Dissertation: How Urban Spaces Reflect Today’s Culture

Dissertation 2011-12

How Urban Spaces Reflect Today’s Culture?

The impact of today’s culture on urban spaces and its effects on human behaviour and societal segregation

Ammani Nair A/2022/2008 th B.Arch, IV Year, Section A School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi Research Guide: Mr Jagan Shah

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Acknowledgement I would like to thank my guide and mentor Mr Jagan Shah for guiding me during the course of researching and writing this dissertation. I am grateful to the studio co-ordinators, Prof. Ranjana Mittal and Prof.

Jayakumar for their patience and encouragement. I would also like to recognize the inputs, opinions and conversation I have with my friends and family, without which this dissertation would not have gone far.

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CONTENTS I. Introduction 1. Synopsis 2. Research Question 3. Need Identification 4. Scope 5. Limitation 6. Methodology

II. Perception, Culture, Exclusivity & It’s Spatial Impact 1. Perception of Spaces 2. Culture 3. Segregation and Exclusivity 4. Globalisation & the New Culture 5. Impact of today’s culture on contemporary Spaces

III. The New Transit 1. Roads of Delhi 2. Case Study: Delhi Bus Rapid Transit System 3. Case Study: Delhi Metro

IV. Transforming Neighbourhood 1. Modern Housing Culture 2. Gentrification 3. Hauz Khas

V. Commercial Hubs: Today’s Public Spaces 1. Malls 2. Case Study: Mall of America, Minnesota, U.S.A 3. Case Study: Select City Walk, Saket

VI. Conclusion

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I. Introduction Synopsis The characteristics of a person play a large role in their perception and interaction with a space. The inherent qualities, as well as, the social background of a person affect how he/she communicates with a space. Their surroundings have taught them how to analyse their environment.

On a large scale, culture and history, in a way, tell a person how to behave in their world. Culture and the development of culture give us an insight into how people lived and how they should live in a society. Culture gives architecture its identity and roots it to the human. It helps give meaning to a space and a sense of belonging to the person using it. With that in mind, the space also tends to become exclusive to the culture and thus, the society that the culture belongs to.

People tend to respond to exclusivity as it gives them a sense of belonging; it is not about keeping people out but that of being part of a community or simply being part of something and not being alone and ostracised. At the same time, segregation is still required as one only feels like they belong when others are denied acceptance to it. This is where the division of society and its spaces comes into play.

Society has always been divided into subsets, depending on race, caste, occupation, lineage and affluence. These segregations make the difference in a person’s upbringing, the way society judges them and the way they view, use and move in a space. In the past, society was divided mainly on the basis of religion and caste. There were dedicated spaces for each subset of society and exclusivity was provided for. At that time, it was consciously enforced. Today’s society, impacted by the rise of capitalism, accelerated 3|Page

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globalization and privatization, has become one divided on the basis of money, even if it isn’t an imposed division and the new culture which has evolved is called consumerism.

The economic division of society and the culture of consumerism are visible in our spaces today. The tendency to segregate and create exclusive spaces has physically manifested itself in all aspects of our lives from how we commute to where we live and play.

Research Question How do contemporary spaces reflect today’s culture?

Need Identification Culture influences every aspect of our lives, including our environment. Our environment in turn influences many aspects of our society. It is important to understand how the culture that is present today impacts architecture and how that architecture has changed or emphasized certain facets of our society. New social phenomena’s, the introduction of new types of spaces, and their impact on human behaviour is empirical to understand the current state of society and the architecture that influences it. One should acknowledge and understand the problems that are present in the city of Delhi today, regarding the new spaces that are created and their impact on the people.

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Scope This study will examine: 1. The change in culture and its impact 2. The transformation of old spaces 3. New building typologies that arose after the shift in culture

Limitations The various limitations the author faced while researching this dissertation were:

1. There is little published information available on this particular aspect of architecture

2. This topic deals with intangible and metaphysical aspects which cannot easily be quantified.

3. Time restraints also limit this study in terms of detail and primary analysis Methodology The dissertation looks at the following as a base to analyse the case studies 1. Generic impact of culture on architecture 2. Theory of segregation and exclusivity of society 3. The design or characteristics of a space that influence behaviour As part of the dissertation the author will broadly research the impact of culture on different facets of the city and prepare case studies chosen by analysing the prevalent trends in present day architecture and picking those that illustrate those aspects of the trend best, concentrating only on those characteristics which are relevant to this dissertation.

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II. Perception, Culture, Exclusivity & It’s Spatial Impact Perception of Spaces ‘We experience the world as a series of spatial patterns and we store them, and we recall them and we match them up against reality and we are making predictions all the time’ (TED, 2003) Every individual has the ability to observe, understand and respond to their environment. Through the course of one’s life, one’s brain stores every experience that one encounters as mnemonic devices which help them process further situations.

This inference is taken from the cognitive theory of the brain. According to this theory, the observations that one makes are stored in a part of the brain as a database which is the memory. One’s brain is continuously interpreting every instance by crossreferencing every sensory input to their memory. The person then reacts to the environment depending on their inference. (TED, 2003) The database that each of us creates individually, can be attributed to our culture, local environment and society. As a group of people belonging to the same environment, one can say that, they all share similar inferences and therefore, respond similarly. At the same time, the behaviour of an individual is not constrained only by their society and culture but also by the choices they have previously made.

Though these limit the possible inferences and behaviour of an individual even further, mnemonic functions can be studied and then used while creating spaces to encourage certain actions and conduct. (Moore(Editor), 2000, pp. 186-187)

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In terms of perception of spaces, one always relates new spaces to spaces previously seen or experienced. Behind the variations in the architecture of a place, one always finds hidden constancies, patterns and regularities which help a person understand that space. These patterns are imposed by the architect to the make the user behave in a certain way.

‘The built environment is mnemonic, a form of congealed information reminding people how to behave.’ (Moore(Editor), 2000, p. 181) We as people of different communities feel comfortable in spaces that relate to our culture and so culture plays an important role in understanding the interaction of a person with a space.

Culture All over the world, people have the same basic requirements and perform similar activities to sustain themselves. The basic human needs can be satisfied in any environment. The difference lies in the way they fulfil those needs and that difference is contingent on the physical environment. These variations reflect in the distinctions between cultures.

The ‘constancy, homogeneity and uniformity among traditional groups’ can be termed as a groups’ culture. (Moore(Editor), 2000, p. 183) Culture gives a society a set of guidelines which tells them how to behave and interact with each other and the spaces around them. It is a form of transmission of information from one generation to the next, through the design of spaces and artefacts and by how a person interacts with them. (Moore(Editor), 2000, p. 180) 7|Page

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‘Habitual behaviour translates culture into form.’ (Moore(Editor), 2000, p. 185) Architecture is a form of interpreting and enforcing culture. It provides us with a living environment which helps telling us how to identify with our culture and how to interact with one another and other things around us. It provides us with subconscious cues that indicate status and identity in a society. Architecture gives us an insight into the aspirations of a certain culture. A culture emboldens a way of thought, interaction and behaviour.

Segregation & Exclusivity Class is a further division of society within a culture. It is the class that one belongs to in a society which establishes for a person their position and status in society. In most societies, occupation was the common basis of segregation at the commencement, but soon occupation as well as status became hereditary. The segregation was also based on the value of ones occupation in society but very little on the character of the person.

(Ross, 1920, pp. 404-405) ‘Class hardens into caste when the jealous upper class bars the eligible commoner.’ (Ross, 1920, p. 401) There is always an aspiration of the lower classes to progress to a higher class. In earlier times, it was impossible to bridge that gap and progress from a low class to a higher class, but, through the ages, the ability to climb up the social ladder has become possible and comparatively easier.

In all cases, the upper class is smaller in number and has greater power than the lower class masses. Those who are part of the upper class try to maintain that divide. They 8|Page

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prize and try to maintain that gap, as it makes their position more exclusive. (Ross, 1920) Exclusivity is the act of excluding or placing restriction on something to only a certain group of people. Exclusivity is a dominant social phenomenon today. It is the modern interpretation of caste and class in most Indian cites.

Architecture has always responded to the divisions in society and compounds exclusivity. Spaces have always been designed to respond to these aspects of culture and society and to propagate these notions.

Cities over the world now have the ability to communicate with each other and influence each other. This has led to an increase in trade and has changed the culture in most cities.

Globalisation & the New Culture Globalization is a widely used term that describes the current culture of the world, but in actuality is essentially an economic term. The United Nations ESCWA has written that globalization refers to “..The reduction and removal of barriers between national borders in order to facilitate the flow of goods, capital, services, and labour‌" This new culture of the 20th century is highly influenced by the political shift to capitalism and widespread privatization. These changes, along with the boom in technology, lead to great economic growth in many parts of the world and affected the world economy. The privatisation of most major economies has led to economic globalisation.

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This chance in economy is so immense that it affects culture and society. It is a culture which in most cases, is a culture counter-posed to that which is local. The potential to influence people and communicate with people, from different places and cultures, has increased exponentially.

Today, culture, has grown past being distinctive and unique and is moving towards a common globalised culture which is highly determined by currency. In India, the culture prevalent is still one that is rooted to its people, but in major cities, this is slowly changing and its effects slowly trickling down to the rest of India.

There has been a global shift from state control to privatization. This, combined with the invention of mass productions and better mean of communication and transport, has led to a fierce competition among manufacturers to sell and sell fast. The global culture has now become one based on the mass production of goods and their consumers.

(Featherstone, 2006) The perception of a human being has changed to one of a consumer and their monetary value. One’s income becomes the determining factor of their class in society. This has led to a shift in how people value themselves and others.

‘Consumerism is a social and economic order that is based on the systematic creation and fostering of a desire to purchase goods and services in ever greater amounts’ (Wikipedia, Consumerism) This new culture, which is broadly termed as consumerism, has started emerging in major Indian cities. Today’s society and culture is based on monetary standing. The socio-economic group now determines ones class. The products one buys, the concept of brands, etc. are the factors that govern how one judges another. One bases their value 10 | P a g e

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in society on their buying index and the products they have. Society is now divided on their economic standing and from this stems the underlying exclusivity that is present today in cities like Delhi. ‘ While state socialist ideologies tended to depict workers or rural villages as the archetypical citizens and objects of development in the early decades in post-colonial India, mainstream national political discourses increasingly depict the middle classes as the representative citizens of liberalising India’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 110) India and especially Delhi, is trying to portray itself as world class city. The modern Indian is represented by the booming and ever increasing middle class, always aspiring to reach the higher classes. They have the maximum probability to fall prey to the consumerist ideology. This can be seen as India developing and catching up to the rest of the world but also as society in which the rift between the poor and the rich rapidly increases. This is because, even though, the environment that is getting created is global and inclusive, due to the fact that it is so dependent on currency, it ends up creating a bigger divide between the have and the have not’s of the city. A society where everything has a monetary value leads to an uncoerced segregation and exclusivity.

This shift in culture can be seen in the way land and spaces are perceived and designed.

Impact of today’s culture on contemporary Spaces ‘.. Nationwide phenomenon where spaces is increasingly treated only as a financial commodity, as land that can generate a profit for private developers. This tendency has accelerated since economic liberalization took hold. Space as a four dimensional unity light and air, trees and water, earth and dwellings, fellow beings - has been shrunk to the singular metric of money.’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 11)

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Today spaces have become a commodity and only its financial value is seen. They are now seen as commercial, private with only a monetary value. Due to the steady increase in population, there is now a scarcity of land, because of which land prices are high in cities. Also, due to the lack of available land, the higher classes (affluent section of society) are now buying out the land from the lower classes (poorer sections of society).

(Sklair, Iconic architecture and capitalist globalization, 2006) 窶連rchitects are also responsible for the creation of many transnational social spaces, spaces like globally branded shopping malls, theme parks, waterfront developments and transportation centres that could literally be almost anywhere in the world and thus must have consequences for the senses of space of those who use them. (Sklair, Iconic architecture and capitalist globalization, 2006, p. 22) Even in terms of architecture quality, the architecture present today is universal, as its main objective is to sell and is built by private investors for a monetary gain. The architecture is global and no more signifies cultural and locational identity. It has also affected the way one designs a space. They are designed in such a way to encourage one to spend and spaces now tend to favour only those who can produce revenue.

Consumerism has reduced every aspect of our lives to the concept of buying and selling.

On a large scale, it has changed the fabric of our city by influencing our experiences as we travel on the road or in the metro. On a smaller scale, it has changed the culture of where we live and the direction in which our neighbourhoods are developing and in terms of individual spaces, it has created a whole new culture in our public, interactive spaces.

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III. The New Transit A person commutes on an everyday basis, either by public transport, walking or private vehicle. The different modes of transport can also be seen as an interaction space where a person can be influenced. They also help understand the social behaviour of the user, as well as, what was taken under consideration while the different transport systems were being designed. Using public transport, like the bus and train, encourage interaction among people. Earlier, these transport facilities were expensive and were only used by the rich. Over time, they were made affordable and for the public. These forms of transport had lost their exclusivity and are still not used by everyone. The elite of society prefer using private transportation despite the changes that have been made.

Buses, in Delhi, today are comfortable and air-conditioned.

‘For many (others), snob value is a strong disincentive: if they were to use these seemingly comfortable air-conditioned buses, there would be no domain of exclusivity left.’

(Chaturvedi, 2010, p. xviii) There has been a shift in the vision of Delhi. Delhi earlier emphasised on the development of the public, but now seems to be concentrating on the middle class.

Roads of Delhi Delhi is a city for the car owners. The number of car owners and the variety of cars available in Delhi has increased exponential over the last 15 years. The car has gone from a vehicle for the elite to a necessity for every middle class household. The type of car one owns projects one’s status and the car is now seen as one of the symbols of one’s success. They are no more marketed as a way to commute but as a product that is 13 | P a g e

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essential for one to own. The lower classes aspire to have one while the upper classes aspire to have more. All this comes from the global level competition to become the biggest consumer. One would expect that, at this rate, the maximum number of people use motor vehicles to commute but the distribution of commuters over the different types of transportation facilities says otherwise.

A typical road in Delhi

Source: http://www.michaelkluckner.com

According to a study conducted by Unified Traffic & Transportation Infrastructure (PLG. & ENGG.) Centre (UTTIPEC), 14%of the total commuters in Delhi are car owners, 13% own 2 wheelers (scooters & motorcycles), and 40% use public transport and 34% are pedestrians and cyclists. Though a large percentage uses public transport, it should be understand that that percentage is also required to walk, to and fro from the point of pick up and drop off. The planning of the city does not seem to accommodate this.

‘Delhi city has invested heavily in its road infrastructure in the recent past…and was welcomed with much fanfare. However, in order to create a private vehicle oriented infrastructure, the public transportation system was neglected. Furthermore, with the city’s buoyant economy, cars have replaced buses on the road and cyclists have switched to

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two-wheelers and motorcycles. Pedestrians are therefore increasingly being treated like the most marginalised commuters on the road’ (Public Transport International, 2009)

Source: http://www.dimts.in

Typical road section

The streets are designed in a way that best accommodate the car. This compounds the idea of trying to portray New Delhi as world class city even if this image only depicts a small section of the society. The streets are centred on the road with maximum area given to it. The pedestrian area is hardly comparable while the area given to cyclist is minimal, and in most cases absent. The advertisements that one sees while travelling on the road, ranging from huge billboards to those on bus stands all give central focus to the road. Even with a minority using the vehicular roads, it is still given the utmost importance and the central view point.

Pedestrian Overflow

Source: http://www.tommyschultz.com

Source: http://www.moenymint.in

On the road, preference is given to the car over the bus. Nothing is provided for better and safer bus travel. Better buses and bus stops are the most acceptable improvements as they do not hamper the car owner. Any other changes that have tried to be implemented have been received with scepticism and protest. The Delhi Bus Rapid Transport System is a great example of that.

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Case Study: Delhi Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) System

Proposed lane system

Source: (Institute for Transportation & Development Policy)

The Delhi BRT was introduced to combat the rising requirement for better public transport and to decrease congestion on the roads. The BRT was designed to provide dedicated lanes for buses, cyclist and pedestrians who make up 50-60% of the total number of commuters. Comparing that to the fact that buses only make up 2-2.5% of the total number of motorised vehicles on the road, goes to show that there are large inadequacies in the infrastructure of the public transportation systems.

Section of BRT road

Source: http://www.dimts.in

A total of 26 BRT corridors were planned, covering a total length of 310 km in major parts of South Delhi. These corridors were placed in the centre of the road, along with bus stands on pedestrian islands, and were divided from the rest of the road by barriers.

The pedestrian islands were universally accessible, had well designed street furniture, and even had a demarcated auto rickshaw bay. These changes led to the reduction of motor able area left for the cars.

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‘In Delhi, however, it has meant that car owners have felt deprived of what they feel is their birth right. The BRT, therefore, is perhaps the largest symbolic manifestation of the class struggles’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 96)

Segregation of different transportations

Source: http://www.timesofindia.in

The implementation of the BRT in Delhi led to the shift in importance from the car owner to the public transit user. Though the BRT created inconveniences, it was also not given the chance to succeed. It was not the type of transportation system the consumer Indian would use and so, it received much criticism when it was introduced.

‘The success of the BRT system mainly depends on managing the behavioural changes. This requires comprehensive planning and on-going efforts at improving the system, as well as driving its acceptability in order to bring about necessary behavioural changes.’ (Public Transport International, 2009)

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Case Study: The Delhi Metro The latest mode of transport; the metro, is considered to be inclusive. It does not break all boundaries and include everyone, but it compresses the social gap in society. As of now, the widest range of people from different classes use the metro over other modes of transport.

“The metro ‘It has also made public transport a more egalitarian experience. A plumber from Jahangirpuri, in kurta-pyjama and plastic chappals, sits beside a slick-haired, shinyshoed executive armed with a laptop.’” (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 6)

Pragati Maidaan metro station

Source: http://www.blogspot.com

On the other hand, only 4-5% of the commuting population use the metro. Those that travel by cycle or walk to their destination still don’t consider this a viable option. Even compared to other modes of transport like the bus and train, it is expensive. The metro was not targeted for the public but for the ever increasing middle class and upper classes. The metro was designed to look ‘world class’ for the upcoming Common Wealth Games, 2010. The materials used and the general appearance of the metro and its stations brings to light the demographic the metro is directed towards. These features

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dissuade people from lower sections of society from using the metro, as it makes them feel uncomfortable. It is also not as easy to get into the metro as it is to get into a bus.

It is wrong to state that this outlook is unjustified as one of the objectives of the metro was to reduce traffic on the roads; which it did. This was due to the fact that it targeted those people who used private modes of transportation who were used to more affluence. This is also why it was well received On the flipside, the metro has completely ignored those that do not fit into the preferred bracket of society. The construction of the metro has left many homeless, including the workers hired to construct it. It has also led to the gentrification of the areas surrounding the metro. The Delhi metro bridge the gap between the middle class and the rich but expands that between the poor and the rest.

Rajiv Chawk metro Station Source: http://www.wordpress.com

Central Secretariat metro station Source: http://www.dimts.in

‘So it is a sleeker, more prosperous Delhi that the Metro has helped create, a city that spares no space for housing its workers even as it continues to rely on their labour to make life easier and smoother for the better-off’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 8) Owning a car is seen as the ultimate goal in society by the lower classes in terms of mode of transportation and this desire is accentuated by the commercial images one sees every day. While the number of people with financial capacity to own cars 19 | P a g e

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continuously increases, the notion that one requires a car to be social acceptable rather than to commute is also becoming true. While sitting in a bus, one sees numerous cars zip past them. The car owner always seems to have the right of way and arrogantly so.

Consumerism is also influencing us subliminally on the road, with the constant advertisements of various products.

‘We are exposed to numerous commercial messages while driving on the freeway: bill boards, radio advertisements, bumper-stickers on cars, and signs and banners placed at shopping malls that we pass. Most of this exposure is random—we don’t plan to seek it out.’ (Woodward, 2000)

If one is to compare the Delhi Metro with the Delhi BRT, both were given similar importance and propagated equally. The difference lies in the demographic it was intended for.

The image and exclusivity of a transport system has become very important. The different transport system segregates society depending on their economic status irrespective of the majority that use them.

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IV. Transforming Neighbourhoods This dissertation now looks at consumerism on a neighbourhood scale and the changes in spaces where we live. The typical neighbourhood was an amalgamation of various functions and people. It provided housing, markets and even education. The traditional Indian neighbourhood consisted of people from different socio-economic groups but were connected by culture and community. It had its own culture on a macro level. This created a mixed social structure. In many parts of Delhi, the tradition neighbourhoods have held their ground or been protected against the consumerism culture. Places like Chandni Chawk still retain their culture and is a place where people work and live.

Watercolour sketch of Chandni Chawk Source:

Meena Bazaar behind Jama Masjid

http://www.michaelkluckner.com

Source: http://ncrkhabar.com

The traditional neighbourhood or community is slowly disappearing in the major cities of India and across the world. The new culture in which the value of anything is only measured by currency has led to a change in way we live.

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Modern Housing Culture Multi-storey housing has been around since the time there was a lack of space and housing after World War II. This form of housing was then constructed as public housing but is now a form of private development. It is the most common type of housing that is being constructed today. Comparatively newer cities like Gurgaon and Noida are full of them. The industry is still booming as people continue to buy flats but it is not those who necessarily need the living quarters that are buying it.

There is a large population of Delhi that is homeless or live in unsatisfactory living conditions. The new housing societies are not being constructed for them. The housing societies are intended for the middle class and the upper class and the perception of a flat is that of a product rather than a space.

Advertisements of housing societies

Source: http://google.co.in

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The housing society tries to create a different kind of society where the people all belong to the same socio-economic group. In most cases the structure and layout inside the housing society are very different from that found outside it and tend to imitate the West. Walls are put up around it which predicates a minimal interaction with the outside and other people. There is an intended creation of exclusivity. Since they are targeted towards only the upper sections of society, one of the major aspects of their marketing strategy is exclusivity. They advertise and sell exclusivity.

In the cases where new infrastructure does not get constructed, older neighbourhoods are being developed. This happens organically due to various reasons like development of surrounding areas, introduction of a transport artery in the area and various other reasons. In certain areas, where development takes place due to outsiders buying out the land from the original habitants, it is called gentrification.

Gentrification Gentrification is the restoration of run-down urban areas by the middle class resulting in the displacement of low-income residents. (wordweb) It is the unintended eviction of the local residents to cheaper communities caused by rising rents and other conditions, making the area no longer feasible to live in.

The process of gentrification starts slow and then picks up speed. It starts with people from upper classes moving into areas belonging to people with lower income. This leads to the introduction of new businesses in the area which cater to a more affluent consumer base which further increases the appeal of the area to the elite and decreases the accessibility to the poor. (Kolko, 2009)

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Gentrification has a tendency to change the culture of the area from that of a heterogeneous neighbourhood to a chic, elitist ghetto which is more economically homogeneous. It changes the social character of the neighbourhood.

There are many causes of gentrification but the most common reason is the constantly increasing scarcity of land which leads to high land prices.

According to the Production-side theory of gentrification and rent-gap theory, what generally takes place, is that, the richer classes start renting or buying spaces in areas ‘belonging’ to the poorer sections of society, where the rent is generally cheaper. This attracts more people to move into that area and the area is now seen as commercially viable by developers and landlords. Soon the land prices increase and reach a point where the locals cannot afford to live there anymore. (Slater, 2006) Another theory called the Consumption-Side theory, states that the most important aspect of gentrification is the ‘socio-cultural characteristics and motives’ of the upper class. The culture and ethnicity of an area attracts the creative sub-class of the upper classes who move into otherwise undesirable buildings and make major improvements to it. As this trend picks up, the rent, property value and tax in the area also increases and makes it unaffordable for the local residents. (Slater, 2006) If the old neighbourhood has significant architectural qualities and has interesting pedestrian routes inside it which increase the quality of the area, the chances of it getting gentrified are more.

Transport is also a cause of gentrification. When accessibility to an area increases, the area around the station (in case of train and metro) especially, starts getting

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commercialised and land prices increase. These areas also become more viable for being developed as a residential area in the form of housing communities.

‘Wherever the Metro goes, property prices rise in its wake. Rents have risen even in working-class neighbourhoods like Jahangirpuri and Seelampur which have Metro stations, driving poorer residents to the remoter corners of the city. On the other end of the spectrum, high-rises like Tropicana luxury apartments (near Vishwa Vidyalaya Metro Station) have replaced the ramshackle basti of rickshaw-pullers, domestic workers and small vendors which was demolished to make way for the Metro.’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 8) In many cases, the land around the metro is also owned by the government. After the construction of a metro station, the remaining land is sold to the highest bidder who either builds luxury apartments or malls, which provide for only a small section of society. (Chaturvedi, 2010) Gentrification has led to the change in culture in neighbourhoods from a mixed culture to one that is exclusive to a socio-economic group. There are many such neighbourhoods in the city of Delhi; the most famous one being Hauz Khas ‘village’.

Hauz Khas Hauz Khas was originally named after a water reservoir that was built there at the end of the 13th century. In the 14th century, the area was taken over by Emperor Firoz Shah Tughlaq who repaired the tank and built a series of buildings around it which is the Hauz Khas Madarsa. This had led to the displacement of the original village people that lived in the area. Soon after the fall of the Sultanate, these village people returned and occupied the abandoned buildings, making a few ‘kaccha’ repairs to it. In 1913, the

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villagers were forced to move out of the ancient monuments and built a new village outside the gates, which is the Hauz Khas village today.

In 1980, Bina Ramani set up a fashion boutique in the village as she was enamoured by the Indian ethnic wear, and wanted to be part of that culture. The ‘ethnic revival’ movement in Hauz Khas soon became popular and the area started seeing commercial success. Land prices quickly escalated and the original shops like tea stalls, grocery shops and flour mills which used to supply commodities to the locals were soon replaced by pubs, bakeries, galleries and other shops which catered to a completely different demographic. It had become an abode for the chic and had an exclusive image attached to it. In 1989, a fashion show was held at the inaugural opening of the shop Ogaan ‘The crowd around the stage composed of film-stars, fashion designers, boutique-owners and industrialists… Most women in the crowd were wearing so-called ‘ethnic’ clothes and jewellery…And as for the other crowd held back by the security guard, they were the people who actually lived in Hauz Khas village…’ (Tarlo, 1996)

Pictures of the streets of Hauz Khas with visible influences from external elements Sources: Left: http://www.sarinights.com Right: http://www.ccngo.com

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The original inhabitants no longer live there and the village culture has changed from that of a village to a commercial hub. Hauz Khas has now been taken over by the ‘culturally elite’ and has turned the village into a quaint backdrop for commerce.

Neighbourhood and other residential areas today have become highly homogenous to a particular socio-economic group. At the city level, this phenomenon has divided society spatial on the basis of currency and led to economically exclusive areas.

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V. Commercial Hubs: Today’s Public Spaces Public spaces are places of social interaction and are meant to be inclusive and legally, every person has a right to using it. A public space does not condition it’s entry on the basis of the economic or social background of a person. They are spaces of interpersonal interaction and are used for recreational purposes. They do not have a commercial value and do not produce a profit. Any space that requires you to buy a ticket or pay an entry fee is not public.

On the smallest scale of a single space, the contemporary public space has seen the most change. Today, there has been a shift from government owned public spaces to private owned public spaces. These spaces do not outwardly restrict anyone, but, at the same time, are also not welcoming to all sections of society. Since these spaces are developed by private contributors looking for a profit, most of the public spaces today are commercial, closed (commonly),’secure’ spaces.

‘The hard truth is that most of our public spaces are not in fact public at all.

Commercialization has raised invisible gates around them, sealing them off to all except the moneyed.’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 13) Nowadays, all spaces require you to be ‘checked’ by someone which validates your presence in that space. These spaces aren’t welcoming to everyone and in many cases can be considered daunting. Also, since these are privately owned, the incentive for the developer to create such a space would be a financial one.

‘Unlike Connaught Place or India Gate, however, with their entirely open access, the new, emerging public spaces are privately owned. There is little chance of a starving smack addict or a homeless person asserting their right the way the way they do in Connaught 28 | P a g e

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Place, by simply spending the night curled up in a dark corner. Delhi’s new public spaces are secure, and selectively inclusive.’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. xxiii) Malls are the example of a contemporary public commercial space. They do not enforce any exclusivity but are built for to generate a revenue which itself creates an underlying exclusivity favouring the moneyed. Their main function is to produce maximum profit for the owner by encouraging the user to spend money and buy products. Malls are the highest indulgence of the consumerism culture.

Malls The modern mall is a building or collection of buildings that contain retail shops along with other recreational activities.

Southdale Mall, Minnesota (1964)

Source: http://www.metamute.org

The first modern mall was the Southdale Mall in Minnesota, U.S.A. It was developed by architect Victor Gruen in 1953. It was the first fully enclosed shopping mall which had 29 | P a g e

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more than one department store. This design of the mall succeeded because, unlike previous market places, the people could shop and interact without the interference of vehicles. Since the pedestrian spaces were internalised, the exteriors were given less importance, and so the transition from outside to inside became more dramatic and appealing. The outside was uncomfortable and unpredictable while the interiors were relatively comfortable. (Krupa, 1993) ‘While markets have always been places of social interactions, they have never been the only such places’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 13) Malls are the new public spaces of social interaction and provide recreational activities as well. They have replaced the town centres, but do not compensate for the civic activities that take place in town centres. This is due to the fact that right like freedom of speech and right to protest of the people in a mall are subject to the whim of the manager or owner of the mall. (Gunderson, 2005) ‘..A developer's domain is private and (that) anything hindering the mall's livelihood can be expelled from the developer's property.’ (Krupa, 1993) The previous statement brings to light that malls are actually far from being public and are inclusive only to a certain extent. They are exclusive to the section of society that can be deemed a consumer. Despite the general notion that one isn’t required to buy anything while visiting the mall, they are designed to encourage people to spend and fires up a person’s aspirations for having better things and a way of improving their status in society. Even if one doesn’t go there to shop, there are various other things that one can spend on and in most cases people go back home with lighter pockets.

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‘Now that malls were the new Main Street, developers were quick to point out that they were supported solely by consumerism, not by public funds and taxes.’ (Krupa, 1993)

Front façade of The Great India Place mall, Noida

Source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/

Studies are conducted to understand consumer behaviour and psychology which are used to market and sell products. There following aspects are considered while designing malls which encourage a person to spend time, energy and most importantly money in the mall. They concentrate on the ‘construction of desire’.

1. Malls are designed as enclosed spaces in which the internal environment and climate could be moderated and optimized for maximum comfort.

‘The cocoon-like structure helps suspend notions of time, to be better enveloped in "The Retail Drama. Suspension of reality is similar to the goal of a Las Vegas casino. Their goal is to push consumption.’ (Krupa, 1993) 2. The mall provides a safer environment as compared to public shopping streets. It is the preferred destination of leisure and shopping, especially for the teenagers, senior citizens and family members.

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‘Reinforced by the mall's unarmed private security force dressed to resemble real police officers, this perception of security.’ (Krupa, 1993) 3. The floor layout along with circulation are so designed to maximize the distance a

person walks, to ensure that they pass as many shops are possible, to entice them and encourage them to buy a product. The circulation is looped and escalators and staircases are placed far apart. The mall’s entrances from the parking area lead directly into a node or centre of the corridors. (Krupa, 1993)

Plan of Babilonas Mall, Lithuania

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/

4. Furniture like benches, trash cans etc. and greenery are placed strategically to insure that one does not cut across a corridor but circumambulates it, and so inadvertently, passes more number of shops. (Krupa, 1993)

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5. Recreational activities are present in malls which attract people to come to the mall.

Movie theatres, gaming complexes, food courts and other activities are always placed on higher floors.

6. The arrangement of shops is also planned to optimized circulation and increase footfall in the mall. ATM machines, restaurants and other miscellaneous shops are interspersed with shops selling merchandise

Christmas time in MGM Mall, Pune

Source: http://dilipnaidu.files.wordpress.com

7. Events like art installations, photo exhibitions, festival celebrations, cultural performances etc. are held in the mall which promotes people to come to the mall.

(Budiyanto, 2008) ‘Every aspect of the mall encourages consumerism; the amenities exist to draw people to the mall, to get them to spend more money and to keep them shopping longer’ (Krupa, 1993)

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Case Study: Mall of America This case study is a secondary study and was acquired by the author. It is originally a chapter from a MA Thesis named ‘The Privatization of Public Space’ written by Frederique Krupa in 1993. The source of all the information collected for this case study is from the above mentioned Thesis, unless mentioned otherwise. The United States of America is the birthplace of the modern mall and the consumerism culture. The Mall of American is one of the most prominent malls and illustrates the aspects of a mall, the contemporary market place, which the author talks about in this dissertation.

Ariel view of Mall of America

Source: http://www.newspaper.li/

The Mall of America is the second largest mall in the United States of America. It is situated in a suburban community outside of Minneapolis, Minnesota, and covers a total area of 4.2 million square feet. Its developers estimated that the mall will see 40 million visitors annually. The construction of the mall was completed in two phases.

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An event taking place in one of the atriums

Source: http://lh3.ggpht.com/

Phase 1 consists of four anchor stores, 350 boutiques and a seven-acre enclosed amusement park named Knott's Camp Snoopy. It also has two well-lit, seven-story parking garages and four surface parking lots. A total of 12,500 cars can be accommodated where each space is no more than 300 feet from the nearest to the mall.

The mall’s sublevels comprise of the service routes, loading docks, offices and an on-site police facility. The maintenance of the mall is so well organized that one does not notice the maintenance staff and it gives the impression of a ‘fantasy town’.

Phase 2 of the construction saw the addition of hotels and residential towers. The increases in density in the area saw the growth of commercial activities around the mall.

‘By creating the ultimate consumer paradise, they have made a private city whose ideal citizen's sole purpose is to shop. The rest of society, which can legally be barred from the mall, is invisible.’

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To attract the right department stores, which would contribute to the success of the mall, the developers offered extremely favourable leases to the major tenants. The retail shops that were chosen covered a large range of middle-class priced stores.

Surprisingly, the smaller specialty stores that line the corridors between the major department stores pay a higher rent due to the fact that these stores are considered higher risk. ‘The highly controlled mix of stores limits competition between tenants and maintains an illusion of variety and uniqueness.’ The Mall of America is a typical mall, only bigger. It follows the basic rules of circulation, placement of shops and activities etc.

Ground Floor Plan

Second Floor Plan

First Floor Plan

Third Floor Plan Source: http://www.da-man.com/blog/

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The mall had 4 levels. Level One contained the retail shops, the Theme Park Food Court, and recreational activities for children. Level Two consisted of retail and all the restaurants. Level three consisted of retail, two food courts and a golf course. Level four was the entertainment level with a few restaurants. The shops are placed strategically on different floors so that one has to go past the retail shops even if one is not there to shop.

Knott's Camp Snoopy Theme Park

Source: http://www.flickr.com/

At the centre of mall is the. It is a theme park comprising of four theatres, nine food courts, seven shops and twenty-one rides and attractions on seven acres. Food courts and shops surround all the park's exits, and there are eight A.T.M’s and six ticket vending booths evenly spread out throughout the park.

‘It provides a place to keep children entertained while parents continue to spend more money, the primary purpose of a theme park -- like the mall -- is to increase consumption by creating an illusion of entertainment.’

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View of corridor leading from the atrium

Source: http://healthfreedoms.org/

The mall has four main shopping corridors encircled around the Knott's Camp Snoopy, the seven-acre, four-story sky lit, central atrium. Each corridor has a different theme and mixture of stores and amenities that cater to the type of clientele that belong to a certain socio-economic group of society. There is one area which attempts to emulate the ambience of Times Square in New York by mixing people from different strata’s of the middle class together.

‘The mall's success depends precisely on filtering out those colourful lowlifes and undesirables that are a major part of Times Square.’

There was an informal study conducted by the mall’s public relations department which showed that their various strategies were working. The study indicated that in the United States, where the national average amount a person spends in a one hour shopping visit is approximately $32, the average a person spent on a visit to the Mall of America was $87. This is all that is required to judge the success or failure of a mall.

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Case Study: Select Citywalk Select Citywalk is a major shopping mall located in the Saket District Centre, in Saket, New Delhi. It is the first of four major malls in this area. The other malls, adjoining it, include the MGF Metropolitan Mall and the DLF Courtyard. The mall was developed by the Select Infrastructure Group and is a joint venture between the Select group and the Aarone group and was inaugurated in October, 2007. It is currently one of the most expensive malls in Delhi, with rental rates between Rs. 650-750 per sq. ft. per month.

(Wikipedia, Select Citywalk)

Central Plaza in front of the malls

Source: http://blog.knowledge-must.com/

The mall covers a total area of 6 acres with retail development covering 13,00,000 ft2.

The mall consists of retail area, including shops, food courts and recreational areas, sixscreen multiplex, service apartments and offices. The mall has 125 stores representing over 500 major brands and eight anchor stores. The service apartments provide 115 bed suites which are located in the annexe. There is also a 100,000 ft2 outdoor open

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plaza, Sanskriti, for fairs, exhibitions, performances etc. The plaza is landscaped lavishly and has an open amphitheatre. (Wikipedia, Select Citywalk) The mall is broadly divided into three broad zones: Staple Traditional (family), Celebration (centre-stage) and High Voltage (youth). A unique feature of this mall is that all the high price shops are placed on the ground floor. This reduces the crowd on the ground floor, unlike most other malls, in which the ground floor is always full of people.

The first floor consists of all the most popular brands. The second floor contains all the shops which fall into the category of children brands and also contains a 10,000 ft2 multi-cuisine food court, called Food Talk. There are 3 basements levels. The first basement level contains parking and provides 8,000 ft2 of children’s area with toddler rooms, and day care centres for the shoppers and the employees. The basements provide parking for a total of 2,000 cars. (Dhall, 2007)

Left: Ground Floor Plan Right Source: http://www.coroflot.com/

Right Top: First Floor Plan Right Bottom: Second Floor Plan

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The golden rules of designing a successful mall are definitely visible in Select Citywalk.

The mall has an L-shaped plan with looped circulation broken by open spaces created by the atriums. There is one main atrium which connects the two arms of the mall and opens out to the outdoor plaza. From the atrium, the shopper has visual access to all the brands, as the atrium opens out towards the top. ‘Funnelling up (of the) atrium to enable better sightlines and visibility of the shops at upper floors.’ (Select Infrastructure, 2005)

The central atrium illustrating the funnelling of the open space

This is the main entrance to the mall, outside which, stands a large gateway. There are 10 other entry points, 3 more through the main plaza, one through the multiplex, and six through the basement car park.

There are over 40 escalators & elevators. The escalators going all the way from the ground floor to the second floor are placed at the two ends of the arms of the mall, one of which ends directly into the food court. There are 2 intermediate escalators, one in each wing, which only connect the ground floor and the first floor, ensuring that one still has to wander through, irrespective of whether one has a specific destination or not.

The elevators are place more frequently in large niches along the corridor which sometimes also include the restrooms.

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‘Strategically placed escalators for higher and more expeditious inter-floor connectivity.’

(Select Infrastructure, 2005)

Escalator leading to the first floor

Stalls placed in the middle of the corridor

Furniture like benches and seating, along will small stalls selling confectionaries and promoting different products, are placed in the centre of corridor dividing the space into 2 corridors. Large Signs advertising various shops are place along the outsides of the corridor on the first and Second floor.

The retail shops are interspersed with restaurants and cafés. A unique strategy employed in Select Citywalk is the segmentation of the mall is based on vertical proximity; with shops of a similar customer base (based on socio-economic grouping) placed next to each other, vertically and horizontally. (Dhall, 2007) An interesting feature in this mall is the attempt to bring the Delhi culture into the mall by mixing foreign brands with ethnic Indian brands. These appeal to the cultural elite of society. There is even a ‘flea market’, held once a week on the first floor along the balcony, consisting of temporary stall selling merchandise, most of which accept credit card. There also have special ethnic outdoor zones which are named after famous

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monuments such as the Red Fort and Quatab Minar. There is even a replica of one of the structures from Jantar Mantar, New Delhi in the plaza According to a preliminary design report submitted to the Delhi government by the developers and the architects of the Select Citywalk, a lot of consideration has been given in the design process to attract people and to encourage them to expend money.

Attention has been given even to the exterior and the materials used on the facades of the building. The developers and architects have tried to ‘cater to the aesthetics of the mall and yet boast of a more corporate/modern look.’ The shops are given maximum frontage and been made more visible for maximum exposure. Even the colours used in the Movie theatre are so chosen to make it more ‘attractive and commercially viable’.

Along the front façade on the upper floors, space has been provided for large advertisement posters, which ideally can be visible from a distance. (Select Infrastructure, 2005)

Advertisement boards on the higher level

Shops advertising a sale

The mall has been specially designed to ensure that it attracts customers and that once a person is inside, encourages them to meander about the mall and spend money frivolously. It is designed to emulate the western culture of consumerism and through its designs influences the behaviour of its users. None of these issues can be seen as an immoral or unjust, as one still, at least in Delhi, has the option to shop in tradition 43 | P a g e

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market styled commercial areas. The problem that arises is that these spaces have now become the most popular social interaction space, when they aren’t even completely inclusive. They exclude a large section of society from entering the mall, and even those that enter, are subject to the rules enforced by the owners of the mall. The brands and shops are chosen and arranged according to the socio-economic group that they cater to. The mall makes the user aspire for more and its sole purpose is profit. The mall is not a public space.

As quoted by Frederique Krupa in his thesis, from the book Fortress L.A Mike Davis wrote: ‘Ultimately, the aims of contemporary architecture and the police converge most strikingly around the problem of crowd control. [Designers of malls] enclose the mass that remains, directing its circulation with behaviourist ferocity. It is lured by visual stimuli of all kinds, dulled by musak, sometimes even scented by invisible aromatizes. This orchestration, if well conducted, produces a veritable commercial symphony of swarming, consuming monads moving from one cash point to another.’

All observations, information and pictures in the case study: Select Citywalk are the original work of the author unless otherwise specified 44 | P a g e

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Conclusion ‘Modern consumerism is more concerned with the feeling of desire rather than the established needs.’ (architecture-consumerism, 2010) The global culture today is consumerism. It has the changed the way we perceive the world into numbers and monetary value. It has influenced our behaviour, our needs and our wants. It has made our goal in life to be able to buy anything one would want. It makes up believe that we are inadequate if we do not contribute and be a consumer. It has made our need to shop and our desire to have everything.

‘The commercialism of democracy based on wealth and power instead of culture, position and education.’ (architecture-consumerism, 2010) The segregation in society is one based on how much one can buy and consume. One’s status and place in society is determined by what they own. This has led to a segregation of our city in a similar fashion. The city was earlier segregated on the basis of cultural background like ethnicity and religion but now consists of small pockets of economically exclusive areas. The areas with the poorer or the lower section of society continue to get dense and populated as the richer, influential section buy more land which lead to gentrification causing a change in the culture of the neighbourhood.

Gentrification is not a planned change but a chain of events that occur, starting small and picking up pace, and has the capacity to change the city to a metropolis with stark physical divisions depending on their socio-economic group. This has led to greater divide between the rich and the poor. This sectionalisation can be easily seen in the type of housing that is popular today. The multi-storey apartments put up walls around them and separate themselves from the rest of the city and have a concentration of people 45 | P a g e

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from the same economic group. These housing societies are encouraged as they contribute to the image of Delhi The image of Delhi is one of a progressing, global city. A city, that is for the consumer.

The city portrays itself as a city of the middle and upper class and creates an aspiration in every citizen to want more. This is achieved in the constant flow of commercial images and propaganda in our spaces.

As one travels on the road, one is continuously bombarded with advertisements, in the form of billboards, bus stop advertisement and even other people, all aimed at the middle class, car owner. The infrastructure is designed in such a way that segregates society due to the importance that was given to the car while planning the city. It has given maximum significance to the car as the ones that own the car are the consumer.

They have the maximum capacity to contribute to the economy and thereby have a worth according to the current system of society. Those that can’t contribute to the system economically are neglected. This type of economic targeting is best observed in a shopping mall.

‘Its fundamental characteristic is the use of advertising and product design to stimulate the public’s demand for goods and services.’ (Chase, 1984) A shopping mall is the modern market place and is also the modern public space. It is not simply a place of buying and selling of goods but is also a manifestation of consumerism. It attracts people by emulating the functions of a public space. The unnerving issue at hand is that, the spaces aren’t actually public and are exclusive to only those that have the capacity to buy something. The design of the mall discourages those of the lower classes from entering the mall premises. Even if one does not go with

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the intention of buying something, in most cases, a person still spends some amount of money in the mall in every visit. Malls are specifically designed to encourage consumerist behaviour. All the ‘golden rules’ of designing malls are aimed at prolonging the stay of the consumer, exposing him to the maximum number of products and brands and concocting the illusion of a desire to shop and buy.

‘In the global era, I argue, iconic architecture strives to turn more or less all public space into consumerist space, not only in the obvious case of shopping malls but more generally in all cultural spaces, notably museums and sports complexes.’ (Sklair, Iconic Architecture and the Culture-Ideology of Consumerism, 2005) The culture present today is consumerist architecture and is not limited to the design of malls. The mall is the birthplace of this culture because its main function is to indulge the consumer, but over time, the design of all buildings has become consumer based. All buildings are now designed to sell and give immediate satisfaction.

‘Architecture itself has become an object to be consumed and is thus also driven by consumer choice. Seductive imagery and lavish forms have raised the consumer’s expectation of what architecture should be.’ (Moore, 2007) The architect does not have complete design control. He has to design for the public or a client and is required to adhere to the image of architecture the public has. The intent of design is now to sell.

‘Consumerist architecture exhibits a love of eclecticism similar to that found in postmodernism...’ (Chase, 1984) Some believe there is a direct correlation between consumerism and post-modern architecture. Post-modern architectural spaces are organised around themes like 47 | P a g e

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‘consumption, leisure and image’. Another important aspect is that security and control over the public. ‘Surveillance, gate keeping and crowd disciplinary technologies’ are generic features of spaces today. Post-modern spaces have a tendency to disorient its users. (Woodward, 2000) ‘Disorientation leads participants vulnerable to advanced capitalism: they cannot grasp totality, and they are vulnerable to consumerism.’ (Woodward, 2000) The development of culture and architecture are simultaneous and inter-influential. The consumerist culture and architecture together mould the way we behave. The culture upholds a societal structure that is based on how much one spends and their socioeconomic standing which is taught to us and compounded by the architecture around us. Spaces today are designed and perceived from a commercial point of view. They are designed as a platform to gain profit by influencing the user to want, need, desire and buy.

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Briney, A. (n.d.). Gentrification. Retrieved from About.com: http://geography.about.com/od/urbaneconomicgeography/a/gentrification.ht Budiyanto, Y. (2008). Architecture + Consumerism.

Bus Rapid Transport System. (n.d.). Retrieved from Delhi Integrated Multi-Modal Transit System: http://www.dimts.in/Bus_Rapid_Transit_System.html Canizaro, V. B. (2007). Architectural regionalism: collected writings on place, identity, modernity, and tradition. Princeton Architectural Press.

Chase, J. (1984). The role of Consumerism in American Architecture. Journal of Architectural Education.

Chaturvedi, B. (2010). Finding Delhi: Loss and Renewal in the Megacity. New Delhi: Penguin/Viking Books.

Dhall, A. (2007, October 21). Moving to a Higher Level. The Economic Times.

Featherstone, M. (2006). Genealogies of the Global. Theory, Culture & Society, 387-392.

Gunderson. (2005). ArchNet. Retrieved from Thesis: Shopping Mall Design: http://archnet.org/forum/view.jsp?message_id=33515 Institute for Transportation & Development Policy. (n.d.). Bus Rapid Transit: How Delhi Compares.

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Maaranen, R. A. (2008). Neighbourhood Gentrification. Toronto: Center for Urban and Community Studies.

Moore(Editor), K. D. (2000). Culture-Meaning-Architecture. Ashgate Publishing Limited.

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Moore, N. (2007). Consumerism Vs. Architecture. University of Pretoria.

Price, T. O. (2008). The Cultural Geography Reader. Routledge.

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International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 737-757.

Srinivasan, R. (2005, June). India's Quiet Revolution. Retrieved from rediff news: http://www.rediff.com/news/2005/jun/13rajeev.htm Swamy, P. H. (2008). Impact of Delhi Metro on Real Estate. Ahmedabad: CEPT University.

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Wacquant, L. (2008). Relocating Gentrification: The Working Class, Science and the State in Recent Urban Research. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 198-205.

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Wikipedia. (n.d.). Consumerism. Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerism Wikipedia. (n.d.). Gentrification. Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentrification Wikipedia. (n.d.). Select Citywalk. Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Select_Citywalk Woodward, I. E. (2000). Consumerism, disorientation and postmodern space: a modest test of an immodest theory. British Journal of Sociology, 339-54. wordweb. (n.d.).

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Bibliography Shopping Mall. (2008). Retrieved from New World Encyclopedia: http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Shopping_mall architecture-consumerism. (2010). architecture-consumerism. Retrieved from Blogspot.

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Briney, A. (n.d.). Gentrification. Retrieved from About.com: http://geography.about.com/od/urbaneconomicgeography/a/gentrification.ht Budiyanto, Y. (2008). Architecture + Consumerism.

Bus Rapid Transport System. (n.d.). Retrieved from Delhi Integrated Multi-Modal Transit System: http://www.dimts.in/Bus_Rapid_Transit_System.html Canizaro, V. B. (2007). Architectural regionalism: collected writings on place, identity, modernity, and tradition. Princeton Architectural Press.

Chase, J. (1984). The role of Consumerism in American Architecture. Journal of Architectural Education.

Chaturvedi, B. (2010). Finding Delhi: Loss and Renewal in the Megacity. New Delhi: Penguin/Viking Books.

Dhall, A. (2007, October 21). Moving to a Higher Level. The Economic Times.

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Featherstone, M. (2006). Genealogies of the Global. Theory, Culture & Society, 387-392.

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Institute for Transportation & Development Policy. (n.d.). Bus Rapid Transit: How Delhi Compares.

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Retrieved from Trinity University: http://www.trinity.edu/mkearl/temples.html Kolko, J. (2009). Job Location, Neighborhood Change, and Gentrification.

Krupa, F. (1993). Privatization of Public Spaces.

Lars Perner, P. (n.d.). Consumer Behavior. Retrieved from Consumer Psychologist: http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/ Lees, L. (1994). Rethinking gentrification: beyond the position of econmics or culture.

Maaranen, R. A. (2008). Neighbourhood Gentrification. Toronto: Center for Urban and Community Studies.

Moore(Editor), K. D. (2000). Culture-Meaning-Architecture. Ashgate Publishing Limited.

Moore, N. (2007). Consumerism Vs. Architecture. University of Pretoria.

Pallasmaa, J. (2005). The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Wiley Academy.

Price, T. O. (2008). The Cultural Geography Reader. Routledge.

Public Transport International. (2009). Big Changes for the Bus. Ross, E. A. (1920). Principles of Sociology. The Century co.

Sanjeev Sanyal, S. N. (n.d.). The Alternate Urban Futures. WWF. Select Infrastructure. (2005). Report for Shopping Mall Cum Multiplex. New Delhi.

Sklair, L. (2005). Iconic Architecture and the Culture-Ideology of Consumerism. London School of Economics and Political Science.

Sklair, L. (2006). Iconic architecture and capitalist globalization. City analysis of urban trends, culture, theory, policy, action, Vol 15, 21-47.

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