Subsequently, Jelihovski left the group and Dan Bălan found two new members for the group following an audition: Arsenie Todiraş and Radu Sîrbu. Arsenie “Arsenium” Todiraş surprised Dan Bălan with a cover of Love Me Tender by Elvis Presley. Bălan and Arsenium formed a duo until receiving a call from Radu Sîrbu, who requested an opportunity to audition for the group. Dan Bălan accepted and after the audition, Sîrbu officially became the third member of O-Zone. In 2002, the group would move to Romania. With the new lineup, the group recorded some old songs like “Dar, unde eşti” or “Oriunde ai fi” and launched their new album, DiscO-Zone (2004). The best known and most sold single of the album is Dragostea Din Tei, which became famous throughout Europe in the summer of 2004. Dragostea Din Tei was sampled in the song “Live Your Life” by T.I. and Rihanna, which topped the Billboard Hot 100 in late 2008. The song also became popular in numerous Asian countries such as Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia and others. Some of the most well-known songs written by the O-Zone group in the new formation were, among

O-Zone at Cerbul de Aur in 2005

others: “Dragostea Din Tei”, “Despre Tine” (About you), “De Ce Plâng Chitarele, (Why are the guitars crying), “Sărbătoarea nopţilor de vară” (Feast of the Summer Nights), “Oriunde ai fi”, (Wherever you are) and “Numai Tu” (Only you). A song entitled “Nu mă las de limba noastră” (We don’t abandon our language) is also attributed to O-Zone, whose text has obvious nationalist tendencies (During the communist regime, the authorities tried to impose the teaching of the Russian language only in the Republic of Moldova). Among other things, the Moldovan national anthem is called “Limba noastră” (Our language). The song “Dragostea Din Tei” was written and composed by Dan Bălan. Bălan was in charge of the composition and interpretation of the songs. The group’s best-selling album was DiscO-Zone with more than 8 million copies sold worldwide, of which one million were sold only in China. On 13 January 2005, in an interview accorded to the Jurnalul de Chişinău newspaper, a Romanianlanguage newspaper, Todiraş officially declared the group’s disbandment due to the desire of the three members to dedicate themselves to a solo career. Thus, everybody went on separate ways. Arsenie Todiraş adopted the stage name Arsenium and represented

the Republic of Moldova at the 2006 Eurovision Song Contest (along Natalia Gordienko and Connect-R) with the song “Loca”. He also released a hit song known as “Love me, love me”. In 2007, the former leader of the group, Dan Bălan, who moved to Los Angeles after trying to bring the songs of the O-Zone group to America, created an alter ego of himself known as Crazy Loop and released the album The Power of the Shower. On 9 May 2017, the group members held two concerts in Chișinău and Bucharest, thus re-establishing the band for a short period of time after a 12-year break. Dan Bălan has won numerous international awards in the music industry, including Echo Awards and MTV Video Music Awards. In 2010, Dan produced the single “Chica Bomb”, which was recorded in the United States, where he collaborated with Hype Williams for the production of the video. In the same year, the singer managed to obtain greater notoriety, particularly in Russia and Ukraine, following the success of commercial hits Justify Sex (No. 1 in Russia) and Lepestkami Slez in duet with Vera Brezhneva. From that moment on he dedicated himself to the creation of disco and pop songs in Russian. In the summer of 2011, the song Freedom was released. It had an immediate success in the Slavic countries and in the autumn of

Dan Bălan

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the same year he released the ballad Lish do Utro. In the spring of 2012, he published two singles: Ne lyubya and Lyubi. The hit song Lendo Calendo came out in the summer of 2013 and was highly appreciated in Russia, the Republic of Moldova and Romania. After previously releasing the Funny Love song in 2015, Dan Bălan managed once more to impress his audience and break the top European charts with the song Allegro Ventigo (2018). Arsenie Todiraș took part in the Dansez Pentru Tine Dance Contest, the Romanian version of Dancing with the Stars, and occupied second place. His first album, Arsenium - Al 33-lea element, was released in Romania in the summer of 2006. It was also released in Ukraine, Spain, Russia and Poland. In 2008, he released his single Rumadai in several European countries such as Spain, Romania or Germany, with which he hoped to achieve the success obtained with O-Zone. The song reached the Top 100 in Austria and Germany. With this song, he represented Romania at the 2014 Viña del Mar Festival in Chile, where he won the Best Performer Award, thus winning the Silver Seagull, the best prize awarded in the international contest. Arsenium has

Radu Sîrbu

different fan clubs through social networks in various European countries and in Mexico and the United States of America. After the band’s dissolution, Radu Sîrbu recorded the single Dulce with DJ Mahay. After a while, he released his first album entitled Alone, from which the single Doi Străini was the most appreciated. Radu also made a video for his song, Whap-Pa In 2007, Radu met his friend Arsenie to record the song July. In the same year, he collaborated with his wife Ana on a project called Mr. & Ms. Together, they recorded the song Love Is Not A Reason To Cry. Recently they have both appeared in the Romanian version of the talent show Dancing with the Stars. He also worked as a producer for the Moldovan disc jockey DJ Layla for which he produced the singles Single Lady and City Of Sleeping Hearts, which achieved excellent successes throughout Europe. 160

Arsenie Todiraș “Arsenium” with Natalia Gordienko at the 2006 Eurovision Song Contest

Zdob & Zdub Zdob și Zdub is an alternative rock band from the Republic of Moldova. Established in 1994 by a group of friends from the city of Strășeni, Republic of Moldova, Zdob și Zdub combines several musical styles. Zdob și Zdub represented the Republic of Moldova at the Eurovision 2005 musical contest, where it ranked 6th, as well as at Eurovision 2011. Over time, Zdob și Zdub sang in the opening of concerts with world-class bands and artists such as Red Hot Chili Peppers, Emir Kusturica & No Smoking Orchestra, Biohazard, Rollins Band, Rage Against The Machine, Soulfly, The Garbage, Fun Lovin’ Criminals, Linkin Park and others. he band is currently made up of 6 members: Roman Iagupov (vocals, flute, ocarina); Mihai Gîncu (bass, tuba, drums); Sveatoslav Staruș (guitar); Andrei Cebotari (drums); Victor Dandeș (trombone, flute, accordion) and Valeriu Mazilu (trumpet, bagpipe). Roman Iagupov was born on 13 September 1973 in the city of Volgograd in Russia. Since 1974, he lived in Strășeni, his mother being from the Republic of Moldova. He attended school in Strășeni from 1980 to 1990, being classmate with former member Anatoli Pugaci. Since he was just a child, Roman dreamed of a career in sports.

He continued his studies at the Institute of Physical Education and Sport between 1991 and 1995. However in 1994, at the age of 21, he reoriented to music and together with Anatoli Pugaci and his neighbor, Mihai Gîncu, they’ve established Zdob și Zdub. Between 1995 and 1996, he worked as a pedagogue. Roman Iagupov is married to Carolina Voitenco, a Moldovan painter who also takes care of his stage clothing. Together they have a son David (b. 2008). He also has a girl named Alisa (b. 2000) from a previous marriage to Yolka Flyman, whom he divorced in 2004. In 2012, he obtained his Romanian citizenship. When the band was founded in 1994, their initial sound was more like Hardcore Punk and their lyrics were mostly written in Russian. The group played for their first time at an event called “10 years after Chernobyl” in Chişinău. In November 1994, they recorded their first demo tape and played at a festival in Moscow, where they performed under the name Zdob şi Zdub for the first time. In July 1996, they appeared in the opening act of a Rage Against The Machine concert with the songs “В доме моем” (In my house) in Russian and “Hardcore Moldovenesc” (Moldovan Hardcore) in Romanian. The song “Hardcore Moldovenesc” became a hit later and contributed significantly to the reputation of the band. In the same year, Zdob şi Zdub signed a contract with the Russian record company FeeLee and released their debut album, Hardcore Moldovenesc. Around 1998,

Zdob şi Zdub

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their music began to change as the songs were provided with elements of native folklore, while the texts were written mainly in Romanian. In May 1999, the second album was released under the name “Tabăra Noastră” (Our Camp). On 14 August 1999, Zdob şi Zdub played at the Russian MTV party held in the Red Square in Moscow, along with Russian bands such as Gorky Park and IFK and American band Red Hot Chili Peppers. In October 2000, the group recorded a cover version of the song Видели ночь (Videli Noch - We saw the night) of the Russian band Kino. With this song they participated in the tribute album “KINOproby”, dedicated to the deceased poet, actor and front man of the group Kino, Viktor Tsoi. The cover became a hit throughout the Commonwealth of Independent States and topped the charts in many CIS countries throughout the year. It sold about half a million tribute albums. The band had many guest appearances and was even awarded by the Sankt Petersburg music magazine Fuzz as the best live band of the year 2000 in Russia. Since then, the band toured extensively and continues to do so, mainly in Russia, Ukraine, Republic of Moldova and Romania, but also in Germany (1998), the Netherlands (2000), and more recently in Serbia, Hungary and Italy. On 31 January 2001 Zdob şi Zdub performed in Moscow together with musician and director Emir Kusturica and his No Smoking Orchestra. On 12 October 2001, the album “Agroromantica” was presented to the public in the B-2 club in Moscow. The video for the song “Bună Dimineaţa!” (Good morning!), which is intended to be an ironic evocation of the romanticism of the Stalinist

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era of the Soviet Union and its satellites, was awarded the Romanian Video Clip of the Year (2001) at the Telefest festival in Timişoara, Romania. The following year, the group won the MTV Romania Video Music Award for the song “Ţiganii şi OZN” (The Gypsies and the UFO). In 2003, the song “Everybody in the Casa Mare” was played in the credits of the short film Călătorie la oraş (A Trip to the City), directed by Romanian Corneliu Porumboiu. On 24 November 2003, a new album entitled “450 de oi” (450 sheep) was released. In July 2004, the previously mentioned album reached the 12th place in World Music Charts Europe. In October 2004, the group worked in their studio on a new album, which should have been dedicated to the 10th anniversary of the band. They included their best songs of the last 10 years and 5 new tracks. In 2005, Zdob și Zdub represented the Republic of Moldova at Eurovision with the song “Bunica bate toba”. They easily passed by the semi-finals with 207 points and ranked second. In the semi-final, the Republic of Moldova received 4 grades of 12 from Romania, Russia, Ukraine and Turkey. In the final, Zdob și Zdub ranked 6th with 148 points, receiving 2 grades of 12 from Romania and Ukraine and 3 grades of 10 from Russia, Lithuania and Portugal. On 30 September 2007, Zdob şi Zdub appeared in Michael Palin’s “New Europe”, a program which was broadcasted on BBC 1 in the UK. Also in 2007, a mashup music video entitled “Black Eyed Peace ft Zdob şi Zdub – Don’t Mess with Inima Mea” appeared on the internet, featuring a mix of Black Eyed Peas’ “Do not Phunk with My Heart” with

Zdob și Zdub singing “So Lucky” at the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest

Zdob și Zdub in August 2014 (from left to right: Victor Dandeș, Igor Buzurniuc, Roman Iagupov, Andrei Cebotari, Mihai Gîncu, Valeriu Mazilu)

elements of the song “DJ Vasile” by Zdob şi Zdud. In 2009, the band released the song “На речке, на речке” (Na rechke, na rechke - On the river, on the river) for the project “СОЛЬ” (Salt) of Russian radio station “Наше Радио” (Our radio). In December 2009, Zdob şi Zdub recorded the song “Телега” (Telega) for the tribute album dedicated to the 40th anniversary of the Russian band “Mashina Vremeni”. Zdob și Zdub recorded some songs and performed live with folk musicians and artists such as Vasile Dinu (MC Vasile from Romania), Osoianu Sisters (Republic of Moldova), Trio Erdenko (Russia) and others. Zdob și Zdub were invited to take part in a series of projects, one of which was the Linz Europe Tour 2007-2009, a European cultural project that brought together artists from the Danubian countries. As a result, a collaboration took place between Hubert von Goisern, the leader of Linz Europe Tour, and Zdob și Zdub and an album entitled “Ethnomecanica” (Lavine / Sony Label) was released. In October 2010, the band released an album in Russian entitled “Beloe Vino / Krasnoe Vino” (in Russian – “White Wine / Red Wine”). Over a long period of time and on different occasions many songs were recorded, but for various reasons they weren’t released. In 2011, Zdob și Zdub represented the Republic of Moldova once more at Eurovision with the song “So Lucky”. The band ranked 12th. In January 2012, Zdob și Zdub released under the aegis of German record label Asphalt Tango Records an album in English entitled “Basta Mafia!”. For the first time in its history, the band collaborated with a foreign producer, Marc Elsner. The album was recorded both in Chişinău in Cuibul Studio, as well as in Germany at

Headroom Studio. Between February and March 2012, the band went on a tour in order to promote the new album through the major cities of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland and Denmark. A version adapted for the Romanian and Moldavian public was also released and was launched by MediaPro Music in the spring of 2013. The new version of the “Basta Mafia!” album was presented to the public in Romania during a concert at the Hard Rock Cafe Pub in Bucharest. On 21 May 2013, the version of the album was presented to the Moldovan public at the “Eugène Ionesco” Theater in Chişinău, during a grand show – “The Moldovans were born” (Moldovenii s-au născut), the title of the first single on the album, for which a video was also shot. At the end of 2014, the band recorded two new songs, “La o margine de munte” and “Caloianul”. In the autumn of 2014, Zdob şi Zdub celebrated their 20th anniversary and went on a tour in the Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russia and Ukraine. In 2015, “20 De Veri”, their latest album, was released. Zdob și Zdub have concerted in over 20 European countries. Among the major festivals, the band participated at the following: Esperanzah! (Belgium), Rock For People, Colours Of Ostrava (Czech Republic), Roskilde (Denmark), Sin Fronteras (France), Krefelder Folkfest, Tanz&Folk Festival Rudolstadt, S.O.M.A., Eurovision Song Contest 2011 (Germany), Sziget (Hungary), EuroSonic, Mundial (Netherlands), Przystanek Woodstock (Poland), Fete de la Musique, Cerbul de Aur, Stufstock, Peninsula (Romania), Maxidrom, Nashestvie, Krilya (Russia), Exit (Serbia), Aerorock, OKEY Leto Fest, Hodocvas (Slovakia), Open Air Gampel (Switzerland) and Zakhid (Ukraine). 163

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Vocalist Roman Iagupov rehearsing at the 2005 Eurovision Song Contest

Romanian Cuisine

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Sarmale & MAmAligA Ingredients:

• Pickled cabbage or pickled vine leaves (cut into big enough pieces so you can make cabbage rolls) • 1 kg pork meat (minced) • 200g bacon or smoked meat • 50 ml sunflower oil • 3 large onions (chopped) • 1 carrot (grated) • 125g rice • 3 tablespoons tomato paste • 1 tablespoon sweet paprika • 1 tablespoon dill (chopped) • 1 tablespoon thyme • Bay leaves (as many as you want) • Salt and pepper

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For mămăligă: • 250g cornmeal • 500 ml water • 200g sour cream • 100g Brânză de burduf or sheep cheese • Salt

Steps:

1. Pour some oil in a pan and fry the onion and carrot a little. 2. Add the washed rice, fry it for 1 minute then add 150ml water. Let it simmer until the rice swells a little. 3. Stop the fire, let the vegetables cool a bit and then put them over the minced meat. Add salt, pepper, paprika, thyme, dill and 1 tablespoon tomato paste then mix well. If the composition isn’t quite soft, then add some water. 4. Put 1 tablespoon of meat over the pickled cabbage or vine leaf and roll the cabbage (vine) until the

Sarmale & Mămăligă

edge of it then push the leaf edges toward the center of the sarma so that the meat won’t come out during cooking. 5. Over the bottom of a large saucepan or pot, place a layer of chopped pickled cabbage or pickled vine leaves (whatever element you decided to follow the recipe with) then add a few slices of bacon or smoked meat, peppercorns and bay leaves. 6. Put a layer of sarmale over it. Cover them with a layer of shredded pickled cabbage, sprinkle a few grains of pepper and bay leaves then add a few pieces of bacon or any other smoked meat. Continue the process until you finish the sarmale. 7. Dilute 2 tablespoons of tomato paste in water and pour over the cabbage rolls enough so it can cover them by 2 cm. 8. Cook the stuffed cabbage rolls for about 2 hours over low heat then put them in the oven for 30 minutes until they become slightly browned above. Check from time to time to see if you need to put some more water. 9. For the mămăligă put some water to boil in a pot then add some salt. 10. When the water boils pour the cornmeal little by little, stirring with a whisk. 11. Let the mămăligă simmer for maximum 20 minutes, stirring occasionally so that it won’t burn. 12. Serve the mămăligă with cheese and sour cream alongside sarmale!

Moldavian Stew Ingredients: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

500g pork leg (cut into pieces) 300g smoked sausages (cut into pieces) 200g bacon 200g goat cheese (grated) 3 tablespoons lard (or oil) 1 cup dry white wine 4 or 5 cloves of garlic 3 tablespoons tomato paste (optional) 1 tablespoon sweet paprika 1 tablespoon thyme 1 or 2 bay leaves 400 ml water (half for sausages and half for polenta) 250g cornmeal Fried eggs (1 for every person)

Steps:

1. Put the lard in a pot and after a couple of minutes add the bacon and the pork leg. Stir well until the bacon begins to melt and the pork leg pieces turn white on all sides. 2. Now add the water, salt, pepper, half of the chopped garlic and other desired spices then let it simmer until all the liquid evaporates and the meat starts to

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sizzle. 3. Add the smoked sausages and 1 or 2 bay leaves. 4. Check the meat. If it is well done then pass on to the next stage, if not, add a glass of water and leave it until full evaporation. 5. After a while, pour a glass of quality dry wine and put the other half of garlic. If you want a bit of colour and a little sauce, then and 3 tablespoons of tomato paste diluted with water. 6. Mix well and partially cover the pot with a lid until the meat is well done. 7. Now it’s time to make the polenta. Put some water to boil in a pot then add some salt. 8. When the water boils pour the cornmeal little by little, stirring with a whisk. 9. Let the mămăligă simmer for maximum 20 minutes, stirring occasionally so that it won’t burn. 10. In a pan, fry 1 egg for each member you want to serve. 11. On every plate place the mămăligă in the middle, add the fried egg over it and a leaf of parsley on top. Around the mămăligă place the meat and the grated cheese over it. Enjoy!

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Varza A La Cluj Ingredients: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1 large pickled cabbage (about 1 kg) 750g pork meat (minced) 2 red onions (small) 1 tablespoons and 2 teaspoons pork fat 150g smoked ham or smoked sausages 150g rice 1 tablespoon sweet paprika 1 tablespoon dry thyme 350g sour cream Salt & Pepper 1 teaspoon ground cumin (optional) 1 teaspoon dried dill (optional) 200 ml tomato paste (optional)

Steps:

1. Remove the pickled cabbage leaves and wash them in cold water, then drain well. Chop the pickled

Varză à la Cluj

cabbage leaves into thin strips and put them in a large saucepan. Add 1 tablespoon pork fat and fry them for about 15 to 20 minutes on medium heat. Stir often until it begins to soften. 2. In the meantime, clean, wash and chop the small onions. Heat 1 teaspoon of pork fat in a large pan and add the chopped red onions. Sprinkle with a bit of salt and fry them on medium to low heat until they become translucent. 3. After the onion has softened, add the chopped meat and stir well with a wooden spoon. Fry the meat together with the onions for 7 to 8 minutes, stirring frequently, then stop the fire. 4. Season the meat to taste with salt, pepper, dry thyme, sweet paprika and ground cumin (if desired). Mix well the meat with the spices and leave aside for a while. 5. Once the pickled cabbage begins to soften, stop the fire and add pepper and dried dill (if desired). Do not put salt because the pickled cabbage is already salty! 6. Separately, boil the rice in half a liter of slightly salted water for about 10 minutes then drain the liquid through a sieve. 7. Set the oven to 190°C. Grease a heat-resistant tray (Preferably 24x36 cm) with 1 teaspoon of pork fat. In the tray spread evenly 1/3 of the pickled cabbage and squeeze it lightly. 8. Above the pickled cabbage layer put half of the boiled rice in a uniform layer and gently squeeze it. After the cooked rice layer, spread about ½ of the minced meat in a uniform layer. 9. Continue assembling in the same manner: over the first layer of minced meat add another third of the quantity of pickled cabbage, then a layer of the rest of the boiled rice, a layer of the remaining minced meat and a layer of smoked meat (finely sliced smoked ham or smoked sausages). 10. Finally, the last layer will be formed of the remaining pickled cabbage (the last third), which will be gently squeezed. Spread over all of the sour cream on top of it in a uniform layer. If you want you can optionally add tomato paste before spreading the sour cream. 11. Place the tray in the oven at an average height and let it bake for about half an hour until it becomes lightly roasted on top. 12. Finally, remove it from the over and allow to cool for about 15 minutes, then serve.

Mici Ingredients: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1 kg minced meat (beef, pig or sheep) (with fat) 8g finely crushed fresh pepper 12g dried thyme (finely crushed) 4g Yenibahar seeds (finely crushed) 2g coriander (finely crushed) 2g cumin (finely crushed) 1g star anise (finely crushed) (optional) 8g sodium bicarbonate 1 teaspoon lemon juice 1 tablespoon oil 1 clove of garlic Mustard 500 ml bones juice

Steps:

1. Boil some cow bones with water. 2. Knead the meat in a dish for half an hour while gradually adding sodium bicarbonate and lemon juice. Also gradually add half of the bone broth and half of the other spices, except for the garlic. 3. Put the mixture in the freezer for one day and one night. After you remove the mixture from the freezer, leave it for a few hours then add the other half of the bone broth and mix for half an hour. 4. Make a garlic sauce with warm water from one clove of garlic. Squeeze the garlic sauce through a cheesecloth, add the garlic juice to the mixture and knead it once more for 15 minutes. Put it in the freezer during the night.

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5. 3 hours before frying and serving the mici, remove the mixture from the freezer. After those 3 hours or when the mixture becomes soft, form the mici. They must have the following dimensions: about 1 finger in length and about 2 fingers in thickness. 6. Brush them with oil on all sides and let them stand for one hour. 7. Fry them on grill and occasionally brush them with garlic sauce in order to catch a ruddy crust around. Do not allow to penetrate so that the juice containing the spices flavor doesn’t dry. Also do not fry them on low heat. 8. Serve with mustard.

5. Grate the onion and finely chop the parsley. 6. In a bowl, mix all meatball ingredients and knead well. With your hands wet, form meatballs the size of a walnut. 7. Once you finished making meatballs, add them one by one to the borsch, taking care to place them all over the pot. Don’t cram them into one place. 8. Simmer over medium heat for about 10 minutes. Cooked meatballs will ascend to the surface. 9. After 10 minutes, turn the off heat, put the lid on the pot and let the soup cool. When cool, add lemon juice or borsch. 10. Serve the meatballs borsch with sour cream and sprinkled chopped parsley over it.

CiorbA de PeriSoare Ingredients:

• 3 carrots • 1 French turnip • 1 parsley root • 1 slice celery • 1 small onion • 30 ml oil • 1 tablespoon salt • 1 tablespoon vegeta • 1 small green pepper • 2 tomatoes • 1 lemon For the meatball mixture: • 700 gr pork or beef meat (minced) • 1 medium onion • 120g long grain rice • 1 teaspoon salt • 1 teaspoon pepper • 1 tablespoon flour • Bunch of parsley • 2 eggs

Ciorbă de Perișoare

CiorbA de BurtA Ingredients:

• 3 to 4 kg beef tripe • 1 beef bone (about 600 to 800g) (can be without meat) • 1 tablespoon pepper (grated) • 4 bay leaves • 2 carrots (chopped) Steps: 1. Clean all vegetables and grate them. Fry them in oil • 2 tablespoons oil • 10 cloves of garlic in a large pot. 2. Once fried, cover them with about 3 liters of water. • 8 egg yolks • 500g sour cream (with minimum 30% fat) Add salt and vegeta. 3. Finely chop the peppers and tomatoes and add them • Vinegar • Salt and pepper to the soup. Boil everything for about 45 minutes. 4. While the soup is simmering, start making meatballs • 1 onion (optional) considering that the rice you use has to be perfectly • 1 celery root (optional) • 1 parsley root (optional) dry. 170

SalatA Boeuf Ingredients:

• 500g homemade mayonnaise (Made out of 2 egg yolks, 2 tablespoons mustard and 200ml oil) • 300g beef (or any other meat: chicken, pork, lamb, turkey, salmon, rabbit …) • 3 potatoes • 3 carrots • 1 celery root • 1 parsnip Ciorbă de Burtă • 150g peas • 5 pickled cucumbers Steps: 1. If the beef tripe is clean, put it in a roomy pot and • 5 pickled green tomatoes (gogonele) cover it with water in which 1 teaspoon sodium • 3 peppers in vinegar bicarbonate must be dissolved. Leave it for about 2 • Salt and Pepper to 3 hours in the refrigerator then. 2. Cut the beef tripe into big enough pieces and put it Steps: to boil together with the beef bone, grated pepper, 1. Wash and boil the potatoes, carrots and celery. bay leaves and a spoonful of salt. If you want to add 2. After they boil for about 30 minutes, let them cool the optional vegetables (except for the carrot), then in cold water and clean them. put them in the pot now (obviously cut into small 3. Boil the beef meat as well because it lasts longer, pieces). usually 1 hour or 1 hour and a half, so it would be 3. The pot must have sufficient liquid. Boiling the beef better to start with it. tripe is quite difficult. Even the pressure cooker 4. Meanwhile, cut the vegetables and pickles into small takes at least 2 hours. cubes and place them in a big bowl. Once the meat 4. Once the beef tripe and the vegetables are cooked, is done, cut it as well into small cubes and add it to strain the juice (which will be preserved), then the bowl. remove the bay leaves, the boiled vegetables and the 5. Prepare the homemade mayonnaise. Or you can beef bone. Allow the beef tripe to cool. just use a purchased one. 5. Once the beef tripe is cool, cut it into “noodles” of 6. Add the mayonnaise to the chopped ingredients. about 8 to 10 cm in length and 0,5 cm in thickness. 7. Mix the ingredients well then add salt and pepper. If 6. Bring to a boil the strained broth and add the beef you like, you can add more pickles. tripe “noodles”. 8. You can decorate the salad with pieces of pickles, 7. Fry the carrots on medium-low heat until tender in olives and other ingredients. two tablespoons of oil. 9. Serve it after 2 or 3 hours when all the flavors 8. Add the fried carrots in the soup and simmer for 2 penetrate the salad. more minutes then take the pot off the fire. 9. Prepare the garlic sauce by using the finely chopped garlic and a few tablespoons of cold water. 10. Add the garlic sauce to the soup then add some salt and pepper. Whisk the egg yolks with sour cream. 11. Dilute the sour cream and egg yolks mixture with a ladle of hot broth then add it to the soup, stirring rapidly. 12. Add a little bit of vinegar to the entire quantity of borsch. Serve hot. Salată Boeuf

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RAciturA Ingredients: • • • • • • • •

3 pork legs Pork ears or other components of the pig’s head 1 celery root 1 carrot 1 parsnip 1 teaspoon peppercorns 4 cloves of garlic 3 few tablespoons of salt

Steps:

1. In order to obtain a good pork jelly without using gelatin, it is important to use as many bones as possible. 2. Put the pork meat in a big pot and pour enough water over so it may overcome them by three fingers and then put them to boil. During the boiling process, foam will form over the water and it must be removed whenever needed until you manage to get rid of it permanently. 3. You can use this simple trick: after the water starts to boil, throw it and replace it with fresh water. Generally, the water in which you boil the meat for

172

the first time is better to be thrown away because of the blood that comes out of the meat. 4. Once you finish with the foam, put the cleaned vegetables into the pot. 5. This is the adequate moment to add a teaspoon of peppercorns and a few teaspoons of salt.6 6. Cover the pot and let the pork ingredients boil for several hours. This means until the meat begins to fall off the bone. The boiling time is variable but generally it should take at least 2 or 2 and a half hours. 7. After the meat fell off the bone, take the pot off the stove and completely detach the meat off the bone. Cut the meat and vegetables in small pieces, depending on your preference. 8. Place a few pieces of vegetables on the bottom of each bowl (you will need more small bowls/dishes/ trays for this). Evenly distribute them and then add the pieces of meat. 9. Clean 4 cloves of garlic, crush and rub them with salt and a little oil until you obtain a white cream. 10. Strain the soup in a different pot and let it cool a bit then add the garlic sauce. Attention! The soup mustn’t be hot when mixed with the garlic sauce. 11. Pour the soup combined with the garlic sauce in the prepared dishes or bowls. 12. Introduce the bowls/trays with pork jelly and let them for at least 2 to 3 hours. After the time elapsed, it should be good enough to eat.

Răcitură

Cozonac Ingredients:

For the leaven: • 50g fresh yeast • 2 tablespoons milk • 1 tablespoon flour For the dough: • 1 kg flour • 6 egg yolks • 500 ml milk • 300g sugar • 200g butter • 50g oil • Zest of one lemon • 100 ml Rum essence • 100 ml Vanilla essence For the cream: • 300g raisins and poppy seeds • 20g coconut (shredded) • 50g nuts (crushed) • 3 or 4 pieces Lokum (Turkish delight) • Butter • 2 tablespoons cocoa • 4 tablespoons sugar • 5 tablespoons milk

Steps:

1. Make the leaven out of the following ingredients: yeast, 2 tablespoons of milk, 1 teaspoon of sugar and

1 tablespoon of flour. After you mix the ingredients, let the composition rise. Note: You can put a towel over the composition. It will rise faster. 2. Boil the milk together with 300g of sugar and the zest of 1 lemon. After the leaven has increased, pour the sifted flour in a large bowl and add the hot milk little by little then start kneading. 3. Whisk the egg yolks together with a bit of salt. Add them gradually to the composition and continue kneading. 4. Melt the butter in a pan and add the oil over it. Add the melted butter together with the oil to the composition. 5. Over all this mixture from the bowl, add the leaven and knead. Also add the essences and lokum then sprinkle some flour and let it rise. 6. For the cream, boil the milk together with butter, cocoa, nuts, poppy seeds and raisins. Tip: before proceeding to this step, let the raisins soak in milk a couple of minutes. 7. After it has risen, take half of the composition for 1 cozonac. This half will also be split in other two halves. 8. Stretch the first half, brush it with a little oil and add the cream. Do the same with the second half and plait them. 9. Put some baking paper in 2 cake trays (if you want to do both halves), then add the cozonac. The cozonac will be brushed with yolk and a bit of granulated sugar will be sprinkled upon it. 10. Put the cake trays in the oven at 180°C for about 45 minutes to 1 hour.

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one hour. 2. Meanwhile, remove the seeds from the sour cherries and prepare the cream as following: mix the mascarpone with 600 grams of sour cream, 1 tablespoon of peeled lemon and powdered sugar. 3. Remove the dough from the refrigerator and divide Ingredients: it into 16 equal parts, from which you will form • 550g flour dough balls. From each of the dough balls, with the • 1 egg help of a paddle, make rectangles with the sides of • 30 milliliters cognac or brandy about 30/10 cm. • 200g butter 4. On each of the rectangle, place one row of sour • 250g sour cream cherries then roll it. Eventually, 16 such rolled • 600g sour cream for cream pancakes will be formed. Bake them at 180°C for • 100g powdered sugar about 40 minutes. • 250g mascarpone 5. Build Guguţă’s hat in the following manner: 6 rolled • 1 tablespoon of peeled lemon pancakes are placed as a base then they are covered • 1 baking powder with cream, then 4 rolled pancakes over them and • Whipped cream then again cover them with cream. Add 3 rolled • 20 g dark chocolate pancakes on top of the previous ones and again • Sour Cherries cover them with cream, then 2 rolled pancakes and cream and finally place the last one and cover Steps: everything with cream. Grate dark chocolate over 1. Cut the in squares and mix it with flour, egg, baking the cake. powder, cognac and 250 grams sour cream. Knead 6. Keep it in the refrigerator for about 8 hours. Serve an elastic dough and put it in the refrigerator for cold!

Cusma lui Guguta

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Cuşma lui Guguţă

Tuica de Maramures

Ţuică de Maramureș

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Romania Travel

176

Bucharest

CiČ&#x2122;migiu Park

177

Arcul de Triumf (Arc de Triomphe)

Lipscani Street in the Old Center of Bucharest

178

“Dimitrie Gusti” Village Museum

Romanian Peasant Museum

Interior of the Romanian Athenaeum

Grigore Antipa National History Museum

Romanian Athenaeum

179

Naţional Arena Football Stadium

Cișmigiu Park

180

Palace of Parliament (Casa Poporului)

HerÄ&#x192;strÄ&#x192;u Park

Traditional Women Costumes inside the Romanian Peasant Museum

181

Iasi

Roznovanu Palace

182

Culture Palace

Culture Palace and Saint Nicholas Church

183

Three Holy Hierarchs Monastery

Union Square and Braunstein Palace

Vasile Alecsandri National Theatre

184

Cluj-Napoca

Avram Iancu Statue and Orthodox Cathedral

185

Saint Michael Catholic Church and Matei Corvin Statue

Cluj-Napoca Central Park

186

Avram Iancu Square and Lucian Blaga National Theatre

Artesian Fountain

Bรกnffy Castle

187

Timisoara

TimiČ&#x2122;oara Orthodox Cathedral

188

Union Square

Theresia Bastion

189

Liberty Bell

Huniade Castle

Roses Park

Victory Square

190

Constanta

Genoese Lighthouse

191

ConstanČ&#x203A;a Casino

ConstanČ&#x203A;a Casino at dawn

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Lake Sutghiol

Aqua Magic

Sunset over the Black Sea

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Other Places

Curtea de ArgeČ&#x2122; Monastery

194

Corvin Castle in Hunedoara

Stone Group named â&#x20AC;&#x153;Babeleâ&#x20AC;? in Bucegi, Carpathian Mountains

Romanian Sphinx in the Bucegi Mountains

195

Beautiful Royal Peleș Castle in Sinaia

Royal Pelișor Castle in Sinaia

196

Draculaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Castle in Bran, Transylvania

Medieval Bran Castle at sunset

197

Putna Monastery

Sihăstria Monastery

Secu Monastery

Voroneț painted Orthodox Monastery in the Bucovina region is also known as the Eastern Sistine Chapel

Details of the Judgment Day from the Apocalypse on a fresco of the Voroneț Monastery (it is painted in a unique blue colour that earned its name as Blue of Voroneț)

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MoldoviČ&#x203A;a Monastery

SuceviČ&#x203A;a Monastery

199

Cozia Monastery

Horezu Monastery

Fresh Autumn landscape in the Carpathian Mountains with lake

Horezu Ceramics

Transalpina Mountain Road during Winter

200

Bigăr Cascade in the Anina Mountains

Famous Bigăr Cascade is one of the most beautiful waterfalls in the world

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Râșnov Fortress near Brașov

202

Danube Delta

Traditional Romanian Orthodox Easter eggs hand painted with geometrical motifs

Piatra Craiului mountains massif

Saint Ana Lake, the only volcanic lake in Romania

Transfăgărășan Mountain Road in the Romanian Carpathians

Transfăgărășan Mountain Highway seen from a belvedere point

203

Traditional House in the “Astra” Village Museum in Sibiu

Turnul Sfatului and Piața Mică Square in Sibiu

204

Brukenthal Museum in Sibiu

Piața Mare Square in Sibiu (Panorama)

Piața Mare Square in Sibiu

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Piața Sfatului Square in Brașov

Alba-Iulia 3rd Gate of the Fortress

Poiana Brașov Ski Resort

Brașov night panorama

206

Black Church (Biserica NeagrÄ&#x192;) in BraČ&#x2122;ov

Alba-Iulia Coronation Orthodox Cathedral and Saint Michael Catholic Church

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Mother and Children Statues in front of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;1 Decembrie 1918â&#x20AC;? University in Alba-Iulia

Alba-Iulia Fortification Walls

Oradea City Hall

Craiova City Center

Suceava Fortress at night

208

Water Castle in Drobeta Turnu Severin

Hercules Statue at the BÄ&#x192;ile Herculane Thermal Baths

NeamČ&#x203A; Citadel

209

Sighișoara Old Town Street seen from under the Clock Tower

Clock Tower in Sighișoara

Medieval Sighișoara city

210

Sighișoara Saxon Cemetery

Bâlea Lac Ice Hotel

Turda Saltworks

Praid Saltworks

211

Iron Gates I (Porțile de Fier I) Panorama

Bârsana Monastery in Maramureș

Biertan Donarium

Costinești Youth Beach

Libearty Bear Sanctuary in Zărnești

212

Sarmisegetuza Regia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Ancient Capital of Dacia

Mraconia Monastery on the Danube, near the border with Serbia

213

Decebalus Rex Statue on the Danube River

Scărișoara Cave

Muddy Volcanoes in Buzău

Urșilor Cave

Tropaeum Traiani at Adamclisi

214

Mogoșoaia Palace near Bucharest

Ceahlău Massif

Cobilița Lake in Bistrița-Năsăud county

Cheile Nerei-Beușnița National Park

Ochiul Beiului Lake in Cheile Nerei-Beușnița National Park

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Rupea Fortress

WWI Heroes Cross on the Caraiman Mountain

Poenari Fortress, Dracula’s true residence

Cheile Bicazului

Merry Cemetery (Cimitirul Vesel) in Săpânța, Maramureș region

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Constantin Brâncuși sculptural ensemble (Table of Silence, Endless Column, Gate of the Kiss) in Târgu-Jiu (In the image - Table of Silence)

Carpathian Mountains Panorama

217

Moldova Travel

218

ChiSinAu

Č&#x2DC;tefan cel Mare Monument

219

Arc de Triomphe

Bell Tower

220

Presidential Palace

Aleksandr Pushkin House & Museum

The Classics Alley

Č&#x2DC;tefan cel Mare Public Garden

Water Tower

221

Dendrarium Park

ChiČ&#x2122;inÄ&#x192;u Botanical Garden

222

Valea Morilor Park & Lake

Valea Trandafirilor Park

Nativity Cathedral

223

Ciuflea Monastery

Interior of the Ciuflea Monastery

224

Cricova Winery

MallDova

Military Museum

Chișinău Zoo

Chișinău Railway Station

225

Museum of Archaeology & History

Chișinău State Circus

226

House of Government

Eternitate Memorial

227

Tiraspol

Bottle Museum

228

Tiraspol Government Building

Noul NeamČ&#x203A; Monastery Aerial View

Aleksandr Suvorov Statue

Pobeda Park

Tiraspol Theater

229

Tank Monument

Noul NeamČ&#x203A; Monastery

230

Nativity Church

Church of the Protection of the Mother of God

231

Other Places

Codrii StrÄ&#x192;Č&#x2122;eni Natural Reservation

232

Bălți Tank

Orhei Land

Andrieș Park in Bălți

Ștefan cel Mare Monument in Bălți

233

Orheiul Vechi Stone Churches

234

Suta de Movile Valley

Bender (Tighina) Fortress Museum

Orheiul Vechi Museum Complex & Church

Beautiful Orheiul Vechi

Č&#x161;ipova Monastery

HĂ˘ncu Monastery

Tighina (Bender) Fortress Citadel

Orhei Old Stone Quarry

235

Căpriana Monastery

Călărășeuca Monastery

236

Curchi Monastery

Trinca EdineČ&#x203A; Defile

Purcari Chateau & Winery

Saharna Monastery

Rudi Monastery

237

Soroca Fortress

Soroca Fortress Interior

238

Lumânarea Recunoştinţei Monument in Soroca

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MileČ&#x2122;tii Mici Winery

Manta Lake

Ialoveni Reef

Beleu Lake

Outside the MileČ&#x2122;tii Mici Winery

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Prut River delimitates the Republic of Moldova from Romania

Dubăsari Lake

Dniester River delimitates Republic of Moldova from Ukraine

Rîbnița

Comrat Panorama

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Cahul Central Park

Plaiul Fagului Reservation near Ungheni

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