Qingshuihe: A regeneration approach for rapid functional transformation

Qingshuihe A REGENERATION APPROACH FOR RAPID FUNCTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

ANDREW REYNOLDS MSc Urbanism Thesis Delft University of Technology, 2013

Colophon Qingshuihe A regeneration approach for rapid functional transition MSc thesis Andrew Reynolds andrew.w.reynolds@gmail.com 4184876

Keywords Regeneration, functional transition, large urban projects, Globalization, Shenzhen

Mentor team dr. Diego SepĂşlveda - Chair of Spatial Planning and Strategy, Department of Urbanism Professor Henco Bekkering - Chair of Urban Design, Department of Urbanism dr. Yawei Chen - external committee member Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology MSc Architecture, Urbanism and Building Sciences MSc track Urbanism Complex Cities and Regions in Transformation This thesis is downloadable for free from the TU Delft library website: http://www.library.tudelft.nl/collecties/tu-delft-repository/ Delft, June 2013 Cover image by author

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Contents

Preface

4

1

Introduction

9

2

Approach

19

3

Context

27

4

Theoretical framework

33

5

Case study - Huaqiangbei

39

6

Analysis

45

7

Principles and guidelines

107

8

Local scale strategy

131

9

Evaluation

156

10

Acknowledgements

159

11

References

160

12

Appendix

163

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PREFACE The unique history of Shenzhen, one of China’s first Special Economic Zones (SEZ), which rocketed from a small fishing village into a mega city of approximately 10.5 million people (Shenzhen Information Network Center 2012) in only 30 years, and the ensuing urban development, makes it a fascinating city to study. Providing an example of a city where urban development has been subservient to the goal of economic growth, the resulting economic ‘miracle’ has made Shenzhen the envy of many other developing cities.

As a starting point, I chose to investigate the aspect of Chinese cities that I was both most familiar with and critical of, the large urban project. These projects, often designed by western architectural offices, litter design blogs across the internet. A quick internet search revealed many examples in Shenzhen, from ‘Qinghai water city’; OMA’s new Stock Exchange; to the development of multiple new Central Business Districts (CBDs). Attempting to map these projects with satellite photos and looking at the complex urban environment, it was almost impossible to comprehend how the glossy renderings from the screen could ever touch the ground. This question, of how these globally oriented projects actually fit into the city, and their local impact formed the starting point for the research project.

The studio, Complex Cities and Regions in Transformation (MSc. Urbanism, TU Delft), has been undertaken in partnership with the International New Towns Institute (INTI), connecting to their larger research framework of ‘New New Towns’. Initially, a number of sites that will undergo extensive urban change in the future were selected by the studio leaders, INTI and their partners. One such site was the SungangQingshuihe district. Located on the northern edge of the Luohu centre, it is a former logistics hub of 540 hectares which is now earmarked for redevelopment. Compared to the European context, it is amazing that this comparatively young urban area, developed only 30 years ago, is now considered functionally obsolete.

The process for the redevelopment has been through an international competition process. My interest in this site was sparked when I discovered the glossy renderings with the promotional video and slogans of ‘creative city’ and ‘international consumer centre’, and then compared this to the urban reality visible in the satellite photos.

This led to researching the drivers of the phenomenon that is ‘the large urban project’ and urban theories related to globalization, rescaling and urban fragmentation to gain a broader understanding of the current global and economic trends affecting their development of these projects. These effect of these phenomena that drive the large urban project is not new, or isolated to China, and their effects can be seen in many cities from London to Sydney. However, it is the speed and scale of development in China, and the short history of urbanisation in Shenzhen, that makes it such an especially interesting city to study.

This tension between the local and global is surfacing in many cities and is not just confined to urban development. There is a rising debate 4

1978

2000

1990 2006

Growth of the urban area of Shenzhen, 1978 - 2005 Redrawn by author from SUPB data

about the source and ownership of food, energy, transport and the media. There has also been a rise of ‘Localist’ movements, that are described

by Hess (2008, p.2), as ‘...concerned primarily with reversing the negative effects of corporate consolidation of the economy, especially the loss of economic sovereignty by place-based communities over local economies’. In the field of planning, the prominent academic John Friedmann (2005) has argued that cities need to move towards a more endogenous form of development, considering the local conditions, instead of focusing on attracting global capital.

I had the fortunate opportunity to travel beyond the satellite maps, and the global, and experience the local during a three week visit to Shenzhen in December 2012 with my studio colleagues. The visit provided an invaluable opportunity to undertake detailed research on the ground. Furthermore, with the help of students from Shenzhen University, I was able to interview locals at the site and gain insights into the use of urban space and the local culture. The collaboration with the INTI opened many doors, as we had the opportunity to attend workshops, and had presentations on the planning of the city from the Shenzhen Urban Planning Department, visited the Shenzhen Development Bureau and were able to work in the offices of the Architecture firm, Urbanus. We also met developers and local architects. This time in Shenzhen has been crucial for the research project to understanding the local context.

There were a number of difficulties in the research. The most obvious challenge is the language barrier. The other difficulty has been the lack of empirical data. In China, it became clear that it was difficult to find reliable information, or definitive answers to questions Discovering

how to engage with, and recognising uncertainty within the research and design process and then incorporating it into the proposal forms an important aspect of this project.

An awareness of possible criticisms of a lack of cultural or specific contextual understanding has meant this project has tried to develop a replicable methodology, which emphasises the local conditions in relation to a global development model.

The conflict, between the local and global scale exists to differing degrees in all cities of the world and many areas. However, while much of the discussion about globalization emphasises the importance of world cities; capital flows; new scales of influence; and the inter connectedness of business, the importance of a physical place cannot be neglected. As Saskia Sassen, who coined the term ‘Global city’, states ‘recapturing the geography of places involved in globalization allows us to recapture people, workers, communities, and more specifically, the many different work cultures, besides the corporate culture, involved in the work of globalization’ (2004, p.32). With the constant competitive pressure driven by economic goals for growth, increasing social inequity, energy use and environmental destruction, the possibility for the local scale to act as a critical space of change, and the potential for endogenous development to counter the negative effects of the global development model. This project proposes an approach to planning and redevelopment that aims to allow for a more locally based development that can address the existing problems of the current global development model.

Delft, June 2013

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Structure This thesis report is structured in nine parts;

Part 1 – Introduction The first part outlines the structure of the report and introduces the research methodology for the project. The context of Shenzhen and the problem field are explained. The research hypothesis and aim, as well as the research question and the approach taken to answer the research questions, will also be outlined.

Part 2 – Approach The project proposes a new planning approach to the redevelopment of large urban areas that can better integrate the local actor needs in the redevelopment process. In this section, the rationale for the new planning approach will be explained, and the advantages of the proposed planning method as compared to the current planning approach will be considered.

Part 3 – Context This part discusses the current context and trends in Shenzhen, the planning system and the historical development of the site.

Part 4 - Theoretical framework The theory section is divided into two parts. The first part defines the general theory that provides the basis for the theoretical approach to the project. This general theory discusses the current global trends affecting the city, and their theoretical context. The second part of the theory is related to the design and planning approach for the research project.

Part 5 – Case study Huaqiangbei (HQB) is a former industrial area located in the Futian district of Shenzhen, which has now transformed into a busy commercial district. Due to the transformation process and its urban characteristics, it forms a relevant case study for the project, and a number of lessons are learned.

Part 6 - Analysis As the proposed planning and design approach is focussed on understanding the local conditions and local actor needs, the analysis section forms a crucial element of the research project.

The first part will consist of an analysis of actors and their power in the development process. The second part comprises a detailed multi-scalar analysis of the urban conditions in relationship to the criteria of urban mobility flows and connectivity, urban form, function and public space. The analysis is used as the basis to develop the design principles, guidelines and framework plan, thereby grounding them in the local conditions.

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Part 7 – Principles, Guidelines and Framework Plan The principles and guidelines have been developed according to local actor needs at the local, urban and regional scale, which has been established in the site analysis (part 6), and according to relevant theory. The design principles are intended to deďŹ ne common objectives between the actors, to consider higher scale objectives and local actor needs, and to create a bridge between the regional economic ambitions and local scale demands. The guidelines are developed according to these principles, and can act as a tool for negotiation between actors during the development process. The framework plan incorporates the principles and guidelines, and considers the larger urban scale, particularly, the connections of the site to surrounding areas.

Part 8 - Local scale strategy The approach of using a development framework, design principles and guidelines as a tool for negotiation and development will be tested at the local scale at two contested edges of the site. How the approach can work as a platform for negotiation between actors, required planning tools, as well as implementation agreements will also be considered through a scenario based investigations.

Recommendations for changes that would be necessary to allow for a the new planning approach proposed in this thesis will be discussed.

Part 9 - Evaluation The methodology, research approach, diagnosis and strategy approach will be discussed. In addition, limitations to the research approach will be considered and recommendations for further research are made.

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Study site

The location of the site within the infrastructural networks of Shenzhen. Source: Author

0

5km

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1 INTRODUCTION The first section outlines the structure of the report and introduces the research methodology for the project. The context of Shenzhen and the problem field are explained.

The research hypothesis and aim, as well as the research question and the approach taken to answer the research questions, will also be outlined.

Shenzhen

SHENZHEN

The city of Shenzhen is located on the south east coast of mainland China, north of the border with Hong Kong (fig. 1), and is part of the urban agglomeration known as the Pearl River Delta region. The coastline of Shenzhen stretches 230km, with the Mirs bay on the western side and the Pearl River Estuary on the eastern side. Prior to 1979, Shenzhen was a small fishing village with a population of only 20,000 people (Zacharias & Y. Tang 2010). However, this all changed with the creation of the Special Economic Zone (SEZ) by Deng Xiaoping as part of the ‘Opening up policy’ of 1978. The SEZ is an area of relaxed financial regulation and increased local government autonomy (Ng & W. Tang 1999). The creation of the SEZ has led to Shenzhen experiencing staggering economic and population growth.

From 1980 to 2001, the annual growth rate of GDP has been 38.9% per capita (Ng 2003), while the population has grown to 10.47 million as of 2011 (Shenzhen Information Network Center 2012).

GUANGZHOU

SHENZHEN

HONG KONG

Location in relation to Hong Kong and Guangzhou, in the Pearl River Delta region Source: Adapted from google earth

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Context

QINGSHUIHE

SUNGANG

Figure 2 Sungang-Qingshuihe district. Source: Google Earth

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500m

Study site Initially, a number of sites that will undergo extensive urban change in the future were selected by the studio leaders, INTI and their partners.

One such site was the Sungang-Qingshuihe district.

The 540 hectare Sungang-Qingshuihe district, although only 30 years old, has now reached the end of its functional life as a logistics hub. The site, centrally located in the Luohu district and well connected to urban transport networks has a low density compared to surrounding areas. The area currently contains a number of warehouses, of which some have been renovated for small businesses and to provide living for workers, a number of urban villages in the centre of the site, a large amount of disused railway land is adjacent to parkland and intersected by areas of ecological significance. There are a number of

major infrastructural corridors running through and adjacent to the site including: an eight lane highway that bisects the site; large areas of disused railway yards along the south east boundary; and major roads to the south and eastern boundaries.

In addition, there are future plans for a two metro lines to run through the site (one north south and one east west) and also a tramway (Shenzhen Daily 2012).

The site has been earmarked for redevelopment by the Shenzhen (municipal) and Luohu (district) governments. The plans aim to turn the site into a commercial centre, urban leisure area and creative hub, with housing for 20,000 people (Sasin 2012).

An international competition for the redesign was held in 2010 and won by the Dutch design office KCAP.

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Context

High speed railway Railwayline Motorway Primary road

The Pearl River Delta region and the infrastructure connecting the major cities. Source: author.

0

20km

Competition and Regionalisation

Land based economic development

Shenzhen, like many cities, is being defined by new urban scales and increasing levels of competition. The Pearl River Delta (PRD) Region, encompasses the cities of Guangzhou, Dongguan, Hong Kong and Macao and has an estimated population of 27 million people (Woetzel et al.

2009). The delta cities are increasingly becoming more connected through the development of major new infrastructure projects (Ye 2012), driven by the National and Municipal governments. At the same time, competition between the cities in the PRD (Zacharias & Y. Tang 2010; M. Bruton et al. 2005), as well as intra urban competition between the city districts intensifies. This increasing competition is visible in the development of large urban projects such as the new Futian and Longgang CBDs and the Qianhai Water City, where the districts are competing with each other for investment and to be connected to the international, national and regional networks.

In 1987, the paid leasing of land use rights began in Chinese cities, with the leasing of land use rights becoming a significant source of income for local governments. This has had a number of effects, including changing the form of urban areas, land speculation and price increases (Yeh & F. Wu 1996). The reforms have also led to the creation of a land rent gradient, depending on the land location (Yeh & F. Wu 1996), which had not previously existed in Chinese cities. This rising in land value in central areas has led to industries moving out from the centre to more peripheral urban areas with cheaper land.

Combined with the pressures for economic growth, this system of land leasing encourages development projects that will achieve high economic returns in well located urban areas, often pushing out the existing residents (Yeh & F. Wu 1996).

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Context 7 Guangming gateway

5

Longgang city center

2 Universiade Sports Center 4 Honghe Project

Airport 2

Shenzhen

Universiade Sports Center

3 Sungang & Qingshuihe 1 Qianhai New Town

Stock 7 exchange

6 NFU & SZU Advanced Technology Park

Futian CBD Energy mansion

Hong Kong

3

Creative gateway Urban regeneration of Sungang and Qingshuihe areas

5

Longgang city center masterplan

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Guangming Gateway

4

Masterplan for the Honghe Project

6

NFU & SZU Advanced Technology Park

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Shenzhen Stock Exchange by OMA

New large urban projects proposed, planned or under construction in Shenzhen. Source, Images- ArchDaily blog, Maps- Google Earth

Development of large scale urban projects Since the creation of the SEZ in 1979, the development of Shenzhen has focused on economic growth and attracting foreign direct investment (FDI). The urban planning of Shenzhen supported this goal of economic growth, focussing on the development of large land parcels (Zacharias & Y. Tang 2010).

However, now Shenzhen is entering a new phase in its development with much of the industry moving out of the former SEZ area, leaving large areas of land such as the Sungang-Quingshuihe area functionally obsolete. With the increasing regional and intra-urban competition, the large scale urban project is becoming a significant development response. This can be seen in the numerous large scale urban projects that have recently been constructed or are planned for the Shenzhen area.

The development of the Sunggang-Qingshuihe falls into the category of the large scale urban project, and reflects aspirations of the local and municipal government to create an ‘international consumer centre’. However, to ensure profitability these market-driven speculative developments must rely on attracting high income users and residents.

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Context I know many people’s face but don’t have social rela•onship. Need more space for children and the elderly. The exis•ng public space and parks are too far for them to walk.

The environment here is not good for people’s health.

Need more public infrastructure such as a hospital, primary school and a cinema.

The educa•on possibili•es are limited and kindergarten is too expensive

Sports facili•es are too far away. There are only 2 basketball courts in the area and they are too small.

There is a lack of facili•es and limited communica•on between people. Too many migrants coming and going.

Quotes from interviews taken in urban village in Shenzhen by Author - see Appendix 2. Image source: author

Increasing social inequities

Local level dissatisfaction

Shenzhen, along with many other Chinese cities, is facing problems of increasing social inequity. Social inequity in Chinese cities is predicted to increase, due to the likely rise in unemployment from the economic restructuring and the influx of migrants from rural areas (Friedmann 2004). Furthermore, Friedmann (2004) identifies this rising urban poverty as posing a real threat to the urban areas. According to government statistics, in Shenzhen 7.79 million people, or 75% of the population, are without urban Hukou (Shenzhen Information Network Center 2012). This increase in urban inequity is also changing the spatial structure of the city. As Huang (2007) notes, the once relatively homogenous Chinese society, which was based on work unit compounds is now becoming increasingly spatially segregated with the emergence of high-end gated communities and dilapidated migrant enclaves.

The cities in China have been focused on economic development; however, the provision of adequate public services has not kept up with this economic growth. According to Ye (2012), this lack of public service provision, together with, ‘income gaps, social stratification and housing price spikes, leads to widespread social unrest in Chinese cities’ (Ye 2012, p.2).

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Hypothesis A new planning approach based on design guidelines and principles that recognise the existing local scale demands and current trends, can allow for a broader range of development possibilities that better mediates between the local needs and the economic objectives of the higher levels of government.

The development of large scale urban projects is led by powerful actors who are on regional and global markets, aiming to attract investment, maximise financial returns and improve economic competitiveness. However, there is increasing dissatisfaction at the local scale about the provision of public services (Ye 2012) and living costs.

In addition, urban inequality is increasing in Chinese cities and more needs to be done ‘at the local level to create a city for workers who feel they have a fair share in the general prosperity’ (Friedmann 2004, p.45).

If the development of large urban projects begins with the recognition of the existing conditions and local scale demands, which are then incorporated into the development process in the form of guidelines and principles for negotiation between the actors, then there is a broader range of development possibilities that can better reconcile the local needs with the economic objectives of the higher levels of government.

Aim This project aims to explore how the needs of local site actors can be better included into the development of a large scale urban project, and how the development can be better integrated into the city through the development of a new planning approach.

There are many examples, such as the London Docklands or the new Guangzhou CBD, of large urban projects designed to attract global investment, and be of ‘world class’ quality, which are well connected to the national and regional networks, but which have little connection with the local place, resulting in developments with a placeless global identity that are disconnected from the local urban conditions, local residents and site users.

The project will explore the potential for a new planning approach which can act as a bridge connecting the economic objectives of the Local, Municipal and National Government with the local scale spatial demands. The approach will be developed and tested using the study site of Qingshuihe in Shenzhen.

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Problem statement The redevelopment is focussed on international visions with the planning approach favouring the development of a large urban project, which does not recognise the needs of the existing local actors or connect to surrounding urban areas.

The regionalisation of the Pearl River Delta, increased economic competition, and the high value of the land has resulted in the government proposal for redevelopment of the Sungang-Qingshuihe district being focused on international visions – to become an ‘international business and retail centre for the region’ (People’s Government of Luohu District Shenzhen & Urban Planning 2012).

The planning approach for the site of the framework masterplan, subunit plans, and subunit guidelines favours the developer model of large scale developments that provide large plots for development and do not connect to surrounding areas. This approach, which must attract high income residents and high-income businesses to be economically successful, does not consider the local scale conditions and the existing site residents, businesses and users, and risks further increasing the social inequalities. The lack of recognition of the existing local scale conditions risks leading to the creation of a generic and placeless global development.

Research Questions How can a new planning approach to large urban projects better connect the local scale demands with the economic objectives of higher levels of government?

The questions has three components, A. Local scale needs - How can the existing local scale needs be determined through analysis?

B. Planning framework - How can the local scale needs be incorporated in a new planning approach?

C. Negotiation - How can this new planning framework be used for a negotiation tool between the actors and what planning tools are required?

Sub questions Flexibility - How can the planning approach allow for a broader range of development possibilities?

Public space - How can the public space and urban form encourage the local scale urban functions to collaborate with the functions of the higher urban scales?

Identity - How can the redevelopment process better recognise the existing local identities of the site?

Flows - How can the recognition of different scales of flows and connectivity allow the coexistence of different scales of functions and better connect the site to the surrounding urban areas?

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Methodology Trends § Regionalisation process and infrastructure development § Competition between municipalities § Land based development model § Local scale pressures - inadequate public service provision and Increasing social inequalities

Problem field Motivation

Theoretical framework § General theory according to global trends § Theory for the strategy approach Land based development model

Context Shenzhen

Problem Statement

The redevelopment which does not recognise the needs of the existing local actors or connect to surrounding urban areas.

Incorporate local scale demands into the redevelopment process through a new planning approach

Aim of research

A new planning approach that recognise the existing local scale demands and current trends can allow for a broader range of development possibilities that better mediates between the local needs and the economic objectives of the higher levels of government.

Hypothesis

How can a new planning approach to large urban projects better connect the local scale demands with the economic objectives of higher levels of government?

Research Question

Context Analysis

§ § §

Historical processes Planning system Case study

§ §

Actor relational approach Actor analysis

Multi-actor analysis

Analysis

Passive actors § Residents of urban village § Residents not in urban village § Commercial operators (formal) § Commercial operators (informal) § Site users (local) § Site users (urban) § Site users (region)

Active actors § National Government § Shenzhen Municipal Government (Region) § Luohu Government (Urban) § Developers § Future actors

Criteria Mobility flows/ connectivity

Function

Public space

Urban form

Multi-scale analysis Local scale

Existing conditions

Urban scale

Regional scale

Criteria used to critically evaluate existing site conditions, local actor needs and the redevelopment proposal.

Methods § Theoretical research § Site visit § Mapping § Interviews §

Passive actor use and needs determined through site analysis and theory.

Develop design principles

§

Common objective between the actors

Develop local scale guidelines

§

Developed from principles - to act as negotiation platform between actors

Local scale strategy and testing of appraoch

§

Demonstrate new planning approach and how the guidelines can be used for a platform for negotiation with specific location

Passive actor & user needs

Development proposal

Strategy

Presentation and reflection

Outputs § Review of urban existing redevelopment plan § Testing plan considering multiple scales functions and actors in relation to hypothesis § Recommendations and guidelines for an alternative redevelopment approach and strategy considering actors, time and multiple scales.

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Social and Academic relevance The disconnection between the local needs of residents and the ambitions of higher levels of Government is not unique to Shenzhen. In fact, particularly as a result of the development of large urban projects, this friction between local scale demands and regional and national economic ambitions can be observed in many countries. However, a number of factors make Shenzhen a fascinating case study in terms of the planning process. These include the speed of development, the complex governance, the increase in power of the Municipality, the rapid development of major new infrastructure and the current informal negotiation processes that shape the space. Thus, there is a need to develop new planning approaches that can better address the issues that cities like Shenzhen are facing. ‘The idea of drawing-up a perfect layout that won’t need to be altered for another 50 years should be abandoned as overly idealistic. Instead, planners should always be thinking about implementation when creating the plan. Establishing an efficient negotiation platform, enhancing the flexibility while reducing the rigidity of an urban plan, and innovating planning strategies are valuable measures to be explored’ (Xlaoli et al., 2012).

This project aims to provide a planning model for the development of large urban projects that can mediate between the different interests of passive actors and active actors through the use of a framework plan and urban design guidelines developed from the local scale needs. By doing this, the planning model aims to improve the social conditions for the existing site users and residents - many of whom are migrant workers, and also bring a consideration of the marginalised groups into the planning process.

More research needs to be undertaken into approaches to planning that can better recognise the local conditions and needs, instead of the current tabular rasa approach to development that often leaves many local actors displaced. Furthermore, processes need to be developed that can create platforms for negotiation, and formalise many of the already existing informal planning processes, including marginalised actors and increasing the flexibility of the outcome.

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2 APPROACH The project proposes a new planning approach to the redevelopment of large urban areas. This section will explain the existing approach to the development of this site, and outline the proposed approach of the planning and design strategy.

‘The idea of drawing-up a perfect layout that won’t need to be altered for another 50 years should be abandoned as overly idealistic. Instead, planners should always be thinking about implementation when creating the plan.

Establishing an efficient negotiation platform, enhancing the flexibility while reducing the rigidity of an urban plan, and innovating planning strategies are valuable measures to be explored’ (Xlaoli et al., 2012).

Research approach ‘The planner who works with open systems is caught up in the ambiguity of their causal webs. Moreover, his would-be solutions are confounded by a still further set of dilemmas posed by the growing pluralism of the contemporary publics, whose valuations of his proposals are judged against an array of different and contradicting scales’ (Rittel & Webber 1973, p.176).

The term ‘wicked problem’, coined by Rittel and Webber (1973), describes a problem that, unlike a scientific or engineering problem, can never be definitively solved. They can only be re-solved over and over again. The reason design is useful to address these ‘wicked problems’ is because design forms a process to clarify the questions and propose solutions. As Jonas (2007) states: ‘Under these conditions we have to account for the fact that the problem itself is not ‘given’, but will be designed by the stakeholders, and, in consequence, will change its character in the course of the solution process. No information is available, if there is no idea of a solution, because the questions arising depend on the kind of solution one has in mind’ (Jonas 2007, p.193).

The complex design problems that planners and urban designers face can be considered ‘wicked problems’, as they engage with complex social, environmental, and political variables. Furthermore, they often involve numerous actors and long time scales. In the case of these problems that have no scientific answer, the designer’s role is to gather the information and link it together to form a whole (Gänshirt, 2007).

An approach of research through design will be used for this project, as described by Erlhoff (2008) as ‘presuming a hermeneutic understanding of design when the design process is open to taking into account an interactive dialogue with the design situation’(p.335).

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Existing Approach

The People’s Government of Luohu

Initiates project

PROPOSAL International consultation

Selects

DESIGN Concept selected - KCAP ‘Creative Gateway’ DESIGN OFFICE

Urban Planning, Land and Resources Commission of Shenzhen Municipality

Directs

REFINEMENT OF DESIGN Sub-unit and overall planing design guidelines made by Design offices Different design offices are selected to develop sub-unit plans and urban framework guidelines

Regulates

REGULATION Concept adapted into urban planning regulations

¥

Selects

Pays for development rights

CONSTRUCTION Developers companies to develop sub-units

DEVELOPERS INVESTORS BANKS

The Sungung-Qingshuihe redevelopment project was initiated by The People’s Government of Luohu District and the Urban Planning, Land and Resources Commission of Shenzhen Municipality in 2010.

The two government authorities have facilitated every step of the project, from the initial ‘International consultation competition’ and the selection of the winning concept; and the second consultation to develop the ‘Overall urban design guidelines and sub-unit planning’; as well as the preparation and implementation of the statutory regulation plans. The two authorities will also select the companies to be granted the rights to develop the individual sub-units.

1. International masterplan competition The Dutch design office KCAP won the international competition for the masterplan for the district. Their plan is progressive in terms of development in Shenzhen as it seeks to create an incremental development process, as well as maintain some of the existing buildings and urban structure.

In addition, in July 2011 KCAP ran a two week workshop to talk to the involved parties. In general, the approach proposed in this thesis accepts the KCAP framework for the site development.

‘The approach is based on the acceptance of the current urban condition as a starting point. Instead of grand projects, the design introduces a series of measures and projects to be integrated in the existing fabric....The framework will continue the urban history of Shenzhen as the result of pragmatism succeeding over monumentality’ (KCAP 2011a) Source: KCAP

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Existing Approach

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2. Sub-unit planning an design guidelines The next stage of the process involved division of the site into sub-units, and international expressions of interest for the sub unit planning and urban design guidelines. Once these were created the sub-unit planning has been put into statutory plans with the required technical indexes for development land uses and FAR requirements. The sub-unit planning map.

Expressions of interest were undertaken for design offices to develop the sub-unit plans and urban design guidelines.

The project brief stated: ‘We hope that a unique and charming city image, and forward-looking, implementable sub-unit planning schemes for Sungang-Qingshuihe and its construction can be plotted with international visions and innovative ideas, so as to drive it to take the first try and become a demonstration area for building Luohu into the international consumer center’ (People’s Government of Luohu District Shenzhen & Urban Planning 2012). ʇ/ÂƒĆĽÇ‡Ę?xɇÊà KĆźÉ ?qɤðšǭ,ČžĘƒ5ÂœĹƒČœÉ&#x;F"

3. Statutory plan From the framework plan the statutory plans have been created. It is clear that the statutory plans have taken many of the recommendations from the original masterplan.

An example of a statutory plan for part of the Qingshuihe district. This example specifies: § Development scale, including total floor area for different functions (Residential, R&D, warehouses) § Transport infrastructure (new metro station) § Space for public facilities § Other infrastructure (sub stations) § Floodways In terms of urban design § Bike lanes § Slow movement system § Scattered street squares § Development mode - Government enterprise co-operation agreement

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Limitations to current approach The current approach favours national and regional aims, but is neglecting the local level needs.

While the current development approach may achieve the objective of boosting the regional economic competitiveness as the process of development is focussed on regional ambitions, it is unclear how it can benefit the existing local actors if the needs of the local residents, and the socioeconomically weaker groups are excluded from the process.

Furthermore, exact role of the government and developers are not clear in the process. While there are many negotiations in the, distribution of benefits of development not reaching the local residents and workers. Generally in the current Chinese development model, developers have a great deal of power in development projects and there is a difficulty in balancing the developer demands against the other actor and local actor’s needs.

As noted by X. Wu et al. (2012), a ‘common problem is that the technical indexes (e.g. building area and plot area ratio of parcels) are based on developers’ financial requirements and therefore, exceed those of the Shenzhen Urban Planning Standards and Guidelines and the upper-level statutory plans. Keeping a balance between the government’s technical requirements and developers’ financial demands is much harder to do than to say’.

Daily activities

Local scale logistics

Local scale logistics

The New Guangzhou CBD, a large urban project with international ambitions. However, the local spatial need of permeability and local streets for bicycles is not considered, with the barriers making it impossible for pedestrians to cross the roads. Source: Author

22

Development of a new approach

National Government

National Government

District Government

Local scale actors and individuals

Existing approach

Municipal Government Municipal Government New planning approach District Government New planning approach

Local scale demands

Municipal Government

Guidelines and principles

Economic demands

New planning approach

Local scale actors and individuals

Proposed approach

Planning instrument

Adapted and elaborated upon the approach outlined in the Handbook for multi-level Urban Governance in Europe (Tasan-kok & Vranken 2011)

Aim The instrument aims to: § Connect the economic objectives of the National, Municipal and District Governments with the local scale spatial demands. § Provide a tool for Local and Municipal governments to negotiate with private sector interests (developers).

Principle of instrument § Interconnect the issues and priorities of diverse levels of governance § Define common objective of diverse levels of governance § Interconnect actions at different levels of governance § Interconnect competition and cohesion aims § Allow negotiations and participation with constant and transparent communication Participants National Government, Regional Government, Local Government, Village in City Corporations (Neighbourhood),private sector enterprises

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Project Method Analysis to determine local scale spatial needs and the demands of local actors

DETERMINE LOCAL SCALE NEEDS

A multi- scalar analysis is undertaken according to the defined criteria of mobility flows and connectivity, function, urban form and public space. This criteria has been developed from the use of the ‘Layer Approach’ (Van Schaik 2005). How the site functions in relationship to the existing site actors and criteria at the local, urban and regional scale will be analysed in relation to the existing conditions, and in relation to the proposed redevelopment.

Analysis of existing development approach in relation to local needs

ANALYSIS OF EXISTING APPROACH

The existing and proposed development approach are considered in terms of the identified local actor needs.

Develop design principles from the analysis

DEFINE DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND FRAMEWORK PLAN

The design principles are intended to define common objectives between the actors, considering higher scale objectives and local actor needs.

The principles are intended to create a bridge between the regional economic ambitions and local scale demands.

Develop local scale design guidelines

DEVELOP GUIDELINES

The guidelines are determined from the local scale analysis and local actor needs.

To be developed according to established local actor needs at the local, urban and regional scale, the urban analysis of existing conditions and the examination of theory according to Western and Chinese criteria. The design guidelines cover open space – qualities, types, their connections and the green network; functions and characteristics; Urban form – height and density, and connectivity and mobility flows.

Planning strategy for local scale and negotiation

NEGOTIATION WITH GUIDELINES AND PLANNING TOOLS

A new planning strategy is proposed at the local scale that include the above methodology, to develop a tool that can be used for negotiation between the actors, and can be agreed upon with multi-party contracts. See Planning Strategy for Local scale negotiation

24

Why a framework and guidelines?

The approach will involve the creation of a general framework plan and design guidelines from the local actor’s needs. This aims to: § Keep the diverse qualities of the site, § Create a process that is more inclusive of the local actors, § Allow the coexistence of differences within the site, § Develop as a more flexible approach that can be adapted to changed conditions.

The difference between blueprints and frameworks (Carmona et al. 2010, p.263) Blueprint A complete or total design Deterministic Design everything ‘city to the spoon’ Single outcome Single author Single built-out (to completion) Direct design/ firstorder design Artificial diversity Scripted dialogue

Framework Codes/rules/ principles Flexible Design enough – ‘what matters’ Range of outcomes Multiple authors Continuous build out In-direct design/ second-order design Authentic diversity Open conversation

The use of a design framework and design guidelines is proposed as an integrative approach to the development. The framework is related to the whole, while the guidelines are related to the parts (Carmona et al. 2010). With this two level process, it is intended that the ‘planning and construction will be guided by a process, which allows the whole to emerge gradually from local acts’(Alexander 1975, p.26), allowing for the creation of what Alexander describes as organic order.

This approach differs from that which is often used for large urban developments, the master plan (or blueprint). The main problems of the master plan approach are its rigidity, and its inability to create a whole (Alexander 1975).

The design framework and guidelines approach allows greater focus on the process of development, and less of a fixation on the final product.

Furthermore, a framework ‘can provide strategic coordination, but it must also retain sufficient flexibility to accommodate the processes of change, and also allow the incorporation of the (as yet unknown) better idea’ (Carmona et al. 2010, p.263).

25

Level of urbanisation % 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

19 79 19 8 19 0 81 19 8 19 2 83 19 84 19 8 19 5 86 19 8 19 7 88 19 89 19 9 19 0 91 19 9 19 2 93 19 94 19 9 19 5 96 19 97 19 9 19 8 99 20 0 20 0 01 20 02 20 03 20 04

0

Source: SzSB 2006, Xiaoli Xu 2002, cited by Source: SzSB 2006, Xiaoli Xu 2002, cited by Shenzhen Environmental outlook (2007) Annual Shenzhen Environmental outlook (2007) ) population change of Shenzhen

Annual population change millions 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005

Population with residence cards

Population with temporary residence cards

Source: SzSB 2006, cited by Shenzhen Environmental outlook (2007)

GDP vs Annual growth rate of Shenzhen

GDP vs Annual Growth rate

% 70

million Yuan 700 000 600 000

60

500 000

50

400 000

40

300 000

30

200 000

20

100 000

10 0

0 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 GDP

Annual growth rate

Source: SzSB 2006 cited by Shenzhen cited by Shenzhen Environmental outlook (2007) 2006(2007) Source: SzSB Environmental outlook Graphs redrawn by author from original data

26

3 CONTEXT This section discusses the current context and trends in Shenzhen, the planning system and the historical development of the site.

Trends Land shortage According to a report from the United Nations Environment Programme and Peking University (2007), in 2006 over 90% of the total available land for construction in Shenzhen is developed. If the current rates of development continue, by 2017 all available land outside the ecological protection area will have been built upon. However, due to the economic restructuring and as industry shifts out of the city, the former industrial zones are now becoming available for new uses. It is estimated that one third of all the industrial areas in the city are now vacant (Zhang 2009).

Environmental degradation This rapid development and industrialisation has created many environmental problems in Shenzhen. These include a stretched water supply, poor air quality and polluted waterways. Furthermore, the remaining ecological areas are continually under threat from development. As Zacharias and Y. Tang (2010, p.222) argue, ‘…the city is following a course to strengthen its industrial base in spite of its environmental costs’. It is suggested that if the city is to compete with other cities to attract the business, investment and professionals that it desires, the quality of the environment must improve (Zacharias & Y. Tang 2010).

Economic restructuring and industry moving away from Shenzhen Shenzhen is currently undergoing ‘rapid de-industrialisation and restructuring’ (Zacharias & Tang 2010), as well as increased competition with other cities for investment, in particular, with its neighbours in the Pearl River Delta (Xu & YEH 2005). Due to the cheaper labour in many inland cities, Shenzhen has lost the competitive advantage it once had and much of the light manufacturing and industry has now moved (Zacharias & Y. Tang 2010).

27

Shenzhen Planning system

The planning system of Shenzhen has been very effective in promoting economic growth, however, the technocratic approach has been less effective in promoting local scale quality.

The pattern of development in Shenzhen as described by Zacharias & Tang (2010, p. 217), was driven by the 1986 plan that was referred to as a ‘strip like with clustering’ or ‘clustered linear planning principle’. In addition, ‘uses were assigned to large urban blocks to distinguish urban areas for living, production zones, commercial centres and recreation areas’. This historical pattern of large urban projects has left the city form fragmented, as a series of disconnected districts and blocks separated by highways, forming linear green corridors.

As Zacharias & Tang (2010, p.213) explain, ‘development generally occurred by the provision of large parcels’ for the following reasons: § It is easier to include amenities in large projects than smaller projects § Senior planners argue more control can be exercised on large parcels § Development companies prefer large parcels

1986 Masterplan of Shenzhen. Source: Zacharias & Tang (2010)

28

‘..the main purpose of the master plan is basically to implement the political-economic objective of the government in the physical urban space development’ (Z. Chen 2010, p.97).

The urban planning in Shenzhen is described by Chen (2010, p.97) as an ‘instrument of the political economic development program’, and in line with the land based economic growth model, closely connected with the economic development goals of the government. The current five level urban n planning system in Shenzhen was introduced during a l p ive the planning reforms of 1998. The five levels are: the ens h e pr comprehensive plan; the sub regional plan: the sub m Co district plan; the statutory plan; and the detailed plan.

The reforms were undertaken to address the problems an l of government officials exercising discretionary p al ion g power changing plans and granting development e b-r Su rights, as well as the limitation of the previous master plan led system (Ng & W. Tang 2004).

Chen (2010) identifies a number of issues with the urban planning system: n pla t c § Due to the increased uncertainty and rapid i tr Dis pace of urbanisation, planning has been less effective than it was under the planned economy.

The planning system remains a very technical instrument as a legacy of the planned economy. n a pl ry This technocratic instrument is unable to deal o t u t Sta with the diverse interests of space. Also, the reliance on statistics can lead to the floating population to be ‘forgotten’ in the planning n pla process. d e tail § The planning system does not include any public De participation, Some further issues with the planning system identified by W. Huang (2012) include: § Car-oriented ideology and criterion, § The scale of space follows criterion of sunshade, fire rescue, monumental…but always forgets the human scale, § Fixed scenario and a lack of flexibility.

29

General Theory Globalization ‘understood as the socio-cultural phenomenon driven by the time space compression effects and the ‘disassembling’ effects of the application of new transport and information and communication technologies’ (Burgess, 2005 p.2)

Fragmentation used as the concept to understand the dynamics of the Globalization process (Kozak 2008)

Economic Restructuring

Global network society means that global

The effects of economic restructuring ‘are regarded to be among the most powerful forces behind social fragmentation and integration of the public realm’ (Musterd & Ostendorf 2008, p.170)

forces are creating new local spatial arrangements, where global systems or flows are privileged over local ones creating a dialectic of ‘local spatial fragmentation’ and ‘global spatial integration’ (Burgess 2005, p.9)

Re-scaling We are seeing new spatial units of scale, with the cities and regions becoming more important that the nation state (Sassen 2004).

Urban fragmentation ‘a spatial phenomenon that results from the act of breaking up, breaking off from, or disjointing the pre-existing form and structure of the city and systems of cities’ (Burgess 2005, p.1).

Socio-spatial fragmentation ‘both

Social exclusion

the elements of separation and confinement to a particular residential environment contribute to the persistence of social differentiation and social inequalities’ (Kesteloot 2008, p.137).

‘where people live affects their experience of poverty and is therefore a key element in social exclusion’ (Murie 2008, p.165).

Diagram of the general theoretical framework

4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In this part the theoretical framework, which forms the basis for the research project, is outlined. There are a number of different theories that relate to the different stages and scales of the project. The theoretical framework is structured in two parts, 1. General theory relating to global trends The theories are used in the general analysis to develop a better understanding of the trends that are affecting the structure of the city and what is driving them. These theories include the socio-cultural phenomenon of globalization (Burgess 2005) and its relationship to the concept of urban fragmentation (Kozak 2008). In addition, the process of economic restructuring and its relation to fragmentation and integration (Musterd & Ostendorf 2008), and the concept of the global network society where it is theorised that global systems of flows are privileged over location ones, creating ‘local spatial fragmentation’ and ‘global spatial integration’ (Burgess 2005, p.9). The theory of rescaling (Sassen 2004), which proposes the increase in the importance of new spatial units of scale, is also discussed. Furthermore, the theories of social-spatial fragmentation (Kesteloot 2008) and social exclusion (Murie 2008) are outlined in relation to the above trends.

2. Design approach theory To address the research question, theories from different design and planning approaches will be used. The first is the actor relational approach proposed by Boelens (2010), which is actor oriented, as opposed to government oriented in its approach. The second is a modified version of the network city layer approach as proposed by Van Schaik (2005).

33

General theory Global trends – fragmentation, globalization and social exclusion

Fragmentation: a conceptual framework to understand globalization processes It is suggested by Kozak (2008) that fragmentation can be used as a conceptual framework to explain the dynamics of the globalization process. Kozak states that the concept of urban fragmentation is used in the urban discourse in two ways ‘1) As a generating process or way of operating in the city, and 2) as a spatial phenomenon or state’ (2008, p.241).

Burgess gives a technical deterministic definition of urban fragmentation as ‘a spatial phenomenon that results from the act of breaking up, breaking off from, or disjointing the pre-existing form and structure of the city and systems of cities’ (2005, p.1), stating ‘post industrial societies create post industrial cities’. This considers fragmentation in what Kozak terms the ‘spatial state’.

Globalization as a phenomenon According to Marcuse, globalization is ‘not historically new, but rather the outcome of a number of clearly ascertainable historical processes...traceable back to the 16th century, the rise of capitalism and the explosion of industrialisation’(2008, p.30), and as pointed out by Smith (2002), the increased scale of economic production. Burgess, reaffirming his technologically deterministic view, describes globalization as ‘...a socio-cultural phenomenon driven by the space-time compression effects and the ‘dissembling’ effects of the application of new transport such as (motorways, air transport, containerisation, high speed rail systems) and information and communications technologies’ (2005, p.3).

A significant effect of this period of globalization is a shift in the power relationships between the city, state and region (Burgess 2005; Sassen 2001). As Kazepov (2008, p.3) notes, there has been a rise in super national institutions such as the World bank and IMF, increasing mobility of goods, capital services and labour and ‘transfer of regulatory authority downwards towards sub national territories, mainly regions and cities’.

It has been suggested that globalization has had the effect of increasing the gap between the rich

and poor (Kesteloot 2008). A common thread of much of the discussion about globalization and the associated urban transformations is that cities are becoming increasingly fragmented in their form and structure (Kozak 2007).

The effect of economic restructuring and social fragmentation Entangled with the process of globalization is economic restructuring, which involves a shift away from manufacturing industries towards a more service based economy, and the geographic redistribution of manufacturing jobs on a national and international scale (Sassen 1990).

A key characteristic of economic restructuring, according to Musterd & Ostendorf, is the improved connectedness of ‘firms, economic processes and people’ (2008, p.172).

However, Musterd and Ostendorf (2008) also note that economic restructuring is leading to not only increased social polarisation, creating growth in service jobs that require high skilled labour, but also low skilled jobs. This according to Mingione (2008) is because the transition from an industrial economy to one based on knowledge and services, particularly disadvantages those without education or skills, and this transformation ‘confines large groups of immigrants in an assortment of service and informal jobs that are badly paid, unstable and isolated socially’ (2008, p.82).

Thus, we see the gap between those with education and opportunities, and those without widening. The economic structure of the city, and its associated processes, ‘are regarded to be among the most powerful forces behind social fragmentation and integration of the public realm’ (Musterd & Ostendorf 2008, p.170). Furthermore, economic restructuring has not only changed cities internally, but we are also seeing a shift in the relations between cities, regions and nations.

The Global city and changing city relations It is proposed by Sassen in ‘The Global city’ (2001), that the role of the city has shifted. The main argument for the rise of cities and city regions in importance compared to nation 34

states, is that with a shift to neo-liberal economic policies by many governments, characterised by a decrease in regulation and an increasing number of trans-national businesses, we are seeing new spatial units of scale, with the increase in importance of the sub-national scale of the region and city, as well as the supra-national entities such as free trade blocs (Sassen 2001). Smith (2002) echoes this argument, suggesting the power of the nation state has been eroded in economic terms.

However, he proposes that this is not necessarily the case in cultural or political terms, and also not for all nations, citing China and the United States as exceptions.

Nevertheless, while much of the discussion about globalization emphasises the importance of world cities, capital flows, new scales of influence and the inter connectedness of business, the importance of a physical place cannot be neglected.

As Sassen states, ‘recapturing the geography of places involved in globalization allows us to recapture people, workers, communities, and more specifically, the many different work cultures, besides the corporate culture, involved in the work of globalization’ (2004, p.32).

Understandings of the concept of ‘urban fragmentation’ Based on the categorisations as defined

by Kozak (2008), we see there are various understandings of ‘urban fragmentation’. Within the context of globalization, Kozak identifies three groups of understandings of urban fragmentation.

These are the ‘glocal scalar fix’ (Brenner 1998; Burgess 2005), Neo-liberalism (Burgess 2005; Brenner 1998) and infrastructure (Graham & Marvin 2001).

Glocal-scalar fix (Re-territorialisation) It is argued that with the change in the role of cities due to globalization, we are seeing an increase in the urban fragmentation of cities, as some parts of the city are connected to global networks, while others are left out, with the emergence of what has been termed the ‘global network society’ (Burgess 2005). Increased ‘space time convergence’ and the rise of the ‘global

network society’, according to Burgess (2005), means that global forces are creating new local spatial arrangements, where global systems or flows are privileged over local ones creating a dialectic of ‘local spatial fragmentation’ and ‘global spatial integration’ (2005, p.9) where the global forces are ‘rupturing the spatial integrity’ of the city (Burgess, 2005, p. 130). Brenner (1998) argues that the nation state has not been eroded, but has been ‘rearticulated and re-territorialized in relation to both sub- and supra-states scales.

The resultant, re-scaled configuration of state territorial organization is provisionally labelled a “glocal” state’ (1998, p.1). For Brenner, the ‘glocal territorial state transfers and devolves many of its regulatory tasks toward supra-national, regional and local scales’(1998, p.20) at the expense of the intra-urban or national scale. At the local level, this is evidenced in the creation of para state authorities such as the London Docklands Development Corporation and Schiphol Airport Business Park (Brenner 1998).

Rise of the market and neo-liberal approaches Globalization, with its associated increase in connectivity, is also intertwined with the rise of neo-liberal economic policies as we see what has been called a ‘neo-liberalisation of the world economy’ (Kozak 2007, p.98). It is argued that neoliberalism is driving the increased competition between cities and city regions, ‘leading to new units of scale, which are expected to enhance “urban productivity” by competing among each other and with their counterparts in other cities’ (Kozak 2007, p.106).

Thus, neo-liberalism can be linked to a physical form of urban fragmentation where there is specific investment in large urban projects through public private partnerships, which are focused on increasing the urban competitiveness between centralities, and indeed regions.

However, they are around the specific project, as in the case of the London Docklands, and may not experience the benefits of the new global centrality next door (Fig. 1). This, in turn, can lead to areas of a city that have a sharp spatial socio-economic differentiation to their immediate surroundings.

35

General theory Global trends – fragmentation, globalization and social exclusion

Infrastructure and fragmentation Graham and Marvin (2001) consider urban fragmentation from a technological perspective, proposing that ‘infrastructure networks are being “unbundled” in ways that help sustain the fragmentation and the social material fabric of cities’ (2001, p.33). They suggest that ‘the economic liberalisation of infrastructure and the development of new [primarily information] technologies have made possible an entirely new infrastructural landscape that radically challenges established assumptions that have underpinned the relations between integrated networks and cities’ (2001, p.139). Furthermore, ‘given that current technology is able to “unbundle” infrastructure networks in ways until now impossible, it is feasible to customise the provision of services according to economic strata...thus those who can afford the connection to expensive networks become more integrated, while those who cannot are marginalised from the highly connected world’ (Kozak 2007, p.110).

However, the thesis of Graham and Marvin has been criticised by Coutard (2008) for relying on anecdotes, a lack of historical analysis, and the universality of the postulated premises.

Socio-spatial fragmentation A number of authors, including (Kozak 2008; Kesteloot 2008; Marcuse 2008), propose that the increasing neo-liberal economic policies and associated economic restructuring are causing an increase in socio-spatial fragmentation of cities and at the local scale an increase in social inequalities and social exclusion. As Kesteloot (2008) discussing European cities states, ‘both the elements of separation and confinement to a particular residential environment contribute to the persistence of social differentiation and social inequalities’ (2008, p.137).

Spatial segregation According to Burgess, spatial segregation occurs when members of one social group are not distributed uniformly over space (2005). He states that not all urban fragmentation is connected to spatial segregation, but ‘urban fragmentation probably represents an extreme case of spatial segregation’ (2005, p.21). However, Van Kempen suggests that ‘polarisation does not always lead to spatial exclusion’ (2008, p.204), citing the Netherlands with its clear mix of housing types in neighbourhoods as an example of this.

Kesteloot (2008), when considering European cities and inner city social disadvantage in the context of urban restructuring, discusses what he calls a ‘repressive city’. The repressive city is where the poor occupants of the inner city have no political recognition, and are often migrants.

According to Kesteloot, this ‘double otherness’ of low income and foreign ethnicity, is used as a basis for the rejection of inner city low income migrants, and to legitimise inner city restructuring and gentrification. creating ‘the social spatial repression of the poor’ (2008, p.142). Approaches to counter this repression proposed by Kesteloot include, ad hoc public participation in planning and design, and involving city users with the future of the city that is form of participative democracy.

Social exclusion Another aspect of socio-spatial fragmentation is social exclusion. According to Murie (2008), social exclusion considers the ‘resources households have to determine their life chances’ (2008, p.166). Murie states that ‘households of the same income, socio-economic or poverty category have different resources upon which they can draw’. However, ‘where people live affects their experience of poverty and is therefore a key element in social exclusion’ (2008, p.165).

36

Theory for approach Actor relational approach and multi-scalar methodologies

The significant factor is the different resources a neighbourhood has, which can affect people’s life chances and it is important to consider the way different households are treated by urban policies and the provision of services to neighbourhoods.

To address the research question theory from different design and planning approaches will be used. The first is the actor relational approach proposed by Boelens (2010) that is actor oriented, as opposed to government oriented, in its approach. The second, is a modified version of the network city layer approach as proposed

by Van Schaik (2005) Actor relational approach Planning based approach proposed by Boelens (2010), which incorporates aspects of Actor Relational Theory (Latour 2005) as a way to tackle multi-scalar multi-actor problems.

In the current urban climate where the planning of specific projects is favoured over a comprehensive approach, we witness the inability of planning to address new multi-scalar problems. In response, Boelens (2010) advocates the potentials of an Actor Relational Approach (ARA). The ARA approach is based on the Actor Network Theory of Latour ( 2005). An ARA, according to Boelens, would be actor oriented, as opposed to the current government oriented planning. The ARA is ‘outside in instead of inside out’ (2010, p.35) where ‘the focus would be put on the actors themselves, especially those who are capable, in networks, of developing meaningful spatial connections’ (2010, p.38).

Furthermore, the ARA is able to ‘cut through the different layers and levels’ therefore providing a multi-scalar approach. Discussing the Dutch context, Boelens argues that planning has become too ‘process oriented with a single minded focus on land use regulation...to deal with (de) fragmentation and ongoing multi-actor, multiscaling of the network society’ (2010, p.31). In an actor network approach, the aims of key local actors in business and civic society would form the start of the process. Boelens describes the key

aspects of the approach, firstly: ‘The point is not to formulate an objective, vision or plan, which then has to be implemented in trade-offs, whether or not in a public-private partnership, but to identify possible actors, stake- and shareholders who may be ready to associate and invest around common opportunities, possibilities and/or themes from the ground up’ (Boelens 2010, p.41).

Secondly, and perhaps controversially, the focus is on the leading actors, as Boelens rejects the ‘symmetrical perspective discourse of analysis’, arguing that considering all actors equally would lead to consultation overkill as experienced in the participatory planning projects of the 1970s. Thirdly, sustainability refers to economic, social and environmental solutions that become central focal points of the process. Fourthly, the approach is not limited by government and considers partnerships with the private and semi-private actors. The final element described by Boelens is the importance of the associative element of the approach, which connects with the ideas of associate democracy.

Multi scalar methodologies

‘One should consider not only the “appearance” of a new design, but also its spatial structure at multiple scales, as well as the existing social relationships in the site’ (F. Chen & Romice 2009, p.40).

A multi-scalar analysis and approach is utilised in this research project. The criteria has been developed from the use of the layering approach (Van Schaik 2005). How the site functions in relation to the existing site actors and criteria at the local, urban and regional scale will be analysed in relation to the existing conditions, and in relation to the proposed development and the proposed redevelopment.

References: Van Schaik (2005)

37

G

G G

G C/O/F G

G

G C

G

C/O

F/O

O

F/O

F/C F/O

G G

G F/O

C

C/F

F/C/O

C/F/O

F/O

C/O G

G

O C/O O

G

G O

O

O

G

G G

Industrial Office Residential

G

C

Government/Institutional/ Community Green Belt

G

G

Commercial Others

0

100

200

300

400 metres

Temporary/Construction inprogress

Landuses of Huaqiangbei Source: Wang & Xu (2002)

38

5 CASE STUDY % HUAQIANGBEI Huaqiangbei (HQB) is a former industrial area located in the Futian district of Shenzhen, which has now transformed into a busy commercial district. Due to the transformation process and its urban characteristics, it forms a relevant case study for the project, and a number of lessons are learned.

Background The development of the HQB commercial district has been described as spontaneous (Z. Chen 2010) and unplanned (Wang & Xu 2002).

The district originally functioned as an industrial and warehouse area, however, as the city developed buildings were transformed into commercial use, and larger shopping centres moved into the area.

The reasons behind the functional transformation include the district’s location in the downtown area, an increase in property values as the city developed, the architectural form of the former warehouses and its ‘comparatively open, dense and well connected street grid...’(Z. Chen 2010, p.281).

Location in Shenzhen, source: author

Characteristics of HQB

200m

HQB district, source: Google Earth

0

200m

Flows/connectivity Transport There are 14 bus routes which travel along HQB Street. In addition, the area is well connected to the city by three metro lines, with a station from the Longgang line at the north end, the Shekou line running through the middle of the district, and the Luobao line along the southern side.

Pedestrian traffic density The street is famous for its dense pedestrian traffic, estimated at 300,000-500,000 people per day (Z. Chen 2010). The large number and diverse groups of people are attributed to ‘the dense and diverse land use of both sides of the street as well as in the broader HQB district’ (Z. Chen 2010).

Function Mix of commercial scales The area contains a mix of scales of commercial businesses with 20 large shopping centres (over 10,000m2 floor area), and 10,000 39

High levels of pedestrian traffic and the converted warehouses.

Source: Author

HQB road is 15 metres wide with footpaths of 20-30 metres either side.

Source: Author

small businesses with individual owners (Z. Chen 2010). The street also contains both expensive and cheap retail outlets as that Chen describes ‘a shopping destination for people with all levels and abilities of consumption’.

Public space HQB road is also an important public space in Shenzhen with ‘a diversity of activities, and most importantly the inclusiveness of the homogenous coexistence of different social groups and social interactions’(Z. Chen 2010, p.277).

Dense well-connected street grid As seen in the figure ground plan, HQB has a dense and well connected street grid.

Mix of land use rights holders There are over 40 land use holders in HQB district, and in most cases a number of different land owners within each block (Z. Chen 2010).

This differs from many developments in Shenzhen where it is common for one developer to have the rights to develop a whole block and in some cases a district, such as OCT. This mix of land user rights within a block has a number of advantages, with, ‘... the small scale land use parcels providing convenient condition for the development and self improvement of diverse businesses with different investment costs or uses that the owners feel fit. And more importantly, with different land owners clustered in the same block, the small open spaces and alleys between different properties all become indispensable public spaces’ (Z. Chen 2010, p.288).

Conclusions Both Huaqiangbei and Qingshuihe are similar in scale, however, it is clear that the Huaqiangbei has a much denser and better connected street network.

There are also a number of similarities between the sites: § Both have a number of warehouses, § Both are well connected by public transport (the connection of Qingshuihe will improve with the construction of the new metro station).

A key difference between the sites is that Huaqiangbei is a complete urban block, bordered

40

Small scale commercial activity behind the shopping centres. Source author 41

Diverse land uses across the district Source: Wang & Xu (2002)

0

Mix of commercial scales - small shops behind shopping malls Source: author

200m

Diverse land use right distribution Source: Chen (2010) based on materials from SPLRB

0

200m

by major roads and does not have any urban villages. This highlights both the importance of ensuring that Qingshuihe is less fragmented from its surrounds and better connected to the city, and the added complexity of the urban village.

Considering the HQB district Chen (Z. Chen 2010, p.310) draws a number of conclusions: § The market mechanism played a significant role in creating the vitality of HQB § The fine grain permeable streets provide the conditions for the cultivation of urban diversity in people usage and activities of the space. The attribute of open and east penetrability of the street network is also the most important condition for the space to be inconvenient for imposed spaced control from the outside. § The ‘sense of space’ as well as the emerging grass roots activities on HQB street reflects the power from the bottom up, and how it has challenged and reworked the iconographic representation of space imposed by the government.

Shopping mall in HQB Source: Author

42

Comparison at scale of street network in Qingshuihe and Huaqiangbei areas.

Source: Left image author, right author redrawn from Chen (2010)

Lessons from HQB There are a number of lessons that can be learnt from Huaqiangbei which are relevant for the Qingshuihe redevelopment. These are: § § § §

§ §

Need for a permeable street urban fabric, Importance of the connections to the city through the metro stations, Advantages of having mixed functions within the blocks, Advantages of having multiple buildings owners per block to promote diversity and the successful mixing of scales of commercial activity, The creativity of entrepreneurs in starting businesses, for example in the former warehouses, The development of the street as an important public space.

43

44

6

ANALYSIS

As the proposed planning and design approach is focused on understanding the local conditions and local actor needs, the analysis section forms a crucial element of the research project. The ďŹ rst part will consist of an analysis of actors and their power in the development process. The second part comprises of a detailed multi-scalar analysis of the urban conditions in relationship to the criteria of urban mobility ows and connectivity, urban form, function and public space. The analysis is used as the basis to develop the design principles, guidelines and framework plan, grounding them in the local conditions.

The analysis sections is structured in two parts 1. Actor analysis 2. Urban analysis

45

Actor analysis Establishing who are the actors, their demands and their relationships is a key part of the research project.The analysis has been undertaken using literature and information from the site visit. The actors have been divided into two groups, those without power in the redevelopment process (passive actors) and those with power in the process (active actors).

However, passive actors may become more involved in the process through input into guidelines and the negotiation process (section 8).

Active actors (with power in redevelopment) Government – Local Metropolitan and National Needs: Economic development, regional competitiveness, improved public service provision Influence in development process: High

The People’s Government of Luohu District (Local) and the Municipal Government of Shenzhen (Regional) have initiated the redevelopment process. The aims of the government are complex and varied, but include increased economic development (GDP, land prices), improving regional competitiveness (international consumer centre, better connections with Hong Kong), and improving local conditions (improved public services, ‘harmonious society’). In terms of power, the Municipal and Local governments are the most powerful actors, determining almost every aspect of the development process.

Discussing an urban renewal project in the Shekou district of Shenzhen, Xlaoli et al. (2012, p.4) described the government’s desires as being: § Higher land prices, § Improved public facilities, § Enhanced city appearance, § High GDP, § Attractive investment environment.

These government aims are also relevant for the SungangQingshuihe redevelopment, as well as the additional aims stated in the development brief (People’s Government of Luohu District Shenzhen & Urban Planning 2012), which include: § Better co-operation between Shenzhen and Hong Kong, § Improved integration inside and outside the Special Economic Zone - foundation for Luohu to become an international business and retail centre for the region – ‘international consumer centre’, § ‘Harmonious lifestyle’, § Increased co-operation with Hong Kong.

46

Active actors (with power in redevelopment)

Developers Needs: Maximum profit Influence in development process: High

The developers have a lot of financial and political power in the redevelopment process. They aim to maximise profit from a development, and ‘usually expend a lot of energy trying to increase the technical indexes of plot ratio and buildable area, while hoping to ignore costs required to solve potentially serious issues including inadequate public facilities, increased traffic, and sufficient car parking’ (X. Wu et al. 2012, p.4).

Village in City Corporation

GIONAL

Needs: Income from renting of land or property Influence in development process: Not directly involved in current proposal, but are well organised and can be an influential actor in future plans.

The Village in the City Corporation (Joint Stock Company) has been created by the original villages to govern the urban village. The company also manages the economic activities of the village (such as the leasing of property and the provision of services). The original villages are the shareholders as well as the employees (Hang 2006).

It is the joint stock company controlled by the original villages who can determine the future of the urban village, therefore giving the group power in future development plans.

47

Passive Actors (without power in redevelopment)

Residents Needs: More affordable housing, better public services.

Influence in development process: Low

Employment by type: Luohu urban village tenents Others 13% White collar 26%

Worker in industrial/service sectors 51%

Business owner 10%

Redrawn by author based on data from the Shenzhen Urban Planning Bureau (SUPB), cited

by Hao (2012)

The types of housing located in the study area vary from gated residential areas, former worker dormitories and an urban village. However, generally, there is a growing demand for improved public service provision from all urban residents (Ye 2012) as well as improved and more affordable living conditions (Xlaoli et al., 2012). The group that have the least power in the development process are the migrants from rural areas who are without urban Hukou. These migrants without urban hukou make up a large proportion of residents in the urban village (Hao 2012).

Reasons that the migrants live in the urban village include the flexibility of housing and contracts, the relatively good accessibility of the villages, and the lower rents Hao (2012). In addition, due to institutional barriers (hukou) and because of financial reasons, the migrants are unable to access the formal housing system, so often have no choice but to live in the urban villages.

Data from the Shenzhen Urban Planning Bureau (SUPB), cited by Hao (2012) gives an insight into the residents of the urban villages in the Luohu district.

Just over half of the tenants in the urban villages in Luohu district are workers in the industrial sector.

The next biggest group of tenants are ‘white collar workers’ followed by business owners. The relatively high percentage of ‘white collar’ and service sector workers in Luohu, in comparison to other districts outside the SEZ, can be attributed to the high number of commercial and professional businesses located in the Luohu district.

48

Passive Actors (without power in redevelopment)

Businesses (formal and informal) Needs: Customers for products and services Power in development process: low ‘Formal’ businesses

One of the main functions of the urban village is the commercial activity, which occupies the ground floor of most of the buildings connected to major access routes. There are also many formal businesses in the warehouse section of the site, mainly related to logistics and wholesaling. The urban village acts as a commercial area for the surrounding neighbourhoods.

‘Informal’ businesses

There are a number of locations in the study area where there are informal traders. The form of this informal business varies from small market style trading, to larger fresh food markets. The informal traders have very little influence in the redevelopment process.

Site users at the local, urban and regional scale Needs: Access to services of site Power in development process: Low

AL LOC

URBAN REGIONAL

Site users are people who use the site from the local, urban or regional scale. One of the main attractors of the site for non-residents is the commercial activity.

Therefore, the site users can be considered as people who use the site either for commercial activities, employment or social activity. Due to the site’s location at the edge of the former SEZ, adjacent to a wholesale market and well connected by transport infrastructure, these users also are from the regional and urban scale as well as local scale.

49

URBAN ANALYSIS This section contains the multi-scalar analysis of the existing urban conditions considering urban mobility ows/connectivity, public space and green structure, urban form and function. The analysis is used as the basis to develop the framework plan and guidelines, grounding them in the local conditions.

The analysis was informed by the site visit, mapping and theoretical research.

The Analysis is structured as follows: 1. Mobility ows and connectivity, 2. Public space and green structure, 3. Urban form, 4. Functions.

50

URBAN ANALYSIS

MOBILITY FLOWS The mobility ows have been analysed through mapping, site analysis and public transport data at the regional, urban and local scales.

51

Local scale mobility flows in the urban village

Sharing- mobility modes share space

Temporal- different flows throughout day

Scales of flows and local logistics

In Caopu urban village a number of mobility modes share the streets. These include pedestrians, motorbikes, cars, delivery vans and bicycles. The mixing allows the streets to be used simultaneously at different speeds by different users.

There is a sharp difference between the types and volumes of flows at different times. The photo above was taken at 3.30pm, nearby a school where there is a temporary market. Pedestrian traffic to the train station and bus stops also increases at the start and end of working day.

There are many scales of transport operating in the village, from pedestrians, motorbikes, small trucks and vans, private cars and bus. Logistics is also an important factors in the day to day life of the village, also operating at a number of scales from small delivery trucks, vans, delivery motorcycle/bicycles and movement of products by foot and trolly.

In logistics area

Logistics - large scale The main logistic ares of the site are designed for large trucks with access to the major city roads.

Well connected to city by Metro and Bus The edges of the site are well connected to the city networks via the bus and metro system.

However, the site is not well connected to the metro and bus station at the local scale.

56

Mobility flow conclusions

Local scale § At the local scale different areas have very varying characteristics in terms of the scales of mobility flows, from large scale in the industrial area to the more diverse and smaller scale mobility flows in the urban village.

Urban scale § At the urban scale it is difficult to access the bus and metro system from inside the site due to infrastructural barriers.

Regional scale § The site is well connected to the regional transport networks from the edges including road, rail, metro and bus.

Characteristics § There is currently a number of scales of mobility flows operating in the site, however, they are confined to separated areas and have limited connections. For example, the trucks in the logistics area using the regional road network, the mixed use streets in the urban village with small markets characterised by pedestrian and light vehicle flows, the gated residential areas with private roads and low levels of pedestrian and vehicle flows. § The urban village has limited vehicular access, therefore, the streets provide a safe and comfortable environment for pedestrians and bicycles.

Future considerations § The new metro station will have a big impact, improving the connection of the site the regional infrastructural networks, and drastically altering local scale flows.

57

URBAN ANALYSIS

CONNECTIVITY

The connectivity of an urban area is dependent on its street pattern and circulation networks. The circulation structure is often the longest lasting element in the city (Carmona et al. 2010), and a key determinant in the distribution of urban functions. The connectivity has been analysed with a space syntax analysis, mapping and site observations.

Passage connecting urban village and metro

58

Walking distance analysis Pedestrian connection from site to Caopu Metro station The dark blue lines represent a distance of 800 metres walk from the eastern side of the train tracks to the Caopu Metro station, while the circle has a radius of 800 metres. This shows the theoretical 800m catchment zone for the station, and the real catchment zone measured by walking distance. Residents in the grey shaded area are in the station ‘catchment’ zone. The degree of difficulty to access the station is evident when the difference in distance is compared between the pedestrian catchment and the theoretical 800 metre catchment.

800 m

400 m Caopu metro station

0

400

2000 Meters

The light blue circle represents an uninterrupted distance of 400 metres from the metro station, the dark blue circle, 800 metres. The darker lines represent the actual walking distance of 800 metres from the station. Drawn by author

59

Space syntax analysis A space syntax analysis has been undertaken to examine the levels of connectivity and integration of the road networks.

City scale integration

10000m

Integration (HH) 3

10000m

0

Integration analysis (HH) is ‘a measure of the average number of steps it takes to get from one line to any other within the axial map’ (Turner 2004). The routes coloured red are the most integrated, while the least integrated routes are coloured blue. From this analysis we see there is a high level of integration of the urban network in the older Luohu district to the south, and also within the Caopu urban village.

City scale connectedness City scale angular segment analysis. To undertake the angular segment analysis, a radius of 50km choice has been used. With this method the major roads of the city are clearly shown. Furthermore, the analysis demonstrates that from the edges the site is well connected to the major road infrastructure networks of the city.

10000m

Choice (Segment line weight) R 50000m

0

10000m

60

Local scale integration

500m

500m

0

Integration (HH) 3

The Caopu urban village is very well integrated with its frequent small streets which are shown in yellow, however, the lack of integration with the village and the surrounding areas is also apparent. The situation is similar in the gated residential areas located north of the urban village, which are reasonably well integrated internally but poorly integrated with the surrounding areas.

Local scale angular segment analysis Through this analysis the hierarchy within the village of connections is shown, with many of the roads and connecting pedestrian passages corresponding with the most well connected lines in the analysis (shown in red).

500m

0

1000m

Choice (Segment line weight) R 500m Metric

0

500m

61

Connectivity conclusions

Spacesyntax § The Space syntax analysis shows that the site is very well connected to the larger infrastructural networks from the edges and is well connected internally, but is also disconnected by the infrastructure to the surrounding neighbourhoods.

Urban scale § The site analysis corroborates the space syntax analysis findings, showing that the site is enclosed by the infrastructure networks (rail, road), and access from inside the site to the city is difficult. At the urban scale, the site is disconnected from the surrounding areas, but the residential areas within the site have a close functional and spatial relationship with the logistics area. § Local scale § The urban village area is highly permeable and has high levels of accessibility, offering many routes to pass through the neighbourhood and is well connected to the logistics area.

64

Mobility ows and connectivity Problems with existing development model Road dominated development The circulation of urban areas is in China is often based on vehicular roads, lacking a convenient pedestrian system (Miao 2011), with the development of the roads being more focused on the regional and city roads rather than the local scale (Z. Chen 2010). The lack of conventional pedestrian systems is evident in the New Guangzhou CBD development. There a many large main roads, up to ten lane roads, which are almost impossible to cross due to the barriers located along the footpaths. To cross the road, pedestrians are directed towards an inconvenient underpasses.

Proposal focused on redevelopment site A problem with the development of the large urban project is that the proposal is often focused on the development site and the connection of the site with other urban centres. This is at the expense of the local urban connections between the site to the surrounding areas.

B West side bus lines

?

M New Metro

?

M B Caopu station and east side bus lines

Connections between new station, Caopu station and bus stations unclear At the local scale, in the Qingshuihe redevelopment the connections between the major bus corridors, the existing metro station and the proposed metro station are unclear.

Local actor needs at the local scale Mobility choices and access to employment, recreation, health and culture in the city (C+F. N1) There is a demand for the provision of more and improve public services form residents in Chinese cities (Ye, 2012). Access public services from residents of the site can be increased by improving the connections between the site and the city, through improved public transport connections. This will allow for the residents of the site to access public services over a greater area.

Dense and well connected street grid providing a choice of routes and variety of uses (C+F. N2) Well connected and legible streets have a number of advantages for residents and users. They make it easier to access the area, they provide a choice of routes, and can create the conditions that can allow for a greater variety of local scale uses.

66

The new Guangzhou CBD. An example of new urban development dominated by major roads. Source: Author 67

URBAN ANALYSIS

PUBLIC SPACE AND GREEN STRUCTURE The public space and green structure analysis considers the larger green network at the regional and urban scale and public space at the urban and local scale. For this project, the local and urban scale public space is of particular importance as it is the public space network that encompasses space for both movement and social interaction, including economic, social and cultural exchange (Carmona et al. 2010). For the purpose of this analysis, public space is considered as unbuilt accessible urban space. The public space forms a key criteria in the analysis project, as in any new development if has the most longevity, and is an important space for the socioeconomically weaker groups, particularly, in the current context of space privatisation.

Public space at the local and urban scale Types of public space in the Qingshuihe site.

This analysis has been informed by the site visit and mapping.

In the Qingshuihe site there are a number of different accessible types of space that have been identified. These have been categorised and mapped.

The analysis is structured in two parts, firstly, the regional and urban green structure, and secondly, the urban and local public space, focussing on the study site.

Small triangle public space

Passages

Small paths in village Roads in village

Roads in industrial area

Industrial buildings

Public space School ground

Public space

Public space

Larger public space /car parks

Public space

Gated residenƟal

Urban village

Former dormitories

Public space in the study site

Residential 24% Industrial buildings 33%

§ § §

Roads 29%

Public space 12.5%

Public space consists of 41.5% of the total land area.

The largest type of public space in the site is roads (29% the total) 12.5% of the site consists of other types of public space located in the urban village area.

Public space in village by type

4.2% Small triangle spaces

20.2% Larger spaces and car parks

5.7% Passages

Public space

18.2% School ground

Public space

28.8% Small paths between buildings

23% Roads

Public space

0%

100%

Type of space

Area (m2)

% of total space in Village

Small triangle spaces

2455

4.2

Larger public space and car parks

11853

20.2

Passages

3339

5.7

School ground

10686

18.2

Small paths between buildings

16902

28.8

Roads

13496

23.0

§

§

§

§

The two largest forms of public space in the urban village are the corridors between buildings (28.8%) and the roads (23%), which together comprise of 41.8% of the total space in the urban village.

The space in-between buildings (corridors) is limited in its usefulness as a public space due to its narrowness lack of sunlight.

Many activities take place in the small triangle spaces located between the corridors and roads, however these spaces only consist of 4.2% of the public space in the village.

The larger public spaces, which consist of 20.2% of space in the village currently are used as car parking but provide an opportunity for better quality larger spaces.

Source: Author - calculated from CAD plan drawn from Seattleite maps.

70

Local scale public space by type in Caopu Village

Type: Large public spaces/carparks

Type Small triangle spaces

Distribution: Located adjacent to the vehicular circulation routes.

Qualities: These spaces form the few larger scale open spaces within the village and are located next to vehicular circulation routes.

Uses: These spaces currently are uses for recreation activities such as badminton, playing of pool and by children, however, all were also observed to have a number of parked cars in them.

Distribution: They spaces located at the interface between the roads and the residential buildings.

Qualities: These spaces are usually enclosed on three sides with one side facing the street.

Use: They are used as recreational or commercial spaces, including activities such as pool, playing cards parking or small stalls. They act as a transitional space between the roads and narrow corridors that lead to the buildings.

Source: Author

72

Local scale public space by type in Caopu Village

Type: Roads for vehicle access (4-8m)

Type: Corridors between buildings

Qualities: Form the main access and circulation routes in the village, often have an adjacent narrow footpath and in some cases street trees.

Uses: for vehicles, motorbikes, bicycles and pedestrians. They form the skeleton for the public space in the village, connecting all the other spaces and the village to the surrounding areas. The roads in the urban village could be considered as spaces that act as both social and movement spaces.

Distribution: Are located between all of the residential buildings in the urban village Qualities: Narrow and shaded these corridors lead to the entrances to the residential buildings.

Uses: Mainly for access but some are also used for drying washing and by children to play.

Source: Author

73

Local scale public space by type in Caopu Village

Type: Pedestrian passages

Type: Footpaths

Distribution: Connecting the village to surrounding areas and the major roads within the village Qualities: To narrow for cars or trucks, the pedestrian passages linking the village to surrounding areas have high levels of foot traďŹƒc.

Uses: The passages with high foot traďŹƒc have commercial activities, and also some informal and formal commercial activity.

Distribution: Located alongside the roads Qualities: The size varies from <1m to approximately 4 metres in sections.

Uses: They are used by pedestrians and often appropriated by commercial businesses for displays of products.

Source: Author

74

Type: Schools Distribution: Spaced quite consistently across the site.

Qualities: The school grounds were generally enclosed concrete areas with some trees.

Uses: by children for playing.

Source: Author

75

Local scale public space by type in Logistics area

Type: Loading space Distribution: Large amounts of loading space exist around most of the warehouse buildings Qualities: Large concrete areas, with parked trucks and containers.

Uses: For trucks to load and unload

Type: Roads in logistics area >20m wide Distribution: Evenly distributed through the logistics area Qualities: Wide roads (+20) for trucks. Some had street trees and footpaths.

Uses: Transport of vehicles

Source: Author

76

Comparison of existing and proposed public space/green structure

Existing Space in village Recreation / parking

School ground

Local public spaces

Footpaths

Pedestrian passages Pedestrian passage between building Road in village Space in logistics area Loading area trucks Road in logistics area 0

0

100m

100m

200 metres

200 metres

Proposal

The local scale public space proposed in the plan is not clear at this scale, however, the plan does not appear to have the diversity of public space that is needed and used by the existing residents, for example very local spaces to play cards or pool, smaller parks for parents and children, and larger spaces for recreation such as basketball.

0

100m

200 metres

77

Public space analysis conclusions §

The existing public space in the urban village is dominated by two types – the corridors between buildings and the roads – due to their characteristics both types can only be used for a limited number of functions.

§

The small scale triangle spaces, although few, are used for a wide variety of functions.

§

The large scale spaces are dominated by car parking limiting their use as a public space.

§

The accessible space in the logistics area is built for trucks and lacks a human scale, with vast areas of concrete and few trees.

§

Streets in urban village act as both social and movement space

Importance of local scale spaces for functions of urban village. Example from Qingshuihe urban village, Shenzhen. Local space with community notice board, small stall and outdoor seating area. Source: author

78

Public space - access and location Local actor needs Easily accessible public spaces (P.S. N 1) There is a need for public space, which is easily accessible. From a survey of 1,600 residents, the main reasons noted for dissatisfaction with the public space were far away distance of public space, and that it was not convenient to get to (Z. Chen 2010). The difficulty accessing public space was also observed on the site visit, with major roads separating the site from parks.

Public space related to daily movement systems and urban ďŹ&#x201A;ows (P.S. N2) In addition to been close by, the type and scale of the public space needs to relate to the local resident and user demands. For example, in the interviews undertaken in the urban village (see appendix 2) a group of grandmothers, looking after children explained how they could not walk to the large park as it was too far, so they had to take the children to play on the road at the base of their building

Problem

Problems with existing development model Disconnected spaces and fragmented governance of public space The various forms of public space come under the responsibility of different authorities and developers (actors). For example, private spaces in the residential compounds, urban villages, schools, and regional parks are all managed by different actors. There is no overall plan that considers how the spaces should relate to each other and the surrounding conditions and their connections, leading to a series of fragmented public spaces varying in quality.

Scale and location of space not relating to residential demands Many of the newly constructed public spaces are in the form of plazas or parks. However, these plazas serve a political or economic role. but do not respond to the spatial demands of the local residents and users. Furthermore, often large public spaces are located in places disconnected from pedestrian flows (Miao, 2011).

Risk of the privatisation of space It has been observed in Chinese cities that there is currently a loss of residential public space, due to the privatisation and gating of residential areas (Miao 2011). According to Chen (2010, p.263), the loss of this residential public space â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;indicates the loss of the most valuable urban public space, which is the closest to the everyday life of the people and provides the arena for social communication of city residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. In the Qingshuihe development, the division of land parcels into large developer blocks favours the current model of development in Shenzhen, where developers build public space within the block, but restrict access to the space to residents of that development.

79

Comparison of reasons for residents not using urban public open space

Comparison of urban public open space required by residents

Hot weather

Playground

Business recreational street

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5

50

Others

40

Community relaxational space

Far distance

30 20 10

Low pedestrian accessibility

Lack of space facilities

Park

Plaza

Waterfront space

The most required public space according to surveyed residents is Playgrounds (38%), Community relaxation space (35) and Park (33%).

Low green coverage

Low public security Low transit convienience

The main reason for residents not using public space is the hot weather (48%) followed by â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;far distanceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (27%) and lack of space facilities (24%).

Source: Re-drawn by Author based on data from the SPOSRP, Systematic Report on Public Open Space in Shenzhen SEZ, (2005) Urban Planning and Design Institute of Shenzhen cited by (Chen 2010)

Privatised and empty public space in gated residential area in Sungang district, Shenzhen. Source: Author

80

Public space - types Local actor needs

More public space (P.S. N3) There is insufficient public space across Shenzhen. The residents of the urban villages and former dormitory buildings, particularly, face a lack of relatively small community level public open spaces (Z. Chen 2010). It was observed in Caopu urban village that the few public spaces that do exist are dominated by parked cars, and in interviews many residents complained about the lack of public space.

Diversity in types of space (P.S. N4) Diverse types of space provide greater opportunities and choice for different users, allowing for diverse functions throughout the day.

While the need for more local spaces has been mentioned, streets and plazas also play an important role in the city: In traditional Chinese cities, streets provided transportation, opportunities for trading and festivals for the people. However, the functional integration of the street has been excluded from modernist urban planning since the establishment of the socialist state (Z. Chen 2010). In the urban villages of Shenzhen, in contrast to other parts of the city, it was observed that the urban villages have a very active street life with many commercial activities, busy pedestrian flows, and small scale adjacent public spaces. In the urban villages the streets act as ‘places’, as described by Jacobs (1967), and not just as corridors for traffic flow.

The large public plaza is not a traditional form of public space in Chinese cities. However, ‘the nodal form better suits social gatherings that need a static setting outside of traffic flows.

Therefore, today’s urban residents do demand more squares and parks’ (Miao 2011, p.184).

During the site visit, one particularly well used form of public space was observed in the urban village area - the small triangle space. These triangular spaces were located at the interface between the urban village corridors and local roads. The spaces served diverse uses such as socialising areas, recreation, public notice boards and small market stalls.

81

Problems with existing development model in relation to public space types Proposal has two main types of space The public space proposed for the Qingshuihe redevelopment appears to focus on the plaza and the park, however, as observed in the urban village, a diversity of local scale spaces is important for the everyday life of the residents and site users.

Public space in large urban projects is designed for new actors The public space in many new developments is focused on serving new actors, not existing local residents. This is particularly the case in areas that aim to serve regional economic ambitions, such as the Futian CBD or the new Guangzhou CBD.

Lack of neighbourhood spaces, and many existing open spaces used are car parks. In this example from Qingshuihe urban village, Shenzhen where public space has been ďŹ lled with parked cars. Source: Author

82

Public space - qualities Local actor needs Space for residents, users and commercial operators to create local identity (P.S. N5) It is important that the space allows for existing residents and site users to create their own local identity in the public space through their daily activity. It was observed that many of the spaces in urban village had a unique local identity, with diverse uses such as playing pool, selling and eating food, or as a play area for children.

Local scale qualities (P.S. N6) Many of the public spaces observed in Shenzhen and the site were lacking local scale qualities. Often the smaller spaces in the urban village were dominated by concrete with little shade and few seating areas. Other spaces were located next to major roads. Due to the humid subtropical climate in Shenzhen with temperatures hovering around 30 degrees Celsius in the summer months, shade is an important determinant of the comfort of public space. An example of the importance of local scale qualities is the physical improvements to Huaqiangbei Street, Shenzhen, where the extension of the footpaths has created a more appealing space for street activities and pedestrians (Z. Chen 2010, p.293).

Local scale

R

re

rsto

upe

ls ona egi

Opportunity for different scales of commercial activity (formal and informal) through markets, commercial streets and well connected spaces. (P.S. N7) In areas such as the urban villages, informal trading plays an important role particularly for the migrants. According to (Miao 2011, p.200), â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;lacking capital and skills, the majority of unemployed local residents and immigrants from the countryside find that peddling is one of the few choices they have to make a livingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. These local informal markets also serve a signification economic role, providing affordable produce to the residents.

83

URBAN ANALYSIS

URBAN FORM

2

This section analysis examines the type, density, distribution and condition of the existing urban form. The urban form is important as it determines the functions that can take place in the buildings, but also the qualities of daily life for the local actors. In addition, the urban form is a key determinant in the identity of the site.

Densities at urban scale

The Floor Area Ratios (FAR) of the buildings across the site have been calculated. Areas that comprise of buildings of a similar type have been combined. The lowest urban densities are in the logistics area, with large areas of unbuilt loading and storage space. Some of the highest plot densities are in the gated residential areas and the urban villages.

11

29 10 28 4

5

27 9 26 87 8 25 37 33

3 73 88

6

30

32

2

96

31

36 53 35

89

74

54

80 55

66

97

58

1

52

7

34 63 64

65 98

39

40

41

42

43

44

16 59

99

15

45

46

47

48

90

14

49

75

79

67

76

78 51 50

68 12

92 77 24

23

22

17

For data see Appendix 3

0

200M

F.A.R. 0-1.99 F.A.R. 2-2.99 F.A.R. 3-3.99 F.A.R. 4-13

86

Urban densities at local scale

At the local scale there is a large variation in the urban densities, particularly in the land at the edge of the urban village and the logistics areas, but also within the logistics areas. As expected the Caopu urban village (areas 1 and 2) has a high density, as well as the gated residential area to the north (area 30).

26 87 8 25 37 3 73 88

6

30

32

2

96

31

36 53 35

89

74

54

80 55

66

97

58

1

52 34

63 64

65 98

39

40

41

42

43

44

16 59

99

15

45 90

46

47

48 49

14

79

67

76

For data78see Appendix 3

0

400M

F.A.R. 0-1.99 F.A.R. 2-2.99 F.A.R. 3-3.99 F.A.R. 4-13

87

Urban densities - analysis

Most uses (except residential) are located on plots less than 1000m2

Floor area ratio vs plot size

Floorspace vs plot size The FAR densities of all the urban villages is relatively consistent at 3.64. This differs from the other residential areas which have a much greater variation in their FAR and plot size, showing that the qualities of these residential areas differ greatly. § Most land uses are located on plots less then 1000m2, with only some residential uses (urban villages and other residential) on the larger plots.

However, this analysis has some limitations: § It does not account for the commercial activity that is located within the urban village, with from observations was a signification function of the ground floor of the buildings. § The FAR of some of the logistics areas is distorted by the vacant land parcels. §

88

Urban form conclusions Density § Large variation in density across the site with high density residential areas and the low density former logistics area. § The existing high densities mean there is a large demand for public space and services.

Typologies § Clusters of different typologies across the site. § Variation in the type and quality of residential buildings Functions § Existing urban form allows a diverse range of local scale functions, particularly in the urban village Identity § The are a number of characteristic typologies and specific buildings that form give the site an important identity.

Opportunities § A number of logistic and warehouse buildings of reasonable quality with potential for reuse.

Identity. A number of unique structures that contribute to the identity. Source: author.

91

Comparison of existing and proposed densities

Proposal Heights Heights § A corridor of higher buildings is planned in the centre of the site aligned north-south

Source: KCAP

Existing

8

Density

25 25

37

37

3

Warehousing

3

73 73

88

6

88

30

32

Land area

90026

No less than

300000

Floor Area Ratio

3.33

6 30

32

2 2

Offices and research 96

31

36 53 35

89

74

54

31 35

55 1

52

89

58

34

96

36 53

80

66

97

58

74

80

54

66

97 34

63 64

98

40

41

42

43

Warehousing FAR 3.33

44

169620

No less than

400000 2.36

Residential

65

39

land area

Floor Area Ratio

1

52

Office/R&D FAR 2.36

Office/R&D FAR 2.36

Residential FAR 2.46

Land area

101620

No more than

250000

Floor Area Ratio

2.46

16 59

99

F.A.R. 0-1.99

15 Warehousing FAR 3.33

45 90

46

47

Office/R&D FAR 2.36

Residential

Office/R&D FAR 2.36

FAR 2.46

48 49

F.A.R. 2-2.99

14

79 79

67

76

0

200M

67

F.A.R. 3-3.99 76

Source: Shenzhen Sungang - Qingshuihe Area Urban development unit planning framework (Draft) Shenzhen Urban Planning and Land Resources Committee People’s Government of Luohu District, Shenzhen, March 2012 (in Chinese)

Density § While the new urban densities can only be calculated by averaging the recommended square metres that will be allocated to each new function, it appears that there will generally be an increase in the densities across the site. § With the larger blocks it also appears that the new densities will be more even than the existing densities.

0

200M

F.A.R. 4-13

Conflicts § Developer projects - risk of homogenous typologies and blocks. § Demolition of all existing buildings? loss of identity and character р

р

36

92

Urban form Local actor needs at the local scale Importance of urban form for existing local scale functions (U.F. N1)

The current urban form in the urban village area allows for many local scale functions, such as local commercial activity that occupy the ground floor of the buildings with dwellings on the upper floors.

Diverse urban form for functional diversity and aďŹ&#x20AC;ordability (U.F. N2)

As many of the residents of the urban village areas have a low income, the existing urban form allows for affordability. In addition, the current warehouse buildings and areas of the urban village allow for the establishment of many small businesses and a local economy.

These businesses range from retailers, to small wholesalers and transport companies that serve the larger region.

Problems with existing development model in relation to urban form Developer projects - lack of diversity in building typologies

In the new residential developments, most of the buildings consist of the same typology - the apartment tower. This lack of typological diversity translates into a lack of functional diversity and limited flexibility in the future.

Development of large parcels risks demolition of existing buildings and urban identity

Since the site has been divided into large parcels separated by major roads, it is likely that a single developer will develop each of the large parcels. It is possible that the generic development formula of tabular rasa demolition and the creation of a series of apartment towers, or a sea of office towers, will be built on the site. This approach to development does not respond to the local conditions and with a limited type of building, opportunities for a functional and affordable mix of dwellings are reduced

93

URBAN ANALYSIS

FUNCTION

Identifying the existing urban functions is important to understand the ways that the local actors use the site and its role at the regional, urban and local scale. When considering the circulation network, public space or urban form it is the functions of a site that can change most frequently and easily.

As the logistics area has not reached the end of its functional life, understanding how the site its currently used and its existing functions is important to know what can be the potential new functions.

The current urban functions have been analysed with planning maps from the local government and mapping undertaken during the site visit.

Local scale function - market in Qingshuihe urban village. Source: Author

94

Function by footprint area §

§

Small triangle public space Larger public space and car parks Passages School ground small paths in villages Roads in village Roads in industrial area

Biggest land use (by footprint area) is concrete loading area around logistics buildings (36%), followed by warehouses (20%) and roads in logistics area (14%) Only 14.4% of the land is residential buildings (this includes the urban villages which have a commercial and residential functions )

Loading area around industrial buildings

Industrial buildings Ground floor commercial Gated residential Former dormitories residential Residential buildings urban village

Public space

Roads

Logistics

PUBLIC SPACE Small triangle public space Larger public space and car parks Passages School ground Small paths in villages ROADS Roads in village Roads in industrial area

Commercial

m2 2455

% 0.40

11853

1.94

3339 10686 16902

0.55 1.75 2.76

13496 90808

2.20 14.84

LOGISTICS Loading area around industrial buildings Industrial buildings COMMERCIAL Ground floor commercial activity RESIDENTIAL Gated residential Former dormitories residential Residential buildings urban village

Residential

m2 % 219627 35.88 120085 19.62 34733

5.67

13758 9459

2.25 1.55

64866

10.60

97

Functions conclusion

§

§

§

The current main function of the area is as a logistics hub.

There is no longer a need for such a large logistics area in Luohu so the area requires a functional transformation.

Much of the site, including the logistics area and gated residential areas mono-functional. The exception is the urban villages which house a number of functions including residential, commercial and educational activity.

The urban villages with multiple functions, with high pedestrian flows and a lively atmosphere have many of the characteristics of ‘urban vitality’ (Montgomery 1998).

There are a number of small wholesaling businesses operating in the logistics area. Source: author

101

Function

Comparison of existing and proposed functions

Existing land use and function The existing logistics and gated residential area mono-functional.

There is a diversity of urban functions within the urban village which includes residential, commercial and education. This diversity of functions gives the area an urban vitality lacking in other areas.

Furthermore, the commercial businesses serve an area much larger than just Caopu village.

0

Source: Author

100M

Proposed land use and functions framework plan The plan proposes a number of themed districts, which in include ‘fashion and design’, ‘Motor city’, ‘Showroom - Exhibition and production experience’, ‘West Coco - Eco logistics park’, and ‘Eastcoco Fashion and living’.

0

Source: KCAP

100M

Planned land use and function - Statutory plan The functions in the planning plan appear much less diverse than those proposed in the framework plan, with a large residential areas, Office and R&D area and logistics area.

0

100M

Source: Shenzhen Sungang - Qingshuihe Area Urban development unit planning framework (Draft) Shenzhen Urban Planning and Land Resources Committee People’s Government of Luohu District, Shenzhen, March 2012 (in Chinese)

102

Function Problems with existing development model

CREATIVE GATEWAY INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER CENTRE

Lack of recognition of existing identity The plan for an ‘International Consumer Centre’ and ‘Creative Gateway’ neglects existing user needs and does not allow for the organic evolution and creation of identity by local actors and users. Instead, an external identity is imposed. As noted by Miao , ‘... many projects are aimed at showcasing the administration’s accomplishments to upper-level officials, tourists, foreign investors and other short-term visitors, these big-budget developments frequently become mere fake facades that have little to do with local residents’ needs’ (Miao 2011, p.181).

Planning approach may create mono-functional areas The planning approach in Qinqshuihe may promote the creation of large mono functional areas, with the zoning appearing to be for large residential areas on the east, R&D and offices in the central section and logistics functions in the western side.

Developer preference favours large retail tenants and international image Many new developments favour large scale and prestigious retail tenants, neglecting the local scale economy. An example is the international mall which is located in the base of the Kingkey100 building in Shenzhen, which is located next to an urban village, but the mall is filled with expensive international chain stores.

103

Function Local actor needs at the local scale Health

Education Culutre

Local demand for improved public services (Fn. N1)

Mixed use (Fn. N2)

Local demand for improved public services (Fn. N1) There is a growing local demand for the improved provision of public services, as noted by Ye (2012), ‘Public service delivery needs to become the priority of Chinese cities in order to fulfil the true benefits of urbanisation equitably and improve the quality of life for urban residents’ (Ye, 2012, p. 3). This desire for improved public services was also found during interviews undertaken during the site visit, with many respondents in the urban village area commenting on the lack of educational and healthcare facilities.

Mixed use (Fn. N2) Need for local businesses for areas with diverse functions and land uses. There are many small businesses in the urban village areas, occupying the ground floor of many buildings. This local economy relies on a multifunctional urban area with diverse land uses. In newer apartment complexes, the level of street life and commercial activity observed during the site visit was much less than that in the multi- functional urban village areas.

According to Jacobs (1969) the city and many of its parts must serve more than one primary function. Furthermore, people should be using the streets and neighbourhoods for different activities at different times of the day.

For mixed use to be successful, three conditions must be met (Jacobs 1969, p. 213), § People using the streets at different times and must use the same streets, § People must use some of the same facilities, § A mixture of people on the street at one time of day must bear some reasonably proportionate relationship to people there at other times of the day.

It is important that ‘mixed use also occurs not only within a block or development site, or on a development site but also within building blocks both horizontally and vertically’ (Montgomery, 1998, p. 105).

Attractors and different scales of functions (Fn. N3) One of the elements that makes Huaqiangbei successful is the different scales of commercial activity that take place, having 20 large shopping centres, as well as 10,000 small businesses. This makes it a shopping district for people of all abilities of consumption (Z. Chen 2010, p.274).

Attractors and different scales of functions (Fn. N3)

104

The importance of local scale commercial functions can be seen in this market in Caopu Urban Village, Shenzhen. Source: Author 105

7

PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES The principles and guidelines have been developed according to local actor needs at the local, urban and regional scale, established in the analysis (section 6), and according to relevant theory.

The design principles are intended to deďŹ ne common objectives between the actors, considering higher scale objectives and local actor needs, creating to create a bridge between the regional economic ambitions and local scale demands. The guidelines are developed according to the principles, and can act as a tool for negotiation between actors during the development process.

The framework plan incorporates the principles and guidelines and considers the larger urban scale, and in particular the connections of the site to surrounding areas.

107

Mobility flows and connectivity Principle Improve the urban vitality of the site through the coexistence of difference scales of mobility flows (C+F. P1) Guideline Develop at least four scales of streets, to allow for different scales of mobility flows (C+F. G1)

Boulevard 35m

Main road 30m

The different scales of streets, which serve different networks from the local to the urban and regional will better allow for the coexistence of regional and local scale functions. § Boulevard (regional scale) Connect the site to the regional scale roads, with up to six lanes of traffic. A planted median in the centre assists pedestrians in crossing the road and improves the visual quality. § Main road (urban scale) Connects the site to the surrounding urban areas, the local roads and boulevards. It has wide footpaths allowing for large shade trees, as well as a planted median and bicycle lanes. § Shared Street (local scale) Based on the scale of the local roads in the urban village, connects the existing local streets to the site, and provides diversity of choice within the site. They are predominantly pedestrian, but allow for infrequent vehicles. § Lane (local scale) Acts as a connector between the different streets, is designed for pedestrians. The lane improves the local scale connectivity, and also allows for a greater mix in users and local scale commercial activity.

Shared street 10m

Lane 7m

Boulevard Main road

Local shared street Lane

The hierarchy of streets within the new development site.

Source: Author

0

100m

200 metres

108

Mobility ďŹ&#x201A;ows and connectivity Principle Improve the accessibility from the site to the region and from the region to the site (C+F. P2) Guideline Ensure a pedestrian connection between the major transport nodes (C+F. G2)

B West side bus lines

Max distance 600m

In terms of public transport, the site is well serviced with major bus routes, an existing metro station, and another planned.

However, there is an opportunity to create a better connection between these transport hubs, better connecting the site to the city networks, and also allowing the public transport hubs to act as attractors at the east and west sides of the site, encouraging pedestrian activity throughout the site.

To ensure pedestrian connectivity, maximum walking distances between the transport hubs are proposed: § West bus station and central metro station maximum distance 600m M Max distance § Central metro station and 400m B Caopu station and east side bus lines M New Metro East bus station/Caopu metro station maximum 400m

0m 40 ax

M

Max 600m

B

M

400m radius

M B

400m radius

M

Existing metro station

M

Proposed metro station

B

Proposed Bus station

0

The maximum walking distances between the various transport hubs Source: Author

100m

0

200 metres

100m

200 metres

109

Mobility flows and connectivity Principle Improve the diversity of uses and create conditions that to benefit the local economy (C+F. P3)

m

45

45

m

45

m

Guideline Develop permeable blocks and a dense and well connected street grid (C+F. G3)

Area A 20% permeable

Area B 15% permeable

90

Urban permeability refers to the scale of the urban block in relation to the routes to move through the neighbourhood.

Permeable neighbourhoods are neighbourhoods with smaller block sizes (max 90x90 metres according to Montgomery [1998]). There are a number of advantages of smaller blocks, including perceptions of safety, encouraging diversity and benefits for local businesses.

Diversity - Having more permeable urban blocks can also generate an increase in the mix of functions leading to more successful urban areas (URBED, 1997). According to Jacobs (1969), smaller blocks and ‘...frequent streets are effective in helping to generate diversity only because of the way they perform. The means by which they work (attracting mixtures of users along them) are inextricably related (Jacobs, 1969, p. 243).

Local economy - It is the mix of uses and users that also benefits the local economy, with increased footfall and more corner blocks encouraging small businesses (Montgomery, 1998).

A dense and well connected street grid, created by permeable blocks, provides pedestrian legibility and, as discussed in the Huaqianbei case study (page____), can create possibilities for commerce and promote activities in the public space

m 45

m

45

m

90m Area B 15% permeable

Area C 5% permeable

90

90

m

m

90m Area C 5% permeable

Area A 25% permability Area B 15% permability Area B 10% permability

The level of permeability of the block as a percent and the maximum block size for the area. Source: Author

0

20

100 Meters

110

Connectivity and mobility flows Principle Ensure the surrounding urban areas benefit from the redevelopment of the site (C+F. P4) Guideline Embed the site in the urban surrounding urban fabric, improving connections to surrounding neighbourhoods (C+F. G4) Due to the historical development of the area as a logistics hub, the site is currently fragmented from surrounding areas by major infrastructure. To better integrate the site with the surrounding districts, a number of new connections at different scales are required. The better connections with the surrounding areas would mean that the benefits from the redevelopment of the site, such as improved services and public space, could be accessed by residents in the surrounding areas.

Boulevard Main road

Local shared street Lane

Connections at different scales to the surrounding urban areas Source: Author

0

100m

200 metres

111

Public space accesses and location Principle Promote the development of social space through the creation of a public space network allowing for improved cultural, social and economic exchange (P.S. P1) The public space is also fragmented due to the different actors involved in the creation of public space. A new planning approach that can better co-ordinate the provision of public space is required.

In addition, the public space in the site is separated due to the major transport infrastructure for the movement of vehicles and trains. However, better connected public spaces forming a network could promote pedestrian movement between the different types of public space and around the site. This public space network could better accommodate the realms of ‘movement space’ and ‘social space’, providing better space for people to engage in various forms of exchange including social, cultural and economic (Carmona, Heath, Tiesdell, & Oc, 2010, p. 83).

Principle Create more public space related relate to the local urban flows, densities and functions (P.S. P2) The public space should accommodate the local scale spatial demands of existing residents and site users, while also considering the new actors and site users. The size and types of public space needs to consider the existing urban flows, densities and functions, so that it can be useful to the current residents and site users. A variety is important as it can facilitate different functions and provide a greater diversity in opportunities, creating a more lively area. One way to ensure this is to have diversity in the size of spaces.

112

Variety of spaces, local scale public plaza - Darfun Art village, Shenzhen.

Variety of spaces, neighbourhood park - Hubei Village

Street as public space in Qinghuihe urban village, Shenzhen

Public street - Huaqiangbei shopping district, Shenzhen.

Local scale spaces, men playing Mahjong and a small shop adjacent to a local space in Qingshuihe urban village, Shenzhen.

Local scale spaces, a game of pool in a local scale public space in Qingshuihe urban village, Shenzhen All images on this page from author

113

Public space qualities Principle Recognise the local identities in the development of public space and allow flexibility for the incorporation of new identities (P.S. P3) For this to be possible, the public space must have an element of flexibility in its design so that it can accommodate diverse functions and users. For example, sheltered places may be used for group exercise, stairs may be used for sitting and eating, and busy passages may be used for informal markets.

Principle Develop local scale qualities (P.S. P4) For spaces to be inviting and pleasant, they must include local scale qualities. According to Gehl (2004), important elements for pedestrian environments include: - Protection against traffic, crime and unpleasant sense experiences; - Comfort, in terms of walking, standing, sitting, seeing.

Possibility for hearing/talking and play; - Enjoyment, consideration of scale - Positive climate and aesthetic quality.

Principle Space for different scales of activity to promote urban vitality (P.S. P5) As noted by Montgomery (1998), the key to urban vitally is a diverse transaction base. While commercial activity is only one part of this transaction base, according to Montgomery (1998, p. 99), ‘without a transaction base of economic activity at many different levels and layers, it will not be possible to create a good urban place’. Therefore, to promote urban vitality the public space should serve different scales and types of activity from formal to informal at the local, urban and regional scale.

114

Existing commercial street in Qingshuihe, Shenzhen. The commercial activity forms an important part of the identity.

Trees provide shade for the seating area at Shamian Island, Guangzhou.

Leyuan Road street in Hubei village, Shenzhen, a street with a stong identiy famous for its seafood restaurants.

Popularity of public art at Shamian Island Sculptural seating combined with trees park, Guangzhou. in plaza in Dongmen shopping district, Shenzhen.

Opportunities for informal markets on the boundaries where there is less spatial control exercised, for example in tunnels or on bridges.

This informal market is located in a tunnel to Qingshuihe urban village, Shenzhen.

Market and shopping malls coexisting in Huaqiangbei district, Shenzhen.

Jewellery Market in courtyard behind buildings in Guangzhou.

All images on this page from author

115

Public space Guideline Develop a diďŹ&#x20AC;erent types of public spaces related to the local, urban and regional scale spatial demands (P.S. G1) Five scales of public space to be included in the redevelopment are:

Very local spaces >100m2 and <200m2 Small, but frequent local scale spaces provide diverse opportunities for recreation, socialising, and local commercial activities.

Neighbourhood space >200m2 and <600m2 Neighbourhood spaces provide local recreation spaces, which may include a small playground for children, sports facilities such as basketball courts, seating and trees for shade, depending on the surrounding spatial demands.

Urban space >4000 and <6000m2 Depending on the local spatial demands, these spaces could provide a larger urban plaza which may include recreation space, occasional commercial activity such as markets, as local scale qualities including seating, trees and lawn areas.

Regional park >6000m2

There is an existing large regional park network in Shenzhen.

It is important that the site is connected to this regional green structure, providing opportunism for recreation.

116

Example of neighbourhood space, Hubei Village, Shenzhen. Source: Author

Example of urban space, Shamian Island park Guangzhou. Source: Author

Regional park near De Lang, Shenzhen. Source: Author

117

Public space Guideline Connect the different types of public space (P.S. G2) It is important that the public space is connected to form a network of spaces. As shown in the below diagram, through the network of public spaces access all scales of public space should be possible.

Guideline Ensure accessibility of public space (P.S. G3) The below diagram illustrates the requirements for access to space as determined by distance from any point in the development determined by walking distance, § A very local space must be within 30m, § A neighbourhood space within 100m, § A local space within 150m, § An urban park within 250m, § Access to the regional park network within 350 metres.

8100m² Regional network park >6000m²

6400m²

Area of space (metres²)

4900m² 3600m² 2500m² Urban space >4000m²and <6000m²

1600m² 900m² Local space >800m² and <2000m²

400m²

Neighborhood space >200m² and <600m²

100m² 0

Very local space

A 0

>100m² and <200m²

20

60

100

140

180

220

260

300

340

380

420

Distance from point A (metres)

118

Urban form Principle Promote functional diversity and affordability in the new development and recognise the existing local identities (U.F. P1)

Guideline To ensure a variety of rents and uses a percentage of the older buildings should be maintained in the different stages of the development (U.F. G1)

80 70 60 50 % 40 30 20 10 0

Phase one (1-5 years) Retain 70% of existing buildings

Phase Two (5-10 years) Retain 50% of existing buildings

Phase three (10+ years) Retain 30% of existing buildings

While the area has a relatively short history of only 30 years, the retention of a number of the older warehouse and residential buildings will ensure that during the redevelopment there will be a variety of rents allowing for a variety of users (Bentley et al. 1985). In addition, as noted by (Miao, 2011) the retention of older buildings, and existing uses can help slow full scale gentrification.

To ensure a variety of rents and uses maintain percentage of the of older buildings in the different stages of the development Indication of buildings that could be retained during the phases

0

100m

Phase One (1-5 years) Retain 70% of existing buildings

200 metres

0

100m

200 metres

Phase Two (5-10 years) Retain 50% of existing buildings

0

100m

200 metres

Phase three (10+ years) Retain 30% of existing buildings

Retention of buildings and certainty As the buildings would require quite substantial investment to retain, it is possible that once the investment had been made, and if the buildings were successful they would remain longer than initially planned. Thus, it needs to be considered when proposing times frames that while 5 years into the future can predicted with reasonable certainty, the level of uncertainty is much greater 10 years into the future of the site.

119

Urban form Principle Promote urban vitality by connecting the densities and heights with the regional urban networks, and promote local scale activities in the areas adjacent to existing residential areas. (U.F. P2) Guideline A range in densities and heights across the site, with higher density aligned to the major east west and north south axis (U.F. G2) The proposal aims to allow a better coexistence between local and regional scale functions. This can be achieved by aligning the regional functions with the well connected north-south and east-west roads, and the metro and bus system, allowing better regional connectivity to these areas. To allow for the local scale functions, lower densities are proposed in the areas adjoining existing residential areas, promoting greater diversity and reducing development pressure on existing areas to encourage the retention of a greater percentage of the existing buildings.

High Density: Max FAR3 Heights: Up to 80m Medium Density: Max FAR 2 Heights: Up to 50m Low Density: Max FAR 1.5 Heights: Up to 30m

0

100m

200 metres

120

Function Principle Promote vitality by creating a mix in the scales and types of functions across the site (Fn. P1)

One of the elements that makes Huaqiangbei such a successful area is the different scales of commercial activity that occur there. There are 20 large shopping centres, as well as 10,000 small businesses. This makes it a shopping district for people of all abilities of consumption (Chen, 2010, p. 274). A mix of functions is also an important factor in attracting visitors to stay and to buy according to Miao (2011).

Principle Encourage different developers to develop the same block, to promote diversity in functions and types of urban form with a new planning approach (Fn. P2) By having different developers develop the same block, different functional and urban qualities can coexist within the same block.

In addition, as noted by Z. Chen ( 2010), the alleyways between the developments can become important public spaces.

Principle Improve access to public services through increased provision, and also better connectivity to the city networks to allow residents to access public services across the city (Fn. P3).

121

Function Guideline Higher functional mix in high density areas located near transport hubs and a mix of functions within blocks.

(Fn. G1) Have a higher functional mix in the higher density areas connected to the regional infrastructures of the roads and metro, as well as a greater functional mix in areas bordering existing residential development. This broader functional mix can allow for the coexistence of local scale functions, as well as regional function within the same areas.

Level of functional mix across the site

M B Medium High

B

M

Low

Low

High

0

100m

200 metres

High functional mix

Moderate functional mix

Low functional functional mix mix Low

M

Metro Station

B

Bus station

M

Proposed metro station

122

Mobility flows and Connectivity Framework plan

M B B M

§ § §

Improved connections between site and surrounding neighbourhoods Hierarchy of flows with local scale connections Connection between major transport hubs (metro and bus stations).

0

M

Existing metro station

M

Proposed metro station

B

Proposed Bus station

100m

200 metres

Major arterial Minor arterial

Local shared street Local pedestrian street Tram route

124

Green structure Framework plan

The connection of the site with the surrounding green structure

0

100m

200 metres

125

Public space network Framework plan

0

100m

200 metres

Hierarchy of public space from connections to regional parklands to small corner spaces at edge of streets Position in hierarchy determined by surrounding functions, and connections.

Network of spaces - connect spaces to each other Flexibility and opportunity for appropriation (informal trading) but also for diverse uses Functional diversity - spaces for diďŹ&#x20AC;erent users at diďŹ&#x20AC;erent times

126

Urban form Framework plan

0 High Density: Max FAR Heights: Up to 80m Medium Density: Max FAR Heights: Up to 50m

100m

200 metres

Densities related to access to public transport and services. Higher densities to east of site.

Increased diversity in form across site, to suit proposed diversity in function.

Smaller scale near to urban village area.

Retention of suitable warehouses

Low Density: Max FAR Heights: Up to 30m

127

Function Framework plan

M B

B

M

0

100m

200 metres

High functional mix

Moderate functional mix

Low functional mix

M

Metro Station

B

Bus station

M

Proposed metro station

0

100m

200 metres

128

Framework plan

0

100m

200 metres

129

130

8 LOCAL SCALE STRATEGY The approach of using a development framework, design principles and guidelines as a tool for negotiation and development will be tested at the local scale at two contested edges of the site. How the approach can work as a platform for negotiation between actors, required planning tools, as well as implementation agreements will also be considered through a scenario based investigations.

Recommendations for changes that would be necessary to allow for a the new planning approach proposed in this thesis will be discussed.

1 2

0

20

100 Meters

The approach will be tested at two locations marked in the plan (1) and (2).

Both locations are contested borders between the new development and the existing urban village.

131

Development of a new planning approach

National Government

National Government

District Government

Local scale actors and individuals

Existing approach

New planning approach District Government New planning approach

Local scale demands

Municipal Government

Guidelines and principles

Economic demands

New planning approach

Municipal Government Municipal Government

Local scale actors and individuals

Proposed approach

Planning instrument The approach was adapted from the Handbook for multi-level urban Governance in Europe (Tasan-kok & Vranken 2011)

Aim The instrument aims to: § Connect the economic objectives of the National, Municipal and District Governments with the local scale spatial demands. § Provide a tool the for Local and Municipal government to negotiate with private sector interests (developers).

Principle of instrument § Interconnect the issues and priorities of diverse levels of governance § Define common objective of diverse levels of governance § Interconnect actions at different levels of governance § Interconnect competition and cohesion aims § Allow negotiations and participation with constant and transparent communication Participants National Government, Regional Government, Local Government, Village in city corporations (Neighbourhood),private sector enterprises

132

Planning strategy for local scale and negotiation Steps, actions and method An outline of the steps, actors and method for the proposed new planning approach.

STEP ACTION

ACTORS

METHOD

1

Establish relevant actors involved

Municipal and Local Government

Research by Municipal and Local Govt. & consultation with potentially affected actors.

2

Determine the relevant design principles for the site

Municipal and Local Government

Research by Municipal and Local Govt. Consultation with potentially affected actors.

3

Define common objectives for the development according to the principles, considering higher scale objectives and local actor needs.

Municipal, Local Government Active actors With input from affected passive actors

Meetings and workshops with actors, government and affected passive actors.

Municipal Government Active actors Affected passive actors

Meetings and workshops. The benefits, obligations and constraints for all actors are listed discussed.

Municipal Government (Administers contracts and can be part of agreement) Active actors

1. Regulation through planning law 2. Multi-party contracts.

Municipal and Local Government Active actors Passive actors

Community consultation, workshops, open meetings

Agreement on the design principles by the different levels of governance, active actors and passive actors.

If the principles are agreed upon by all then they can form a bridge between the regional economic ambitions and local scale demands.

4

Negotiations and participation with constant and transparent communication

5

Implementation accord

6

Evaluation considering passive actor needs

After agreement reached on principles the design guidelines form the platform for negotiation between the different site actors.

Relevant planning tools A number of planning tools can be used in the negotiation process, such Transfer Development Rights (TDR) and Public Open Private Space (POPS).

To ensure agreement and commitment between all the actors two approaches are used: 1. Regulation Undertaken the municipality through planning law.

2. Multiparty contract The development of voluntary contracts between actors. The Municipal government would have the dual role of administering the contracts, and also be part of any agreement. The contracts outline constraints and obligations for all parties involved.

An evaluation is conducted considering the success of the approach according to the passive actors needs which were used to establish the original design guidelines and principles.

The approach was adapted from the Handbook for multi-level urban Governance in Europe (Tasan-kok & Vranken 2011)

133

Site description Site 1- Between Metro station and urban village Scenario: Before land lease

1 2

0

20

100 Meters

150m 0

20

100 Meters

Site 1 description The area is located on the eastern boundary of the Qingshuihe redevelopment site, between the Caopu Metro station and the Caopu urban village, which are currently separated by a major road (6 lanes), railway tracks (4) and a small creek and a market building located along side the creek in the urban village. Due to these major infrastructural barriers it is diďŹ&#x192;cult to access the metro station from the Caopu urban village and the proposed Qingshuihe redevelopment site.

0 134

View north of the creek between the market building the railway Source: author

View from Caopu metro station west towards the urban village Source: author

Qingshuihe logistics area

Caopu urban village

ing build rket a M ting Exis ks ek rac Cre n t i a r 4 t

3

ion

tat

bus station

u op Ca

Wholesale market

Train track

View north of the market building in Caopu urban village. Source: author

os etr

m

Market

Urban village

Creek

View west to urban village over train tracks, creek and market building. Source: author

135

Existing proposal The proposed redevelopment of the site

Existing proposal Participants – Municipal Government, Local Government, Developers

Office &

As part of the redevelopment of the Qingshuihe site, the current proposal is for the demolition of the market building and the creation of a liner park running alongside the creek and the urban village, parallel with the 4 train lines.

This is shown in the sub-unit plan, which has been developed by the Municipal and local governments. A new development is also planned for the area to the east of train lines, next to the major road (site 14-1).

Residential

R&D

§ § §

Demolition of market building in Caopu village Creation of linear park New development between road and train tracks

Area to be redeveloped

Caopu urban village

cre long a k r r pa ks line d trac e n s i o a r p 4 t Pro

ek

ped

a Are

to b

elo dev e r e

n

tio

p

o Ca

o etr um

sta

Area to be redeveloped Proposed linear parkland

136

Conflict Proposal vs existing local scale needs

Problems with existing proposal for passive actors (commercial operators ,residents in the urban village, site users)

§ § §

The liner market building, which has approximately 125 stalls, will be demolished.

As demonstrated in the analysis, local scale commercial activity is very important for the residents and migrants in the urban village and the local economy. The effect for the passive actors will be the loss of a large number of commercial businesses which function as a market for the larger surrounding area making it a destination (users, informal commercial), providing employment opportunities (commercial formal, residents) and access to products and services (residents, users).

Length of market building 500m Approx 1 business per 4 metres Approx 125 business

Qingshuihe logistics area

Caopu urban village

M ting Exis

t arke

build

ing

ai 4 tr

ac n tr

ks

n

tio

o etr um

bus station

sta

op Ca

Existing market building

137

Negotiated approach with guidelines and principles Scenario for development Site 1 - Connectivity and flows A scenario for development demonstrating the use of the design principles and guidelines considering connectivity and flows.

Step 1 - Establish relevant actors Developers Municipal Government Developers

Government

Step 2 - Define relevant principles § § C+F. P2

Improve the accessibility from the site to the region and from the region to the site (C+F. P2) Ensure the surrounding urban areas benefit from the redevelopment of the site (C+F. P4)

C+F. P4

Step 3 - Determine relevant guidelines § B West side bus lines

Max distance 600m

M New Metro

Max distance 400m

Ensure a pedestrian connection between the major transport nodes (C+F. G2)

M B Caopu station and east side bus lines

C+F. G2

138

Step 4 - Negotiation

Municipal Government Construct market bridge linking new development to urban village area (C+F. G2). This connection could be in the form of a tunnel or bridge. As the rail line is under the control of the national ministry of infrastructure, the national government would also be involved in the process.

Developers Will ensure there is a connection between market bridge and Caopu metro station in the new development.

(C+F. G2)

Planning tool Regulation Regulation from Municipal government As the site in currently controlled by the Municipal government, the creation of a can be set as a condition to leasing the site to the developer.

Regulation

Step 5 - Implementation accord Municipal Government

Developers

Benefits § Better connection between site and station, and region allowing for improved connectivity and public service provision for residents (C+F. P2). § Surrounding areas benefit from the development through the better connections (C+F. P4) Obligations

Benefits § Granted permission to develop the site § Benefits from connection to new development and urban village with higher pedestrian flows

§ Construction of the market bridge § Ensure the developer meets obligations Constraints

§

§

Must maintain the market bridge as a connection to the station

Obligations Create connection between station and market bridge Constraints §

Access to from the bridge to the station must be maintained be maintained as agreed with the Government.

Step 6 - Evaluation Passive actors needs addressed C+F. N1 Mobility choices and access to employment, recreation, health and culture in the city C+F. N1

139

Negotiated approach with guidelines and principles Scenario for development Site 1 - Public space

Step 1 - Establish relevant actors Developers Municipal Government Developers

Government

Step 2 - Define relevant principles

P.S. P1

P.S. P2

P.S. P.1

P.S. P6

§ § § §

8100m² Regional network park >6000m²

6400m²

High density

Area of space (metres²)

4900m² 3600m² 2500m² Urban space >4000m²and <6000m²

1600m² 900m²

Medium density

Local space >800m² and <2000m²

400m²

Neighborhood space >200m² and <600m²

100m² 0

Very local space

A 0

>100m² and <200m²

20

60

100

140

180

220

260

300

340

380

420

Low Density

Distance from point A (metres)

P.S. G1 P.S. G3

Network of spaces (P.S P1) Variety of types of spaces (P.S P2) Local scale qualities (P.S P4) Accessible spaces (P.S P6)

Step 3 - Determine relevant guidelines § § §

Different types of space (P.S G1) Accessibility of spaces (P.S G3) Urban densities (U.F G2)

U.F. G2

140

Step 4 - Negotiation

Municipal Government Grant developer higher F.A.R in return for new urban scale public space (U.F. G2).

Developers Will provide and urban scale space (P.S. P2) that is Connects to other spaces (P.S. P1) Accessible (P.S. P4) Local scale qualities (P.S. P6)

Planning tools § §

POPS (Public private open space) Multiparty Contract

POPS Regulated by Municipal Govt Multiparty contract

Step 5 - Implementation accord Municipal Government Benefits § Provision of a new urban public space- will address the needs for public space from the surrounding residents (C+F. N. 1) Obligations Ensure that the developer meets the requirements Constraints §

Developers Benefits § Permitted to develop with a higher FAR, allowing more income from development Obligations Urban scale space (>4000m2 and <6000m2) (P.S P2) § That is: § Connect to other public spaces (P.S P1) § Accessible to everyone 24 hours a day(PS. P4) § Provide local scale qualities (P.S P6) Constraints §

§

Access to from the bridge to the station must be maintained be maintained as agreed with the Government.

Step 6 - Evaluation Passive actors needs addressed P.S N. 1

P.S N. 2

P.S N. 3

P.S N. 4

P.S N. 1 P.S N. 2 P.S N. 3 P.S N. 4 P.S N. 6

Easily accessible public spaces Public space related to urban flows More public space Diversity in types of space Local scale qualities

P.S N. 6 141

Negotiated approach with guidelines and principles Scenario for development Public space, function and urban form

Retention of market building New linear park Circulation network in linear park New Market bridge (Municipal Government) New public space from VIC corpotation

Step 1 - Establish relevant actors Developers Village Corporation

Small commercial

§ Developers § Village in city corporation Passive actors Small scale commercial

Step 2 - Define relevant principles P.S P1

P.S P2

§ § §

P.S P3 P.S P4

§ §

§ U.F P1

Fn. P1

Promote the development a network of spaces (P.S. P1 ) Create more public space related to urban flows, densities and functions (P.S. P2) Recognise the local identities in the development of public space and allow flexibility for the incorporation of new identities (P.S. P3 ) Develop local scale qualities (P.S. P4 ) Promote diversity and affordability in the new development and recognise the existing local identities (U.F. P1) Promote vitality by creating a mix in the scales and types of functions across the site (Fn. P1) 142

Step 3 - Determine relevant guidelines § § High functional mix Max distance 600m

B West side bus lines

M New Metro

Max distance 400m

M B Caopu station and east side bus lines

Moderate functional mix

Low functional mix

Fn. G1

C+F. G2 80

§ § §

70

8100m² Regional network park >6000m²

6400m²

60

Area of space (metres²)

4900m²

50 %

3600m²

40

2500m²

30 Urban space >4000m²and <6000m²

1600m²

20

§

900m²

10

Local space >800m² and <2000m²

400m²

Neighborhood space

0

>200m² and <600m²

100m² 0

Very local space

A 0

>100m² and <200m²

20

60

100

140

180

220

260

300

340

380

420

Phase one (1-5 years) Retain 70% of existing buildings

Phase Two (5-10 years) Retain 50% of existing buildings

Phase three (10+ years) Retain 30% of existing buildings

Distance from point A (metres)

P.S. G2, P.S. G3, P.S. G1

U.F. G1

Ensure a pedestrian connection between the major transport nodes (C+F. G2) Develop a different types of public spaces related to the local, urban and regional scale spatial demands (P.S. G1) Connect the different types of public space (P.S. G2) Ensure accessibility of public space (P.S. G3) Promote vitality by creating a mix in the scales and types of functions across the site through a mix of land uses (Fn. P1) To ensure a variety of rents and uses a percentage of the older buildings should be maintained in the different stages of the development (U.F. G1)

Step 4 - Negotiation

Municipal Government § Provide new connection between village and station (market bridge) § Provide space (market bridge) to relocate some commercial operators § Improve quality of creek and create linear park connecting with broader public space network § Financially compensate commercial operators who leave demolished sections of the building.

Directly affected passive actor with influence in negotiation process

Village in city corporation § Improve public space within urban village area § Demolish some parts of the market building and create local public spaces that connect with the linear park § Ensure new public spaces have local scale qualities

Commercial operators in building Will move for a new location in Market Bridge, or receive financial compensation from Municipal government.

143

Step 5 - Implementation accord Planning tool

Regulated by Municipal Govt

Multi Party Contract

VIC corporation

Municipal Govt.

Small scale commercial

Development accord between Village in City Corporation and Municipal Government Municipality

Village in City Corporation

Benefits § Development of the new linear park providing more open space to residents § Increased property values § Opportunity to improve water quality

Benefits § Creation of more pubic space § Improvement of the amenity in village § Increase in property rents

Obligations

Obligations

§ § § §

Oversee development accord and ensure all obligations are meet Create linear park Create Market bridge Compensate and relocate affected commercial operators

Will improve public space within urban village the urban village area Create local public spaces that connect the urban village with the linear park Ensure new public spaces have local scale qualities Ensure retention of section of existing market building

§ § § §

Step 6 - Evaluation Passive actors needs addressed § § P.S N1

P.S N2

P.S N4

§ § § P.S N3

P.S N5

P.S N6

§ §

Local scale

§

tore

pers

al su

ion Reg

§ U.F N2

P.S N7

U.F N1

Easily accessible public spaces (P.S N1) Public space related to daily movement systems and urban flows (P.S N2) More public space (P.S N3) Diversity in types of space (P.S N4) Space for residents, users and commercial operators to create local identity (P.S N5) Local scale qualities (P.S N6) Opportunity for different scales of commercial activity (P.S N7) Importance of urban form for existing local scale functions (U.F N1) Diverse urban form for functional diversity and affordability (U.F N2) 144

145

Site description Site 2- Interface of new development and urban village

1 2

0

20

100 Meters

0

150m

Site 2 description The area is currently occupied by a number of large warehouses and logistics buildings. There is a connection between the Caopu urban village to the east and the warehouses running east west through the site.

146

147

ConďŹ&#x201A;ict between existing and proposal Site 2- Interface of new development and urban village

artboard 5 Proposed road Proposed development plot

Existing proposal In the existing plan a series of new roads have been planned, and plots for development created. It appears that the new roads will require some demolition of the urban village, and due to the level changes and structure of the village the local scale connections are not clear.

ConďŹ&#x201A;icts The proposal does not recognise the dense and varied existing circulation networks of the urban village area.

With the creation of developer blocks access and permeability may be restricted.

148

Negotiated approach with guidelines and principles Scenario for development

Existing

Current proposal

35m

Boulevard Main Road

30m

Main Road

10m

Shared street

7m

Pedestrian street

New proposal with design principles and guidelines

Proposed buildings retained 10+ years

Proposed public space network

149

Step 1 - Establish relevant actors

Developers

Government

Developers Municipal Government

Step 2 - Define relevant principles

C+F. P3

C+F. P1

Urban form § Promote functional diversity and affordability in the new development and recognise the existing local identities (U.F. P1)

U.F. P1

P.S P1

Connectivity and flows § Improve the urban vitality of the site through the coexistence of difference scales of mobility flows (C+F. P1) § Improve the accessibility from the site to the region and from the region to the site (C+F. P2) § Improve the diversity of uses and create conditions that benefit the local economy (permeability) (C+F. P3)

P.S P3

Public space § Promote the development of social space through the creation of a public space network allowing for improved cultural, social and economic exchange (P.S. P1) § Recognise the local identities in the development of public space and allow flexibility for the incorporation of new identities (P.S. P3)

150

Step 3 - Determine relevant guidelines

M 35m

B

10m

Shared street

Boulevard Main Road

M

Connectivity and flows § Develop at least four scales of streets, to allow for different scales of mobility flows (C+F. G1)

30m 7m

Main Road

Pedestrian street

8100m² Regional network park >6000m²

6400m²

Area of space (metres²)

4900m² 3600m² 2500m² Urban space >4000m²and <6000m²

1600m² 900m² Local space >800m² and <2000m²

400m²

Neighborhood space

Connectivity and flows § Develop a different types of public spaces related to the local, urban and regional scale spatial demands (P.S. G1)

>200m² and <600m²

100m²

Very local space

A

0

0

>100m² and <200m²

20

60

100

140

180

220

260

300

340

380

420

Distance from point A (metres)

m

45

45

m

m

m

45

90

Area B 15% permeable

Area A 20% permeable

80 70 60 50 % 40 30 20 10 0

Phase one (1-5 years) Retain 70% of existing buildings

Phase Two (5-10 years) Retain 50% of existing buildings

Phase three (10+ years) Retain 30% of existing buildings

Connectivity and flows § Develop permeable blocks and a dense and well connected street grid (C+F. G3)

Urban form § To ensure a variety of rents and uses a percentage of the older buildings should be maintained in the different stages of the development (U.F. G1)

151

Step 4 - Negotiation

Developers

New circulation system with hierarchy of streets connecting with the different scales of flows

Ensure 20% permeability through the site (C+F. P3 and C+F G3)

New public space system with different scales of spaces related to the demand according to densities and flows.

Create new types of public space including large and local scale spaces (P.S G1 and P.S . G2)

Develop a hierarchy of local streets including shared street and local scale lanes (C+F. P1 and C+F. G1)

Phase 1, 1-5 years Retain 70% of existing buildings

Phase 2, 5-10 years Retain 50% of existing buildings

Phase 2, 10+ years Retain 20% of existing buildings

Developers Preserve a percentage of existing buildings to promote functional diversity and the existing identity of the site (U.F. P1 and U.F. G1)

152

Step 4 - Negotiation

Municipal Government

Municipal Government Allow developers a higher floor space ratio.

Planning tools § §

POPS (Public private open space) Multiparty Contract

Municipal Government Create a high quality public space in the centre of the site, linking it to the urban village, and improving the connection between the new development and the station. Would also create quality public space around the edges of the site.

POPS Regulated by Municipal Govt.

Multiparty contract

Step 5 - Implementation accord Municipality

Developers

Benefits § Better connection between new development and urban village area/station § Creation of a network of public spaces § Retention of some buildings for identity and character

Benefits Allowed to build greater floor area Provision of public space in centre of site from Municipality and surrounding public space Connection to metro station

Obligations § Ensure developer follows agreement § Create public space in site and surrounding areas

Obligations § §

Ensure accessibility of space Ensure permeability and compliance with agreement form negotiation Government

153

Step 6 - Evaluation Passive actors needs addressed Connectivity and mobility ďŹ&#x201A;ows C+F. N2 Dense and well connected street grid providing a choice of routes and variety of uses C+F. N2

P.S. N4

P.S. N5

Public space P.S. N4 Diversity in types of space P.S. N5 Space for residents, users and commercial operators to create local identity

Urban form U.F. N1 Importance of urban form for existing local scale functions U.F. N1

U.F. N2

U.F. N2

Diverse urban form for functional diversity and aďŹ&#x20AC;ordability

154

Recommendations The following section discusses what would need to change in the current approach to allow the approach proposed in this report.

Currently, there are many specific negotiations between developers, the Municipal and Local governments. However, what takes place in the process of these negotiations remains unclear. The approach in this report aims to formalise this process of negotiations through the development of a new planning framework that creates a more transparent, reliable and trusted decision making process, which can better incorporate the local scale demands and allow for a broader range of development possibilities.

Creation of development oversight authority To enable the described approach, the creation of a development of oversight authority by the Municipality is proposed. This authority would coordinate and oversee the negotiation and implementation process. As there are many competing interests within the Municipality itself (for example, the Planning, Infrastructure, Environment and Economic Departments), it is considered that a separate authority could better deal with these competing interests and gain trust from all actors.

In addition, a number of paradigm shifts would be necessary for the approach to succeed.

These include: A move to a more transparent process The suggested approach relies on the development of cooperation and trust between the actors. In particular, the government needs to implement a new open and transparent decision making process. As noted by Xlaoli et al(, 2012), one of the current challenges in planning in Shenzhen is the lack of a transparency in the decision making process.

In the suggested approach it is important that transparency is maintained in the negotiation stage, so that there is trust in the process, particularly from the passive actors.

From a simple image to layered stories Many projects are sold on the final vision and a simple narrative i.e. ‘a world class…’.

This new approach would require a change away from the single narrative focus.. No place has just one story and such a simplistic view does not make sense for a new urban development. Cities and places are made up of many intertwined stories and actors who operate at the regional, urban and local scale, and it is important for the new developments to acknowledge and embrace this complexity and the multiple narratives of the location.

Change of focus from short term impact to long term quality The development focus of the National, Municipal and Local Governments must shift from seeking short term financial and political gain to promoting long term quality. Therefore, it is important to not start with a quantitative goal, i.e. amount of financial investment, but with processes that aim to achieve certain agreed qualities and principles that result in qualitative improvements.

Accept a broader range of development possibilities The approach requires the National,Municipal and Local Governments, as well as developers, not to focus on a fixed vision, but to focus on principles, qualities and a broader range of development possibilities. This will require the National, Municipal and Local Governments and individuals to sacrifice some of the current control they have on the final image of the project, and focus on the process. If all the actors, including residents and those directly affected by the development are confident in the process, then a project can achieve the agreed upon aims and can be more inclusive of local needs.

155

9 EVALUATION How can a new planning approach to large urban projects better connect the local scale demands with the economic objectives of the higher levels of government?

In responding to the stated research objective, this project has attempted to develop a new planning approach that if implemented could lead to a better integration of local scale needs into a new urban development process.

This is proposed through the creation of a negotiation platform in the form of principles and guidelines with binding accords, which provide a tool for the municipality to better mediate the interests of local residents, higher levels of government and developers.

As discussed in section two of this report, a new approach is necessary as the existing approach to planning is not able to address the local scale needs and demands, deal with the rapid rate of change, and it lacks flexibility.

The approach proposed in response to the research question begins by recognising the trends, historical processes and planning context.

The analysis of local scale needs and the definition of the variable forms are crucial elements of the project, as they determine the principles and guidelines. A multi-scale and multi-actor approach was used to best understand the complexity of the site, the influencing factors, and the relationships between scales and actors.

It is proposed that the outlined methodology used in the example of Qingshuihe can be replicated to other project sites. However, in other projects the criteria and the emphasis of the analysis and project may differ, for example, for a site that is prone to flooding a detailed analysis of the water system would be important.

It is considered that the new approach to planning proposed in this research project has the potential to better include existing local scale needs, but only if; ยง The analysis method used is able to define principles and relevant guidelines that can effectively incorporate local scale spatial needs. The quality of the analysis and the ensuing establishment of local actor needs are important to ensure that the best guidelines are achieved. If the local actor needs are not clear, or favour a particular group, then the success of the process can be compromised. ยง The actors can form an agreement on the shared principles. In forming an agreement, they may sacrifice some of their own power or ideas and need to compromise. For this to be possible, a paradigm shift is required where powerful actors are more willing to collaborate, and the focus needs to shift from short term economic and political objectives to longer term quality. ยง A transparent negotiation platform can be developed. If the

156

ยง

process is not transparent, it will not gain legitimacy or the trust of the actors.

The accords are followed by all actors. For this to happen, the agreements need to be legalised into binding agreements by the government. This will not only improve trust in the process from passive actors, but also provide security and reliability for the active actors and developers.

There were some limitations in testing the proposed approach in detail. As the project was in China, while all best efforts were made for accuracy, some of the information required at the local scale was not available in sufficient detail. For example, the exact organisation and aspirations of the urban village, the structure of the community, and detailed information on the exact plans of the developers were never completely ascertained. Therefore, for the strategy phase a number of generalisations, supported by theory from Shenzhen and research on other similar projects, has been made. Where generalisations or assumptions have been made it has been noted in the report.

There are a number of areas that were beyond the research scope or time frame of this project, but warrant further research. They include: ยง More detailed research into the exact process of an equitable negotiation platform, and how it could be created; ยง Ways to better include passive actors in the negotiation process in the future; ยง Further consideration of time frames. For example, how long would the development accords and agreements last and how often could they be reviewed or altered.

This thesis argues that the proposed approach can be more inclusive of the local actors and allow for a more flexible development process.

While, as previously discussed, there were a number of limitations, to the suggested approach the strength of the approach is that it provides a method of planning process that can act as a framework, which can be tailored to specific situations and conditions and allow for a number of outcomes, depending on the local conditions and actors.

This project has tried to develop a replicable methodology that can be built upon and elaborated. It is the flexibility of the suggested approach, and the possibility to adapt and build upon it that gives it its greatest potential to be improved and applied to in different contexts.

157

158

10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people who I would like to thank for their help in completing this thesis project.

Firstly, I have been very lucky to have such dedicated and supportive mentors, who have guided me throughout the project. At the beginning I was quite daunted by undertaking a projected in China, but with the guidance of my mentors I was able to begin understand the complexity.

Diego thank you for your support, discussions and inspiration throughout the project. Henco, thank you for your sound guidance and encouragement.

This studio has provided many great opportunities for conferences and discussions and I would like to thank in particular the studio leaders, Diego, Lei Qu and Stephen Read, who have supported us from the start of the project, organising seminars, meetings and discussions and presentations. The organisation of the studio and enthusiasm from the studio leaders has been greatly appreciated.

It has been great in this studio to work with such an motivated group of students, Ankit, Bram, Fanying, Maaike, Matthijs , Sylke and Xia. I have enjoyed the many discussions, and am grateful to my colleagues for all the help throughout the project.

A great partner of this project has been the International New Town Institute (INTI), and I would like to thank Linda who helped us throughout the process, and for assisting us when we were in Shenzhen, inviting us to workshops, helping with a work space and accommodation, and connecting us to many experts. Without this help the project would not have been able to get to such a level of detail as it did.

In Shenzhen, we would have had a lot of trouble without the help from the students fom the Shenzhen University, Jessica, Sail, Ocean, Suzy, who showed us around and helped with translations.

We were also fortunate to meet many experts in Shenzhen, including Li Jinkui from the China Development Institute, who kindly took us around and answered many of our difficult questions.

It was also great to have a working space in Shenzhen, thanks to the team from URBANUS, and especially, and Tat and Travis who sharing their expert insights.

For information about the project and development site I am grateful to Markus Appenzeller, and for assistance with the SpaceSyntax analysis I would like to thank Akkelies van Nes and Bardia Mashhoodi.

For help and advice I am also grateful to Adrian Hill for sharing ideas and Marta for help and support.

Finally I must thank my family, my sister Sarah and my parents Alison and Alan, for all your endless support and constant encouragement, it is very much appreciated.

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11

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An integrated approach?

The need for multi-scalar approaches to combat urban fragmentation Course AR3U022, Theory of Urbanism MSc Urbanism, Delft University of Technology

Andrew Reynolds 4184876 _ A.W.Reynolds@student.tudelft.nl

31 January, 2013 11th Graduation Lab Urbanism Conference

Abstract – In what has been described as the globalised context of increasing city and regional competition, economic restructuring and rescaling with the rise to importance of the regional and local scale, coupled with increasing socio-inequality this paper discusses the theory related to these trends and the spatial and social consequences. In addition multi-scalar approaches to increasing urban fragmentation will be considered.

Key words – urban fragmentation, globalisation, multi-scalar approach, social exclusion

The aim of this paper is to investigate the theories around the global forces related to urban fragmentation and their socio-spatial effects. In addition multi-scalar approaches to address the increasing urban fragmentation will be considered.

This paper will be structured in four parts.

Firstly, the conceptual framework of fragmentation and globalisation will be briefly outlined (Kozak 2008), and the trends associated with globalisation will also be discussed, namely economic restructuring (Musterd & Ostendorf 2008) as well as the changing role of cities and increasing competition (Sassen 2001).

In the second section, understandings of urban fragmentation will be examined. These different interpretations include re-territorialisation (Brenner 1998; Burgess 2005) the rise of Neo-

1. Introduction In this current global phase of rapid urbanisation, where the ‘combined processes of economic restructuring and globalisation have been generating the new urbanisation processes’ (Soja 2000, p.234), we can identify a number of global trends shaping the spatial and social form of cities from Europe to Asia.

It has been argued by a number of academics (Kesteloot 2008; Kozak 2008; Musterd & Ostendorf 2008) that these new urbanisation process, driven by the forces of globalisation and economic restructuring, are leading to increasing urban inequality, socio-spatial fragmentation, and problems of spatial segregation and social exclusion in cities.

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liberalism (Kozak 2007) and the role and effect infrastructure (Graham & Marvin 2001).

In the third section, the connection between urban fragmentation and social exclusion will be discussed with examples taken from the European context (Murie 2008; Kesteloot 2008).

The fourth section will outline three integrative approaches to combat this increasing urban inequality. The first, at the local scale considers how a more socially sustainable regeneration process could be undertaken in Hong Kong. The second, a multi-scalar approach from a planning perspective as proposed by (Boelens 2010), that considers the potentialities using an Actor-Relational Approach (ARA), and thirdly from a design perspective, the use public space as an multi-scalar integrative tool (Janches & Sepúlveda 2009) will be discussed.

In the final section of the paper some conclusions from the literature review will be drawn, areas for further research discussed and recommendations for the authors MSc Urbanism graduation thesis project proposed.

2.3 Globalisation as a phenomenon According to Marcuse, globalisation is ‘not historically new, but rather the outcome of a number of clearly ascertainable historical processes...traceable back to the 16th century, the rise of capitalism and the explosion of industrialisation’(2008, p.30), and as pointed out

by Smith (2002), the increased scale of economic production. Burgess, continuing with a technologically deterministic view, describes globalisation as ‘...a socio-cultural phenomenon driven by the space-time compression effects and the ‘dissembling’ effects of the application of new transport such as (motorways, air transport, containerisation, high speed rail systems) and information and communications technologies’ (2005, p.3).

A significant effect of this period of globalisation is a shift in the power relationships between the city, state and region (Burgess 2005; Sassen 2001). As Kazepov (2008, p.3) notes, there has been a rise in super national intuitions such as the World bank and IMF, increasing mobility of goods, capital services and labour and ‘transfer of regulatory authority downwards towards sub national territories, mainly regions and cities’. It has been suggested that globalisation has had the effect to increase the gap between the rich and poor (Kesteloot 2008). A common thread of much of the discussion about globalisation and the associated urban transformations is that cities are becoming increasingly fragmented in their form and structure (Kozak 2007).

2. Globalisation and urban fragmentation This first section of the paper will outline two trends related to the process of globalisation and the how these trends are seen as contributing factors to the phenomenon of increasing urban fragmentation.

2.1 Fragmentation: a conceptual framework to understand globalisation processes It is suggested by Kozak (2008) that fragmentation can be used as a conceptual framework to explain the dynamics of the globalisation process. Kozak states that the concept of urban fragmentation is used in the urban discourse in two ways ‘1) As a generating process or way of operating in the city, and 2) as a spatial phenomenon or state’ (2008, p.241). Burgess gives a technical deterministic definition of urban fragmentation as ‘a spatial phenomenon that results from the act of breaking up, breaking off from, or disjointing the preexisting form and structure of the city and systems of cities’ (2005, p.1), stating ‘post industrial societies create post industrial cities’, very much considering fragmentation in what Kozak terms the ‘spatial state’. While Kozak (2008) notes that the discussion of fragmentation is situated both the postmodern and globalisation discourses, this paper will focus on fragmentation in the context of globalisation.

2.4 The effect of economic restructuring Entangled with the process of globalisation is economic restructuring, which involves a shift away from manufacturing industries towards a more service based economy, and the geographic redistribution of manufacturing jobs and a national and international scale (Sassen 1990). A key characteristic of economic restructuring, according to Musterd & Ostendorf, is the improved connectedness of ‘firms, economic processes and people’ (2008, p.172).

However, Musterd and Ostendorf (2008) also note that economic restructuring is leading to increased social polarisation, creating growth in service jobs requiring high skilled labour, but also low skilled jobs. This, according to Mingione (2008), is because the transition from an industrial economy to one based on knowledge and services particularly disadvantages those without education or skills, and this transformation ‘confines large groups of immigrants in an assortment of service 2

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(Brenner 1998; Burgess 2005), Neo-liberalism (Burgess 2005; Brenner 1998) and infrastructure (Graham & Marvin 2001).

and informal jobs that are badly paid, unstable and isolated socially’ (2008, p.82).

Thus, we see the gap between those with education and opportunities, and those without widening. The economic structure of the city, and its associated processes, ‘are regarded to be among the most powerful forces behind social fragmentation and integration of the public realm’ (Musterd & Ostendorf 2008, p.170). Furthermore, economic restructuring has not only changed cities internally, but we are also seeing a shift in the relations between cities, regions and nations.

3.1 Glocal-scalar fix (Re-territorialisation) It is argued that with the change in the role of cities due to globalisation, we are seeing an increase in the urban fragmentation of cities, as some parts of the city are connected to global networks, while others are left out, with the emergence of a what has been termed the ‘global network society’ (Burgess 2005). Increased ‘space time convergence’ and the rise of the ‘global network society’, according to Burgess (2005), means that global forces are creating new local spatial arrangements, where global systems or flows are privileged over local ones creating a dialectic of ‘local spatial fragmentation’ and ‘global spatial integration’ (2005, p.9) where the global forces are ‘rupturing the spatial integrity’ of the city (Burgess, 2005, p. 130).

Brenner (1998) argues that the nation state has not been eroded, but has been ‘rearticulated and re-territorialized in relation to both sub- and supra-states scales. The resultant, re-scaled configuration of state territorial organization is provisionally labelled a “glocal” state’ (1998, p.1).

For Brenner, the ‘glocal territorial state transfers and devolves many of its regulatory tasks toward supra-national, regional and local scales’(1998, p.20) at the expense of the intraurban or national scale. At the local level, this is evidenced in the creation of para state authorities such as the London Docklands Development Corporation and Schiphol Airport Business Park (Brenner 1998).

2.5 The Global city and changing city relations It is proposed by Sassen in ‘The Global city’ (2001), that the role of the city has shifted. The main argument for the rise of cities and city regions in importance compared to nation states, is that with a shift to neo-liberal economic policies by many governments, characterised by a decrease in regulation and an increasing number of transnational businesses, we are seeing new spatial units of scale, with the increase in importance of the sub-national scale of the region and city, as well as the supra-national entities such as free trade blocs (Sassen 2001). Smith (2002) echoes this argument, suggesting the power of the nation state has been eroded in economic terms, however, he proposes that this is not necessarily the case in cultural or political terms, and also not for all nations, citing China and the United States as exceptions.

However, while much of the discussion about globalisation emphases the importance of world cities, capital flows, new scales of influence and the interconnectedness of business, the importance of a physical place cannot be neglected.

As Sassen states, ‘recapturing the geography of places involved in globalization allows us to recapture people, workers, communities, and more specifically, the many different work cultures, besides the corporate culture, involved in the work of globalisation’ (2004, p.32).

3.2 Neo Liberalism Globalisation, with its associated increase in connectivity, is also intertwined with the rise of neo-liberal economic policies as we see what has been called a ‘neo-liberalisation of the world economy’ (Kozak 2007, p.98). It is argued that neo-liberalism is driving the increased competition between cities and city regions, ‘leading to new units of scale, which are expected to enhance “urban productivity” by competing among each other and with their counterparts in other cities’ (Kozak 2007, p.106).

Thus, neo-liberalism can be linked to a physical form of urban fragmentation where there is specific investment in large urban projects, through public private partnerships, which are focussed on increasing the urban competiveness between centralities, and indeed regions. However,

3. Understandings of the concept of ‘urban fragmentation’ This third section will consider the various understandings of fragmentation based on the categorisations as defined by Kozak (2008).

Within the context of globalisation, Kozak identifies three groups of understandings of urban fragmentation. These are the ‘glocal scalar fix’ 3

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they are around the specific project, as in the case of the London Docklands, may not experience the benefits of the new global centrality next door (Fig. 1). This, in turn, can lead to areas of a city that have a sharp spatial socio-economic differentiation to their immediate surroundings.

4 Socio-spatial fragmentation A number of authors, including (Kozak 2008; Kesteloot 2008; Marcuse 2008), propose that the increasing neo-liberal economic policies and associated economic restructuring are causing an increase in socio-spatial fragmentation of cities and at the local scale an increase in social inequalities and social exclusion. As Kesteloot (2008) discussing European cities states, ‘both the elements of separation and confinement to a particular residential environment contribute to the persistence of social differentiation and social inequalities’ (2008, p.137).

4.1 Spatial segregation According to Burgess, spatial segregation occurs when members of one social group are not distributed uniformly over space (2005). He states that not all urban fragmentation is connected to spatial segregation, but ‘urban fragmentation probably represents an extreme case of spatial segregation’ (2005, p.21). However, Van Kempen suggests that ‘polarisation does not always lead to spatial exclusion’ (2008, p.204), citing the Netherlands, with its clear mix of housing types in neighbourhoods as an example of this.

Kesteloot (2008), considering European cities and inner city social disadvantage in the context of urban restructuring, discusses what he calls a ‘repressive city’. The repressive city is where the poor occupants of the inner city have no political recognition, and are often migrants.

According to Kesteloot, this ‘double otherness’, of low income and foreign ethnicity, is used as a basis for the rejection of inner city low income migrants, and to legitimise inner city restructuring and gentrification creating ‘the social spatial repression of the poor’ (2008, p.142). Approaches to counter this repression proposed by Kesteloot include adhoc public participation in planning and design and involving city users with the future of the city, a form of participative democracy.

Figure 1. The London Docklands development in the distance, as seen from the Limehouse neighbourhood in the north. The sharp contrast between the districts is clear.

Source: Google Streetview

3.3 Infrastructure Graham and Marvin (2001) consider urban fragmentation from a technological perspective, proposing that ‘infrastructure networks are being “unbundled” in ways that help sustain the fragmentation and the social material fabric of cities’ (2001, p.33). They suggest that ‘the economic liberalisation of infrastructure and the development of new [primarily information] technologies have made possible an entirely new infrastructural landscape that radically challenge established assumptions that have underpinned the relations between integrated networks and cities’ (2001, p.139). Furthermore, ‘given that current technology is able to “unbundle” infrastructure networks in ways until now impossible, it is feasible to customise the provision of services according to economic strata...thus those who can afford the connection to expensive networks become more integrated, while those who cannot are marginalised form the highly connected world’ (Kozak 2007, p.110).

4.2 Social exclusion Another aspect of socio-spatial fragmentation is social exclusion. According to Murie (2008), social exclusion considers the ‘resources households have to determine their life chances’ (2008, p.166). Murie states that ‘households of the same income, socio-economic or poverty category have different resource upon which they can draw’.

However, ‘where people live affects their experience of poverty and is therefore a key

However, the thesis of Graham and Marvin has been criticised by Coutard (2008) for relying on anecdotes, lack a historical analysis, and the universality of the postulated premises.

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In addition, the authors are critical of the top down approach, arguing that the lack of bottom up approaches ‘put Hong Kong at a disadvantaged position in terms of resolving the challenging multidimensional restructuring problems through collective wisdom’ (Ng et al.

2001, p.71). They argue that the current process does not consider the existing social networks or the local population and that development must be ‘people centred’ and focussed on ‘place making’.

They contend that ‘regeneration need not only tackle social equity and justice issues, but also must promote diversity in culture, economy and built form,’ continuing, ‘regeneration should begin from within, building upon the local history, culture, heritage and community...’ (Ng et al. 2001, p.177). Ng et al. note that ‘it has become increasingly evident that property lead urban renewal did not offer a reliable foundation for stable and sustainable economic regeneration’ (2005, p.445), and that the development must link the property investment to real demands of the developing local economy, arguing that urban renewal practice must combine ‘long term vision and short term initiatives, embracing physical, social and economic regeneration, and that there is a need for ‘top down’ and ‘bottom up’ approaches.

A number of recommendations are offered including five principals to undertake a sustainable regeneration. These principals are, ‘encouraging participation, building community character, advancing equity, improving environment and enlivening the economy’(Ng 2005, p.441). In addition, a greater role for government, the use of impact assessments and better polices on relocation of affected residents are all proposed.

Accordingly, ‘sustainable regeneration may be perceived as a community based process directed towards achieving the economic, environmental and social well being of the people though the rejuvenation and revitalisation of the urban fabric’ (Ng 2005, p.445).

element in social exclusion’ (2008, p.165). The significant factor is the different resources a neighbourhood has which can affect people’s life chances and it is important to consider the way different households are treated by urban policies and the provision of services to neighbourhoods.

4. Integrative approaches to counter the socio-spatial fragmentation and sustainable regeneration According to Vranken (2008), an integrated approach to regeneration should ‘bring together different aspects of urban structure and living conditions of the urban villager that have been fragmented’ (p.28). In this section three integrative approaches to counter the trends of socio spatial fragmentation will be discussed.

The first example will discuss approaches to sustainable urban regeneration, considering experiences from Hong Kong (Ng et al. 2001), and offer a number of recommendations. The second is a planning based approach proposed by (Boelens 2010) which incorporating aspects of Actor Relational Theory (Latour 2005) as a way to tackle multi-scalar multi-actor problems. The third approach will discuss a public space lead muliscalar approach to countering social spatial fragmentation (Janches & Sepúlveda 2009).

4.1 Sustainable regeneration: Hong Kong Hong Kong forms an interesting example as it has undergone a rapid deindustrialisation process from the 1980s, has a severe land constraints, and the number of marginalised workers is continuing to increase. Ng et al. are critical of the current approaches to renewal and describe how the government ‘continues to view urban renewal as a physical planning exercise’ expecting the private sector to play a significant role in the renewal process (2001, p.171).

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Fig. 2. Diagram of actors and their relations for a project in South Limburg, the Netherlands. (Boelens 2010, p.50) implemented in trade-offs, whether or not in a public-private partnership, but to identify possible actors, stake- and shareholders who may be ready to associate and invest around common opportunities, possibilities and/or themes from the ground up’(Boelens 2010, p.41).

4.2 Actor-relational approach to planning In the current urban climate, where the planning of specific projects is favoured over a comprehensive approach, we witness the inability of planning to address new multi-scalar problems. In response, Boelens (2010) advocates the potentials of an Actor Relational Approach (ARA). The ARA approach is based on the Actor Network Theory of (Latour 2005). An ARA, according to Boelens, would be actor oriented (Fig.2), as opposed to the current government oriented planning. The ARA is ‘outside in instead of inside out’ (2010, p.35) where ‘the focus would be put on the actors themselves, especially those who are capable, in networks, of developing meaningful spatial connections’ (2010, p.38).

Furthermore, the ARA is able to ‘cut through’ the different layers and levels’ therefore providing a multi-scalar approach. Discussing the Dutch context, Boelens argues that planning has become too ‘process oriented with a single minded focus on land use regulation...to deal with (de)fragmentation and ongoing multi-actor, multiscaling of the network society’ (2010, p.31). In an actor network approach, the aims of key stakeholders in business and civic society would form the start of the process. Boelens describes the key aspects of the approach, firstly: ‘The point is not to formulate an objective, vision or plan, which then has to be

Secondly, and perhaps controversially, the focus is on the leading actors, as Boelens rejects the ‘symmetrical perspective discourse of analysis’ arguing that considering all actors equally would lead to consultation overkill as experienced in the participatory planning projects of the 1970s.

Thirdly, sustainability refers to economic, social and environmental solutions and become central focal points of the process. Fourth, the approach is not limited by government and considers partnerships with the private and semi-private actors. The final element described by Boelens is the importance of the associative element of the approach, which connected with the ideas of associate democracy.

4.3 Multi-scalar approaches Also with a focus on the actors, Janches & Sepúlveda (2009) propose a multi-scalar approach to address socio-spatial fragmentation.

Considering the Latin American context, they explore the possibility of ‘newly developed 6

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becomes critical. A place can be integrated at the global or regional scale, while fragmented locally.

Due to the issues of scale, as well as rescaling of city planning the multi-scalar methodologies, approaches to sustainable regeneration and a more actor-relational approach can be useful, and will be tested in the MSc research by design project.

centralities to articulate the duel recognised goals of competitiveness and social equity’ (2009, p.1212), as well as improving the equilibrium between the global and the local. According to Janches & Sepúlveda (2009) the local sphere can play a critical role in international and internal integration. They propose the use of public space to promote socio-spatial integration of marginalised areas. This can be done by ‘... strengthening at the local level; the existing ways of socio-cultural interaction as well as the identification / differentiation relations both internal and within the neighbouring context - that a more generalized process of urban integration will be viable. It is only by projecting the public space as a place of community dominion, where cities would be able to re-conquer and re-qualify their historically disarticulated areas (peripheries and stagnated settlements), linking them to the city as a whole’(Janches & Sepúlveda 2009, p.1219).

References BOELENS, L., 2010. Theorizing Practice and Practising Theory: Outlines for an ActorRelational-Approach in Planning. Planning Theory, 9(1), pp.28–62.

BRENNER, N., 1998. Global cities, glocal states: global city formation and state territorial restructuring in contemporary Europe.

Review of International Political Economy, 5(1), pp.1–37.

This multi-scalar approach, Janches and Sepúlveda theorise, when combined with a focus on the centralities could work to counteract the forces of fragmentation while achieving increased competiveness.

BURGESS, R., 2005. Technological Determinism and Urban Fragmentation: A Critical analysis. In 9th International Conference of the Alfa Ibis Network on urban peripheries.

Santiago, Chile: Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, pp. 11–13.

5. Conclusions for research project The research is this paper will be used to inform the theoretical approach for the authors MSc. Urbanism thesis. The thesis will consider regeneration approaches for former industrial area of in the heat of Shenzhen, a Chinese city that continuously undergoing rapid redevelopment.

The processes of globalisation and economic restructuring are clear in Shenzhen, with where rising production costs combined with changing local and global economic conditions are leading to a de-industrialisation process and restructuring of the economy, as the city now moves towards a economy based on services (Zacharias & Tang 2010).

A limitation of this literature review is its focus academic work produced in Europe and the United States and the ensuring capitalist context. It is interesting also consider if the theory is relevant for a transitional socialist economy such as China.

Shen (2007) examines this question, and argues that scale theory is can relevant in transitional socialist economies, such as China. Indeed, this would be an interesting area to explore further.

The above discussion shows that when considering fragmentation the notion of scale

COUTARD, O., 2008. Placing splintering urbanism: Introduction. Geoforum, 39(6), pp.1815– 1820.

GRAHAM, S. & MARVIN, S., 2001. Splintering Urbanism: Networked Infrastructures, Technological Mobilities and the Urban Condition, Routledge.

JANCHES, F. & SEPÚLVEDA, D., 2009.

Explorations on socio-spatial integrative strategies based on the transformative potentialities of implementing a polycentric metropolitan model. In 4th IFoU Conference - The New Urban Question. Amsterdam, pp.

1211–1224.

KAZEPOV, Y., 2008. Cities of Europe: Changing contexts, local arrangements and the challenge to urban cohesion, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

VAN KEMPEN, R., 2008. Segregation and Housing conditions of Immigrants in western 7

170

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Andrew Reynolds

Kong. Social Indicators Research, 71(1-3), pp.441–465.

European cities. In Y. Kazepov, ed. Cities of Europe: Changing contexts, local arrangements and the challenge to urban cohesion. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

NG, M.K., COOK, A. & CHUI, E., 2001. Planning Practice & The Road Not Travelled : A Sustainable Urban Regeneration Strategy for Hong Kong. Planning Practice and Research, 16(2), pp.171–183.

KESTELOOT, C., 2008. Urban Socio-Spatial configurations and the Future of European cities. In Y. Kazepov, ed. Cities of Europe: Changing Contexts, Local Arrangement and the Challenge to Urban Cohesion. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 123–149.

SASSEN, S., 1990. Economic restructuring and the American city. Annual Review of Sociology, 16, pp.465–490.

KOZAK, D., 2008. Assessing Urban Fragmentation. In World cities and urban form: Fragmented, polycentric, sustainible?

London & New York: Routledge, pp. 239– 258.

SASSEN, S., 2004. Global City: Introducing a Concept, The. Brown J. World Aff., XI(2), pp.27–43.

SASSEN, S., 2001. The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo, Princeton University Press.

KOZAK, D., 2007. Metropolis Development and socio spatial Fragmentation. Oxford Brookes University.

SHEN, J., 2007. Scale, state and the city: Urban transformation in post-reform China. Habitat International, 31(3-4), pp.303–316.

LATOUR, B., 2005. Reassembling the social-an introduction to actor-network-theory., Oxford University Press.

SMITH, N., 2002. New Globalism, New Urbanism: Gentrification as Global Urban Strategy.

Antipode, 34(3), pp.427–450.

MARCUSE, P., 2008. Globalization and the Forms of Cities. In World cities and urban form: Fragmented, polycentric, sustainable?

London & New York: Routledge, pp. 25–40.

SOJA, E., 2000. Postmetropolis. Critical Studies of Cities and Regions, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

MINGIONE, E., 2008. The changing concept of European cities. In Y. Kazepov, ed. Cities of Europe: Changing Contexts, Local Arrangement and the Challenge to Urban Cohesion. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, pp. 67– 89.

VRANKEN, J., 2008. Changing forms of solidarity, urban development programs in Europe. In Y. Kazepov, ed. Cities of Europe: Changing contexts, local arrangements and the challenge to urban cohesion.

MURIE, A., 2008. Social exclusion and neighbourhood decline. In Cities of Europe: Changing Contexts, Local Arrangement and the Challenge to Urban Cohesion. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 151–169.

ZACHARIAS, J. & TANG, Y., 2010. Restructuring and repositioning Shenzhen, China’s new mega city. Progress in Planning, 73(4), pp.209–249.

MUSTERD, S. & OSTENDORF, W., 2008. Social exclusion, Segregation, and Neighbourhood Effects. In Y. Kazepov, ed. Cities of Europe: Changing Contexts, Local Arrangement and the Challenge to Urban Cohesion. WileyBlackwell.

NG, M.K., 2005. Quality of Life Perceptions and Directions for Urban Regeneration in Hong 8

171

172

Mode of transport

Why choosing Big city, many here opportunities

Home location Small city Guangdong

18,000 per year for restaurant, and 1,200 per month for living room and bedroom above.

Job and location

7

8

9

10

11

Housing condition

Run a small restaurant on the edge of the village.

8 month old baby

Years been here

Family

6

5

senior high school

25-30

M and F

Education

Age

Gender

3

2

1

10m2 750 per month, they think it is expensive and may find new room in area.

Huizhou, Guangdong

Friend introduced him to the area

Walks to factory

Works in second hand car yard in Sungang area.

His girlfriend works in car sales department.

Also has his own internet shop selling car equipment

4

Lives with girlfriend

27

M

6 people in 50 m2. 2 Bed room and one living room. Sleeping in bunk beds.

Hainan province

Walk, but on Sunday they may take the bus on a day trip with their son, daughter in law and grandchildren.

Came here to raise grandchildren. Son in a business manager for printing company in the area.

6 family members

60

F

Rent 1,200 pcm. 2 rooms. Rent is increasing too much. 10 years ago it was only 500 pcm.

12

Children

20-30

M and F

Guangdong

1800 per month, one year contract

Hebei Prov.

Hukou Beijing now live in one suit in this village

business 2000/ month house 1000-2000/ month

in the village, from Chaoshan, Guangdong

live nearby

bus mainly, inconvenient in changing bus lines

Bus/Taxi

Close to Border

Family industry.

Weaving curtains, selling, fixing. A series connected curtain making industry

Business in Hong Kong

Is here to take care of his grandchildren

>10

family with 10s people

Junior high

25-35

F with a child

1

alone

None

>60

M

10

High school

59

M 25-35

F and M

1000-2000/ month

within Guangdong

convenient, close to shopping

3300-5000/ month

more customers

walk to school, but bus to outside.

walk around, some times buses

motor

>10 maybe but not born here

primary

<15

F

Sungang Primary/ Junior high

10

with wife

senior high

35-50

M

Selling Courier, home made sending package to food this village

8

fellowtownsman

Junior high None

20s

M

Interviews undertaken in Sungang urban village, January 2013 Interviews undertaken by author with the help of students from the university of Shenzhen and Xia Hua and students from the University of Shenzhen

16

15

14

13

12

173

Man likes sports and would like to see more sports equipment.

There is nowhere to exercise in the neighbourhood. The main place they go is Honghu park on the other side of the train tracks.

Metro is a good idea, will mean better increasing the price of their rent.

Leisure

Expectations/ worries for metro construction

Other

Hospital available, heath care so-so

Think that the education possibilities in Shenzhen are limited, have concerns for their child's education. Kindergarten is too expensive common problem in Shenzhen

Hospital

School?

Sports facilities are too far away.

Plays basketball but there is only 2 courts in the area and they are too small.

They will not take the metro. It does not affect them.

Honghu park is too far away, walk around the streets at the base of building and around the trees. (we interviewed them near the big central tree and round about).

Believes the environment here is not good for peoples health. The hospital is also not very good.

Her granddaughter is 7 years old but having trouble finding a primary school, they need many certificates. The kinder is too overcrowded with 65 people in class and too expensive.

Interviews undertaken in Sungang urban village, January 2013

Lack of physical facilities. Limited communication between people. Too many migrants coming and going they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know each other.

Don't worry about the house price, for the house market in SZ is saturated

Playing mahjong with friends at home.

Walk dog in village, yard before house

Not enough public space.

Need more.

Not satisfied with the sanitation conditions.

Health care fair

Only one hospital for minor problems.

3 primary schools not enough

Better transportation, worrying about higher price

Going out less, Honghu Park Need more leisure place for children, Swimming pool, playground

Hospital of women and children

not considering yet

If's the price is acceptable, they would keep living here

Shopping is convenient

enough, just around village, not far away

no social welfare

baby kid yet

worrying about demolishing, but not the price increase, they would sell their medicine higher

considering to take child here

more convenient in future

21

20

19

18

17

174

Extra information

Income

By providing some entertainment opportunities, such as a cinema and more public space and activities.

For example a square where people could all exercise.

over 7000 pcm

Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t change the Honghu park. The village area needs more activity space.

Not bad, some thieves like in other parts of Shenzhen

Security

How can it be improved

Leave Shenzhen and go home

Plans for future

Many people do not communicate, the young people work all day and then go straight home.

Know many peoples face but donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have social relationship. Need more space for children and the elderly. The existing public space and parks are too far for them to walk.

Interviews undertaken in Sungang urban village, January 2013

More public infrastructure such as a hospital, primary school, cinema.

Is ok

Does not have any friends as he does not play poker or mahjong.

Wants more exercise facilities for old men - such as equipment bars.

transport is convenient.

It's unsafe before, but getting better.

uncertain, travel between HK-SZ, haven't considered buying house. own houses in DongGuan

A lot of social connections, due to they are on ground floor.

so-so

Considering to stay, but also depends on the price

Road condition not good/ crowded people

Improve the road conditions, and indication system

less connections with neighbours

Well enough, though the condition is not that good.

Considering Hukou Shenzhen, if it's possible

Good business environment.

No hukou if without buying a house.

1200/year management fee to community center. life expense 50006000/month, pay a lot to water and electricity

Good

Hoping to take children to Shenzhen

classmates are more from local villages.

Appendix 3 FAR Calculations AREA OF BLOCK

AREA BUILT

DIFFERENCE

Urban village

1

67077

35233

31844

Urban village

3

3973

1370

2603

Urban village

Urban village

Urban village

Urban village

Urban village

Urban village

Urban village

Urban village

Urban village

Urban village

2

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

40536 33318 7045

49072 4502

64289

148298 37152 6935

105666

18055 17216 5266

25234 2449

34374

76007

19104 4164

47152

22481 16102 1779

23838 2053

29915

72291

18048 2771

58514

SITE COVERAGE %

%

0.445

44.5

0.525

52.5

0.345

34.5

0.517

0.747

0.514

0.544

0.535

0.513

0.514

0.600

0.446

51.7

74.7

51.4

54.4

53.5

51.3

51.4

60.0

44.6

FLOOR TOTAL NO. FLOOR AREA

FAR

7

3.12

7

246631

3.68

7

9590

2.41

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

126385 120512 36862

176638 17143

240618

532049

133728 29148

330064

3.62

5.23

3.60

3.81

3.74

3.59

3.60

4.20

3.12

Residential 2

14

40585

10198

30387

0.251

25.1

7

71386

1.76

Residential 2

16

7386

2470

4916

0.334

33.4

8

19760

2.68

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

Residential 2

15

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

7934

77884 5736

3600

10106 2461

11531

14248

15152

84356

21851

41348

12510

38845

40321

16067 7117

56662 3008

2096

4748

5310

2617

33990 2229 722

4545

1269

3765

5965

2299

21142 2950

13303 5013

13629 9562

3517 229

15539 1044 852

1641

1564

5317

43894 3507

2878

5561

1192

7766

8283

12853

63214

18901

28045 7497

25216

30759

12550 6888

41123 1964

1244

3107

3746

0.330

0.436

0.389

0.201

0.450

0.516

0.327

0.419

0.152

0.251

0.135

0.322

0.401

0.351

0.237

0.219

0.032

0.274

0.347

0.406

0.346

0.295

33.0

43.6

38.9

20.1

45.0

51.6

32.7

41.9

15.2

25.1

13.5

32.2

40.1

35.1

23.7

21.9 3.2

27.4

34.7

40.6

34.6

29.5

7

8

30

21 8

8

12 9

25 9

26 7

8

8

20

10

30 8

7.5 7

9

7

18319

271920 66870

15162

36360

10152

45180

53685

57475

190278 76700

93121

40104

109032

191240 35170 6870

124312 7830

5964

14769

10948

2.31

3.49

11.66 4.21

3.60

4.13

3.92

3.77

3.79

2.26

3.51

2.25

3.21

2.81

4.74

2.19

0.97

2.19

2.60

2.85

3.11

2.06

Warehouses

39

14548

5807

8741

0.399

39.9

7

101836

7.00

Warehouses

41

18764

7723

11041

0.412

41.2

5

93820

5.00

13511

0.470

47.0

4

101916

4.00

Warehouses

40

14059

4398

9661

Warehouses

42

19203

10070

9133

Warehouses

44

14853

8751

6102

Warehouses

Warehouses

Warehouses

Warehouses

Warehouses

Warehouses

Warehouses

Warehouses

Warehouses

Warehouses

Warehouses

43

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

25479

22895

23135

19928

23284

20992

63840

48462 2463

2119

1419

11968 9186

9059

8381

8381

6082

26112 6358

1669 740

237

13709

14076

11547

14903

14910

37728

42104 794

1379

1182

0.313

0.524

0.589

0.401

0.392

0.421

0.360

0.290

0.409

0.131

0.678

0.349

0.167

31.3

52.4

58.9

40.1

39.2

42.1

36.0

29.0

40.9

13.1

67.8

34.9

16.7

3

2

2

2

2

5

5

4

4

3

2

2

2

42177

38406

29706

18372

18118

41905

41905

24328

104448 19074 3338

1480 474

3.00

2.00

2.00

0.80

0.78

2.10

1.80

1.16

1.64

0.39

1.36

0.70

0.33

175

Appendix 3 FAR Calculations

Warehouses

55

8078

5598

2480

0.693

69.3

3

16794

2.08

Industrial land

58

9521

2815

6706

0.296

29.6

8

22520

2.37

Industrial land

60

6454

2585

3869

0.401

40.1

4

10340

1.60

Industrial land

59

10074

4026

Transportation land

63

1257

752

Transportation land

64

11242

Transportation land

65

Transportation land

6048 0

0.400

40.0

8

32208

3.20

505

0.598

59.8

1

752

0.60

3219

8023

0.286

28.6

2

6438

0.57

10065

9891

174

0.983

98.3

3

29673

2.95

66

2463

734

1729

0.298

29.8

3

2202

0.89

Transportation land

67

4130

555

3575

0.134

13.4

2

1110

0.27

Transportation land

68

21758

7713

14045

0.354

35.4

3

23139

1.06

Commercial

73

3780

1531

2249

0.405

40.5

5

7655

2.03

Commercial

75

154560

74853

79707

0.484

48.4

3

224559

1.45

Commercial

Commercial

Commercial

Commercial

Commercial

Commercial

74

76

77

78

79

80

14725 5051

3557

2163

2566 424

445

2533

2054 490

984

271

14280 2518

1503

1673

1582 153

0.030

0.501

0.577

0.227

0.383

0.639

3.0

50.1

57.7

22.7

38.3

63.9

8

2

7

7

5

8

3560

5066

14378 3430

4920

2168

0.24

1.00

4.04

1.59

1.92

5.11

Empty land

87

246389

4277

242112

0.017

1.7

4

17108

0.07

Empty land

89

6668

0

6668

0.000

0.0

0

0

0.00

Empty land

Empty land

Empty land

Empty land

88

90

91

92

7526

42256 5993

18953

0

4065 0

618

7526

38191 5993

18335

0.000

0.096

0.000

0.033

0.0

9.6

0.0

3.3

0

2

0

1

0

8130 0

618

0.00

0.19

0.00

0.03

School

96

6396

1467

4929

0.229

22.9

11

16137

2.52

School

98

976

230

746

0.236

23.6

6

1380

1.41

School

School

97

99

2384 1562

678

577

1706 985

0.284

0.369

28.4

36.9

4

5

2712

2885

1.14

1.85

176

177