MATERIALS, BUILDERS OF HISTORY Karla Cantú González Daniela Ruíz Carreón Anaís Domínguez Espósito
INDEX
-PROLOGUE
-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
Page 1
Page 2 -CONTEXT Page 3 -MOST USED MATERIALS Pages 5, 7-8
-PRE-ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE Page 10 -CONTEXT Pages 11-12 -GENERALITIES Page 13 -MOST USED MATERIALS Page 14 -PLAN RECOGNITION Page 15
-ROMANESQUE Page 16 -CONTEXT Page 17 -GENERALITIES Page 19 -MOST USED MATERIALS Pages 21, 23 -PLAN RECOGNITION Pages 24-25 -GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE Page 26 -CONTEXT Page 27 -MOST USED MATERIALS Pages 28-30 -PLAN RECOGNITION Page 31 -PHYSICAL MODEL Page 32
-RENAISSANCE Page 33 -CONTEXT Pages 34-36 -MOST USED MATERIALS Page 40 -PLAN RECOGNITION Page 41
-MANNERISM Page 42 -CONTEXT Pages 43-44 -GENERALITIES Page 45 -MOST USED MATERIALS Page 46 -PLAN RECOGNITION Page 47
-XVI ARCHITECTURE Page 48 -CONTEXT Page 49 -MOST USED MATERIALS Pages 50-52 -INTERVENTION Pages 53-54
-ESSAY Page 55 -BIBLIOGRAPHY Pages 56-57
PROLOGUE Architecture has transformed through time as well as the materials used on it. Materials and the uses that different cultures have given to them are the ones that contributed to the construction history. This book is an exploration of the materials that reflected our past and it tells a history for itselft. They are part of the constructive process of many diversities styles and we will be discovering from every architectural edification the meaning of the elements used it to be constructed, it depends on what they wanted to express.
1
Islamic Architecture CONTEXT, TIMELINE AND MATERIALS
Blue Mosque, Istambul
2
CONTEXT
Islamic architecture can be defined as the set of building and construction traditions and techniques, produced by the Islamic cultures all over the world, but particularly in the Middle East and the Mediterranean regions. Islamic architecture finds its highest expression in religious buildings such as the mosque and madrasah. The decorative arts in Islam are marked by a remarkable degree of stylistic consistency which has been applied to a broad range of material. The stylistic coherence within the Islamic world and the many variations of its basic themes across time, influenced as they were by local artistic traditions, are all part of the fascination of this art. The materials used in Islamic Art varies depending on the Islamic Style where they were used, the building genre where they were applied and the location of the city were they were created. Some of the materials that are exposed here were imported from different countries but most of them were local materials.
Migration of Mahoma from La Meca to La Medina
611 Mahoma predicted the Islam
622
Death of Mahoma
632
Omeya Dinasty
633 622 Expansion of Islam outside of Arabia
661 661
711 661 Invasion of Arabian in Iberian Peninsula
3
Daniela Ruiz C.
4
MOST USED MATERIALS
Wood
Stone
Brick
Ceramic
Muslims arrived in South of France
718 611 Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula
724 622
Stucco
Carlos Martel defeated to muslims in Poitiers
732
Abderraman I
750 Abbasid Dynasty
756
762 The Abbasidas move the Caliphate to Bagdad
45
Karla Cantu G.
6
MOST USED MATERIALSÂ
Wood: Hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the trunk or branches of a tree or shrub.
Wooden Mosque, Nishapur
Campaigns of Almazor against christians
Ceramic: Material made of clay and permanently hardened by heat.
MalĂŠ Friday Mosque, Maldives
End of the Caliphate in Cordoba
979
Stucco: Fine plaster used for coating wall surfaces or molding into architectural decorations.
1031
The Cid Campeador took over Valence
1094
Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem
Translation from Koran to Latin
1095 The first Crusade against Muslims
1143
1258 End of the Abbasid Dynasty
7
MOST USED MATERIALS
Stone The most used stones in Islamic Architecture were granites, sandstones, limestones, and marbles.
Brick Small rectangular block typically made of fired or sun-dried clay.
Red Mosque, Pakistán
Black Death in Europe
1295 Mongolians turned to Islam
1031
Taj Mahal, India
Taking of Constatinopla by Turks
1453
1492 Muslims were expelled of Spain
8
Anais Dominguez E.
8
Pre - Romanesque CONTEXT, TIMELINE, GENERALITIES & MATERIALS
The Church Of San Juan Apóstol y Evangelista
10
St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim
CONTEXT
Pre-Romanesque style belongs to the period of the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. Carolingian architecture is the style of north European Pre-Romanesque architecture. Just like the Early Christian churches of Rome, Carolingian churches generally are basilican, which commonly incorporated westworks and are arguably the precedent for the western facades of later medieval cathedrals. These Roman basilicas, later became churches, and it’s said that Roman architecture was reinvented but retained old patterns
Death of the last Emperor of Occident Roman Empire
476 The fall of the Roman Empire
480
Suevo kingdom is conquered conquered by visigoths
Justino I, emperor of the Byzantine Empire
527
554 622 Byzantine empire added to the Ostrogothic Kingdom
661 585
587 661 Reccared I, first catholic visigothic king
11
CONTEXT The fall of the Roman empire mainly happened because of three things: Intern corruption Division of the territory Germanic invasion
a) Visigoths: Tribe of people from the southern part of Scandinavia
b) Ostrogoths: Group of people who settled in Eastern parts of Europe
San Pedro de la Nave
589 Catholicism as a official language to the Visigoths
Smallpox spreads from India into Europe
600
Boniface, elected papal successor on the death of Pope Sabinian
606
The Avars and the Persians fail to capture Constatinople
610 622 Heraclius changes the official language of the East Roman Empire from Latin to Greek
661 626
681 661 Bulgaria is recognized as independent country by Byzantine Empire.
12
GENERALITIES Bi-axiality Lack of correspondence between the organization Presence of hidden interior units indistinguishable from the outside German buildings from this period include Lorsch Abbey, which combines elements of the Roman triumphal arch (including arch-shaped passageways and half- columns ) with the vernacular Teutonic heritage (including baseless triangles of the blind arcade and polychromatic masonry)
Saint Hripsime Church, Vagharshapat
Battle of tours
726 Byzantine Iconoclasm
732
Charlesmagne invades what is now northwestern in Germany
772
Charlesmagne is crowned the fist Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III
792 622 Battle of Marcelae
661 800
809 661 War between the Byzantine empire and Bulgaria
13
MOST USED MATERIALS
Brick
Limestone
Granite
Flint
Byzantines are defeated by the Bulgars at Versinikia
811 Battle of Pliska
813
Stone
The Carolingian Empire is at its height in territory and area
Charlesmagne dies in the city of Aachen
814
815 622 The 30-year peace agreement is signed between Bulgaria and Byzantine Empire
661 843
888 661 Carolingian Empire declines and falls after the death of Charles III
14
PLAN RECOGNITION San Pedro de la Nave Church, Zamora
15
Romanesque CONTEXT, TIMELINE, GENERALITIES & MATERIALS
16
CONTEXT
The Romanesque is a term which came from the italian that means “like italians”. It also represents the architecture in the period of 11th and 12th centuries in the medieval Europe to Roma. The Romanesque style was the first one in spreading from almost the whole Catholic Europe Type of buildings: Religious Architecture : Cathedrals, churches, monasteries. Civil Architecture : Palaces Military architecture: Castles, walls. Dark spaces Mainly, all the churches, basilicas, castles or temples were very obscure from the inside due to the few enters. The main reasons to have less openings as doors or windows were for being protected from the wars and invasions. Besides from being constructed with stone, the masonry had an special influence too as we referred before about fires, just that the buildings needed to have long supports to support the long walls and the vault
Basilica of Our Lady in Maastricht, The Netherlands Kingdom of England becomes a unified state
917 The Bulgarians destroyed the Byzantine army in the Battle of Anchialus
927
Battle of Lachfeld
955
Battle of Kleidon
1014
The fist Bulgarian Empire
1018
1043 The Byzantine Empire and Kievan Rus engage in a naval confrontation
17
Bóveda de cañón del monasterio de San Pedro de Roda (Cataluña, España).
18
Church of San Martin de Tours, Salamanca
GENERALITIES Simple and severe facades.
Horizontal lines This is very characteristic about this style, the
In the facades, it is also used a combination of
Romanesques took the idea from Romans and Greeks
masonry. It is a very simple simple rough wall
buildings.
construction with all kind of stones.They were
Plans
collocated in a horizontal way and the mansory was
Normally, the architects used two kind of plans:
utilized as an ornamentation and in the arches.
Basilical and Latin Cross.
The Great Schism
1044 Henry III of the Holy Roman Empire defeats the Kingdom of Hungry in the Battle of Menso.
1054
Defeat of the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikbert
1071
The Seljuk Turks capture Jerusalem from the Byzantines.
1074
The Siege of Nicaea during the First Crusade
1097
1099 The Siege of Jerusalem by European Crusaders
19 16
Semur-en-Brionnais (F) church from E. France
20
MOST USED MATERIALS
34.5% Ashlar Stone
Henry I is crowned King of England
45% Stone rough
Small ashlar stone
The Battle of Tinchebray
1100
46%
1106
The Byzantine army defeats the Turks at Philomelion
1116
The Anarchy is a period of civil war in England. 1135
1154 Henry II is crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey.
1169 The Norman invasion of Ireland begins
21
Colegiata de Santa Cruz en Castaùeda, in Cantabria.
22
MOST USED MATERIALS
Ashlar stone
Rough stone
Block of stone that were usually marked for later collection. The walls elaborated with this material had 2 thin layers and in the middle a mass of gravel (little stones which normally come from the carving of the ashlars ). The collocation or placement of the ashlar masonry could be  to rope and blight (alternating the position in parallel or perpendicular depending on the direction).
Stone that is not carved or roughly worked. It was frequently used on the basis mansory agglutinated with mortar (sand, water and mortar lime). After that its was smoothed to give a soft appearance to the previously irregular surface.
Small ashlar stone Stonework or small ashlar stone: It is a smaller stone, worse at carving and adjusting. It is made it using a hammer devastating the raw stone without polishing the faces.
The Battle of Tinchebray
1100 Henry I is crowned King of England
1106
The Byzantine army defeats the Turks at Philomelion
1116
The Anarchy is a period of civil war in England. 1135
1154 Henry II is crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey.
1169 The Norman invasion of Ireland begins
23 20
PLAN RECOGNITION The plan of the Abbey of St Gall, Switzerland
24
PLAN RECOGNITON France, Angoulême Cathedral
25
Gothic Architecture CONTEXT, TIMELINE AND MATERIALS
Chathedral of Exeter, London 26
CONTEXT The Gothic architecture grew out of the Romanesque architectural style, when both prosperity and relative peace allowed for several centuries of cultural development and great building schemes.
From roughly 1000 to 1400, several significant cathedrals and churches were built, particularly in Britain and France, offering architects and masons a chance to work out ever more complex and daring designs. The Gothic architectural style first appeared at Saint-Denis, near Paris, in 1140, and within a century had revolutionized cathedral design throughout Western Europe.
The Gothic style focused on some specifict themes, for example, Virgin Mary, the life of Christ and the Saints, portraits and secular life. The forms that are characteristics of that style are the immense churches, the increasingly optical approach to figures and space, and the lavish ornament and material. Light, ornamentation, height and vertical emphasis, were also characteristics of the Gothic Style. Â This architectural style was divided into three stages: - Early Gothic - High Gothic - Late Gothic
St. Denis Cathedral, Paris
Middle Pointed Period 1160
1275 Early Pointed Period
1275
1375
1375
1525 Florid Gothic Period
27
MOST USED MATERIALS
Stained Glass
Brick
Stone
Wood
Marble
Suger Abbot of Reconstruction on St.Dennis Notre Dame Chartres
1194 1196 Beginning Great fire of Chartes of crusades
1194 1122
Reconstruction Construction of on St. Étienne St. Denis Cathedral (narthex)
1195 1137
Reconstruction on Construction of Le St. Denis Mans Cathedral (choir)
1200 1140 Construction Reconstruction of Sens of St Cathedral Denis (nave)
1217 1140
1220 1163 Construction of Salisbury Notre Cathedral Dame
28
MOST USED MATERIALS
Glass: Glass was used on stained -glass windows. Ususally, these kind of windows represented stories of the Saints, of Christ and the Virgin Mary.
Brick: This style was common in Northern Europe. The buildings were build using bricks.
Marble: Marble were more used in Italy. The structures were created by these material
Notre Dame, Paris
St Mary's Horsham, UK
Duomo di Milano, Italy
Reconstruction Construction of on St. Notre Chapelle Dame Chartres
1220 1194 Great Construction fire of Chartes of Amiens Cathedral
1242 1194
Beginning of Hundred Years War Construction of St. (France vs Étienne Cathedral England)
1328 1195
Construction ConstructionofofLe Mans Milan Cathedral
1347 1200 Reconstruction Black Death of St Denis (nave)
1387 1217
1513 1220 Construction North Towerof Salisbury completedCathedral for Notre Dame
29
MOST USED MATERIALS
Stone: Stone was used for the structure of the buildings. This material is the most common on Gothic Architecture. The most used stone in this style was the limestone.
Wood: In this style wodd were used for the creation of the roofs.
León Cathedral, Spain
Bourges Cathedral, France
Construction of St. Chapelle
1220 Construction of Amiens Cathedral
1242
Beginning of Hundred Years War (France vs England)
1328
Construction of Milan Cathedral
1347 Black Death
1387
1513 North Tower completed for Notre Dame
30
PLAN RECOGNITIONÂ
Amiens Cathedral, France
Chartres Cathedral, France 31
PHYSICAL MODEL
Cathedral of Cologne, Germany
32
Maria del Fiore, Italia
Renaissance Architecture
CONTEXT, TIMELINE AND MATERIALS
33
CONTEXT
Renaissance (French for "rebirth") describes perfectly  the intellectual and economic changes that occurred in Europe from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries, which started its grow from Florence. The Renaissance began in Italy around 1300. Later, its new styles of art, writing, and thought spread northward to the Netherlands, France, Germany, and England. During the era, Europe emerged from the economic and experienced a time of financial growth. Also, and perhaps most importantly, the Renaissance was an age in which artistic, social, scientific, and political thought turned in new directions. It is important to remember that early writers and artists of the Renaissance were creating their masterpieces in Italy while France and England were still locked in the Hundred Years War.
Cappella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua Great schism
1337 Hundred Years War
1378
Council of Constance
1414
Fall of Constantinople
1448 Invention of printing press
1453
1492 Colombus discovery of America
34 4 2
CONTEXT
Renaissance, also named all'antica (re-birth), began in the early 15th century in Florence, which it later spreaded over Europe.
It divided into three stages: Château De Chambord Renaissance (1400-1500) High renaissance (1500-1525) Mannerism (1520-1600)
Château De Chambord
Sistine Chapel painting
1495 Leonardo da Vinci's "Last Supper"
1508
Martin Luther King's 95 thesis
Coronation of Henry VIII of England
1509
1513 622 Michaelangelo's moses
661 1517
1519 661 Ferdinand Magellan vogage around the world
35
CONTEXT
The construction of the dome was a very significant step made in the RenaissanceÂ
Filippo Brunelleschi One of the earliest Architects of the Renaissance Used linear perspective Designed and structured the dome
San Pedro de la Nave
1524 Peasants war of Germany
Separation of the church of England from Rome
1534
Dissolution of monasteries
1536
Death of Nicolaus Copernicus
1538 622 Excommunication of Henry VIII
661 1543
1545 661 Begins council of Trent
36
MOST USED MATERIALSÂ
Stone
Marble
Stucco
Death of Ignatius Loyola
1547 Death of Henry VIII
1556
Beginning of the reign of Elizabeth I
1558
Spanish armada defended by the English
1564 Death of Michelangelo
MOST USED MATERIALS IN
1588
1600 Hamlet
38 4
MOST USED MATERIALS
Marble: Marble was used on the finishes and the structures of some buildings. It was more common in Italy.
Stucco: Stucco was used as a finish to create different patterns and forms.
Stone: Stone was used for structure. It was the most common material.
Landshut, Germany Palazzo Medici
San Pietro
Don Quijote de la Mancha
1603 Death of Elizabeth I
1605
Death of William Shakespeare
1616
Inquisition trial against Galileo
1618 Beginning of Thirty years war
1633
1650 Death of René Descartes
39 4
PLAN RECOGNITIONÂ
40
Mannerism CONTEXT, TIMELINE, GENERALITIES & MATERIALS
Basilica della Santa Casa
42
St. Michael'sThe Church, Hildesheim Campidoglio
CONTEXT
In this period, architects used to emphasize solid and spatial relationships by experimenting with architecture. Mannerism is also referred as High Renaissance, its main plan was to deriver the classical antiquity. The most representative architect is Bramante, who in fact, went from classical to contemporary.
Mona Lisa. Author: Leonardo da Vinci Location: Florence, Italy
1501 David.Author: Michelangelo Buonarroti Location: Florence, Italy
1503
Galatea.Author: Raphael Location: Rome, Italy
1513
Mannerist artists fled the city after the Sack of Rome.
1519 622 King Francis I at Fontainebleeau made Mannerism the dominant style in France.
661 1526
1527 661 Assumption of the Virgin.Author: Raphael Location: Rome, Italy
43
CONTEXT
The Palazzo Farnese, is arguably the greatest Renaissance palace. It was designed by Antonio de Sangallo, a student of Bramante.Â
Typical Renaissance palazzo layout: Three-story rectangular building with central courtyard. A spartan majesty is achieved in the height and breadth of the facade. Absence of vertical dividers. Unadorned expanse of wall above each row of windows. The sheer simplicity of the facade emphasizes variations in wall colors, window shapes, and pediment shapes.
Palazzo Farnese
Venus of Urbino.Location: Florence, Italy Author: Titian
1530 Andrea del Sarto brought florentine mannerism into Fontainebleu.
1534
Allegory of the Immaculate Conception
Madonna with the Long Neck. Uffizi, Florence)
1536
1540 622 Agnolo Bronzino had become the leading artist working in this style in Florence.
661 1540
1543 661 Golden salt-cellar, made for the King of France
44
GENERALITIES Pinnacle of classical simplicity The central plan layout was popular Presence of rotational symmetry Common shapes for central plan buildings are the circle, square, and octagon.
San Giorgio San Maggiore Giorgio Maggiore
English Mannerism: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey
1545 Benvenuto Cellini, Perseus with the head of Medusa,
1546
Bathsheba going to meet King David,Francesco Salviati
The Early Commedia dell'Arte
1550
1550 622 The earliest experimental phase of Mannerism, known for its "anti-classical" forms
661 1554
1550 661 Susana and the old ones.Martin de Vos Amberes.
45
MOST USED MATERIALS
Masonry
Timber
Stone
Porta PĂo,Miguel Angel.
1563 Portrait of a Man Francesco Salviati.
1565
Fantastic architecture with characters,e Hans Vredeman de Vries.
1568
Mannerism ended in Italy.
1570 622 La Rotonda in I quattro libri dell'architettura,Andrea Palladio.
661 1580
1580 661 New generation of artist, including Carracci brothers, Caravaggio and cigoli, revived naturalism.
46
PLAN RECOGNITION Bramante's Plan for St.Peter's
47
XVI Century Architecture CONTEXT, TIMELINE AND MATERIALS
Tecali, Puebla 1519
48
CONTEXT With the fall of Tenochtitlan in the hands of Hernán Cortés, on August 13, 1521, a new stage in architecture began, as Renaissance culture and Spanish traditions overcame pre-Hispanic art. This mixture gave rise to a new architectural expression, in which the solutions and the European ornamental themes were added to the sensitivity and the indigenous interpretation. The so-called art of the sixteenth century is developed, roughly, from the Conquest until the appearance of the Baroque style in the first third of the seventeenth century, when Mexican nationality acquired its own characteristics. This period includes the most diverse stylistic expressions, ranging from final Gothic to Renaissance and Mannerism, under the common denominator of Mudejar, all interpreted by indigenous feeling, which imposes its own expressions and technical skills to European styles.
Moctezuma II continues his military expansion through Mesoamerica
1502 Moctezuma II is named Tlatoani
1517
Hernan Cortes arrived to Tenochtitlan
1519
Cuauhtémoc is captured in Tlatelolco
1520 -Death of Moctezuma II -The Night of Sorrows
1521
1525 Death of Cuauhtémoc, last mexica Tlatoani Antonio de Mendoza, first Viceroy of New Spain
49
MOST USED MATERIALSÂ
Tiles
Plaster
Stucco
Mirrors
Foundation of Guadalajara City
1531
1539
Mural Paintings
Spiritual Conquer of Mexico
1550
New Spain became a exporter of raw materials
1575
1596
1600
Spain lost its hegemony Foundation of Puebla City
50
MOST USED MATERIALSÂ
Tiles: Tiles were used as a decorative element on architecture. Usually on the faccades and on the floors.
Templo de San Francisco Acatepec, Puebla
Stucco: Stucco was used for creating forms in the interiors of the buildings.
Tonantzintla, Puebla
Plaster: Plaster was used to cerate decorative elements and forms on the interiors and exteriors of the buildings.Â
Capilla del Rosario, Puebla
51
MOST USED MATERIALS
Mirrors: Mirrors were used as a decorative element. They are present in a lot of churches.
Templo de San Francisco Acatepec, Puebla
Mural Paintings: Mural Paintings were very important in this century because they took a lot of the prehispanic techniques in order to create them.
Templo y ex convento de San Nicolás de Tolentino, Hidalgo
52
Acatepec intervention
53
Tecali intervention
54
ESSAY
As a conclusion, we released that through time and in all centuries and different styles of architecture has a development in the use of materials. It is depending on the natural elements they could find out around and made them as a principal to built their edifications that had a especial importance in the designing of each one, inclusive a essential part for their daily day. It is very interesting how buildings were cute important in each generation, there were spaces specially made them for some activities in where they recreated or did the major importance in that decade. Architecure is very linked with us every single day, is almost impossible deny that we can ignore it, also that has a significate every element of it. It describes, a history, a life, a city, a person. We have learned a lot of magnificent architecture, due to all the investigations and conclusions that we discussed in classes. Thanks to this deep work we noticed that we can still appreciate these styles of architecture and now that we know distinguish in each one talking am discussion.
55
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Harry Love Materials and Mediums | Pattern in Islamic Art Website title: Patterninislamicart.com URL: https://patterninislamicart.com/background-notes/materials-and-medium ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE « ISLAMIC ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE (Islamic Arts and Architecture, 2018) Islamic Arts and Architecture. (2018). Islamic Architecture « Islamic Arts and Architecture. [online] Available at: http://islamic-arts.org/2012/islamic-architecture. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE (Medievalchronicles.com, 2018) Medievalchronicles.com. (2018). Romanesque Architecture. [online] Available at: http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-architecture/romanesque-architecture. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE: CHARACTERISTICS, HISTORY, BUILDINGS: (Visual-arts-cork.com, 2018) Visual-arts-cork.com. (2018). Romanesque Architecture: Characteristics, History, Buildings:. [online] Available at: http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/romanesque.htm GOTHIC CATHEDRAL AND CHURCH CONSTRUCTION | FRANCE ZONE AT ABELARD.ORG (Abelard.org, 2018) Abelard.org. (2018). gothic cathedral and church construction | France zone at abelard.org. [online] Available at: http://www.abelard.org/france/cathedral-construction.php BUILDING CONSTRUCTION - ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018) Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018). Building construction - Romanesque and Gothic. [online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/technology/building-construction/Romanesque-and-Gothic. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE: HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS, DESIGNS (Visual-arts-cork.com, 2018) Visual-arts-cork.com. (2018). Renaissance Architecture: History, Characteristics, Designs. [online] Available at: http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/renaissance.htm
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COCKRILL, M. Construction Materials Used in Italian Renaissance Homes | eHow (Cockrill, 2018) Cockrill, M. (2018). Construction Materials Used in Italian Renaissance Homes | eHow. [online] eHow. Available at: https://www.ehow.com/info_8461371_construction-used-italian-renaissance-homes.html STYLE GUIDE: MANNERISM - VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM (Vam.ac.uk, 2018) Vam.ac.uk. (2018). Style Guide: Mannerism - Victoria and Albert Museum. [online] Available at: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/s/style-guide-mannerism. ANÓNIMO (Dadun.unav.edu, 2018) Dadun.unav.edu. (2018). [online] Available at: http://dadun.unav.edu/bitstream/10171/16348/1/RE_Vol%2006_10.pdf ARQUITECTURA BARROCA DEL SIGLO XVII Y XVIII EN PUEBLA, TLAXCALA Y VERACRUZ - DANIEL IBARRA (Sites.google.com, 2018) Sites.google.com. (2018). Arquitectura barroca del siglo XVII y XVIII en Puebla, Tlaxcala y Veracruz - Daniel Ibarra. [online] https://sites.google.com/site/neriibarra71/home/arquitectura-barroca-del-siglo-xvii-y-xviii-en-puebla-tlaxcalay-veracruz
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