Urban [Agri]Culture

Urban [Agri]Culture Mohsen Najafian & Anirudh Sood ATR_Generic

1

P. 3

Intoduction

A Question of Sustainability

P. 10 - 12 Havana

Urban Agriculture

P. 4 - 6

Why Urban Agriculture?

P. 13 - 14 Bangkok P. 16 Pig City

Vertical Agriculture P. 7

The City and Verticalism

Utopian Visions

P. 8 - 9

Utopia and the eco-city

Case Studies

P. 10 - 20

P. 21

Conclusion

The Future of Urban Agriculture

P. 15

P. 17 Eco-Tower

P. 18 - 19 Dystopian Farm P. 20 Guanming Smart-city

P. 21 - 25 Bibliography

2

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

A Question of Sustainability

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Sustainability has an influence in many key areas of our contemporary educational institutions, from politics to architecture; the word is engrained into society as being the bearer of a utopian landscape, by eradicating the use of fossil fuels through harnessing Gaia’s power, in a world of unsustainable practices can we continue to rely on a technocratic approach to our environmental situation?

Architects continually depend on high-tech products that at times are grossly inefficient and become ‘eco-bling’ for buildings in which they are pasted onto1. Sustainable Design has focused around the individual building performances with governing bodies such as LEED and BREEAM becoming the benchmark for how to achieve a ‘greener’ building.

A notion of buildings fighting to become more sustainable individually has formed out of this ideology, more has to be done in order to raise an awareness of the potentialities of collective design in achieving more efficient systems.2 Mark Jarzombek describes this generation as ‘post sustainability’ challenging the very notion of ‘sustainability’ within architecture discourse and the masterplan culture, omni-present since the 1960’s. Continuing the argument he goes onto question ‘management’ as a solution to the problem and describes masterplan as an ‘illusion’ of a city.3

Relying on technologies to free our natural dependency on fossil fuels whilst neglecting the most rudimentary of ill practices is one of contemporary societies major problems. Cities are expanding at an unprecedented rate with 1.3 million rural migrants flocking to cities across the world each week4; the historical balance of rural to urban dwellers is shifting in favour of the city. This has huge environmental implications; none more so than sustaining this expanding number of hungry city dwellers. A reliance on rural agriculture has been key in providing this.

‘Landscapes of Specialisation’5 provide the worlds produce with an agricultural footprint the size of South America (not including grazing land)6. Intensity of this land has also dramatically increased in recent years with many vast areas close to 100 percent exploitation7.

Food however does not seemingly fit in with the global ‘green agenda’ where Billions are invested into wind, solar and tidal technologies with the one third of global emissions which food and agriculture is responsible for, remaining overlooked. The discourse shouldn’t focus on providing more power but rather analysing the inefficiency of the system in which this power is placed and producing solutions that can reduce need.

1. Liddell, Howard. Eco-minimalism: The Antidote to Eco-bling. London: Riba Pub., 2008.

2. Lim, C. J., and Ed Liu. Smartcities + Eco-warriors. Abingdon [England: Routledge, 2010.

3. Jarzombek, Mark., Smartcities + Eco-warriors (Lim,C.J. and Ed Liu, 2010): 167 - 172 4. Steel, Carolyn. Hungry City: How Food Shapes Our Lives. London: Chatto & Windus, 2008 5. Rankin, Bill.,Ecological Urbanism (Mostafavi, Mohsen, and Gareth Doherty, 2010): 502 - 503 6. TEDxWindyCity -- Dickson Despommier -- The Vertical Farm. The Vertical Farm. Youtube.com. Nov 3, 2010, Web. Accessed 18th Nov 2011.

7. Rankin, Bill.,Ecological Urbanism (Mostafavi, Mohsen, and Gareth Doherty, 2010): 502 - 503

Conclusion

1. ‘eco-bling’. The Ambitious Anara Tower, Atkins. Dubai

2. Agricultural land use intensity

3

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Why Urban Agriculture?

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

‘corn is necessary; silver only a superfluity.’ (Smith, Adam p.191) ­

Advancements in technology have contributed to the current dislocated relationship we have with our crops. Cities have historically formed around several factors with food source being a major priority in locating urban regions. This tie has almost been completely severed with the current refrigeration and rapid transit systems in place that regularly witnesses lamb being flown 11,700 miles from New Zealand to the UK and potatoes coming 2,200 miles from Israel, even during British potato season. 1 These figures are disregarded as part of the competitive open market, encouraging increasing reduction in price despite inflation. In many economically developing nations this has led to exploitation of land and labour in producing ‘cash crops’ such as coffee and tea. The intensity of such farming and the increasing number of nations competing has led to oversupply and ultimately decreasing value of commodities.

One study carried out by Lincoln University claims to prove that despite these food miles importing the ‘New Zealand’ lamb is actually more carbon efficient. The study found that in New Zealand, for every tonne of lamb 688kg of carbon dioxide is emitted, compared to 2,849kg of carbon dioxide produced in raising British lamb. This figure includes the 11,700 miles travelling to the UK.

As astonishing as it appears the increased efficiency can be brought back to the more favourable climate in New Zealand which allows the grass to grow for longer resulting in less feed having to be given to rear the animals. 2 Using this logic could see these ‘Landscapes of Specialisation’ increase in landmass, further alienating food production from our cities. In spite of this statistic a report by Dave Stanley using statistics from a range of national institutions suggested that if food produced organically in the UK and eaten locally (when in season), Co2 emissions could be reduced In spite of this statistic, Carolyn Steel discusses the inefficiency of global farming methods in her TED talks in 2009. Steel describes how 19 million hectares of rainforest are lost each year to make way for arable land, with 20 million hectares of arable land being lost to salinisation and soil erosion. Continuing the argument Steel describes how the reliance on fossil fuels is also contributing negatively: “For every calorie of food consumed in the west, it takes 10 calories to produce it” (Steel, 2009)

Surely more can be done to prevent our most human of needs from parasiting so unethically from the land our existence depends on.

1

4

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Prior to the industrial revolution, our food and cities were more intrinsically linked. Lack of sophisticated transportation and refrigeration techniques caused much of the agriculture to be interwoven with urbanity. This changed dramatically in the advent of rail travel; crops and cattle could be transported rapidly from rural environments, leading onto contemporary agricultural techniques where almost all processes associated with our food take place outside the urbanity.

This recurring paradigm was stalled during the first half of the 20th century due to the threat of starvation imposed by blockades during the two World Wars. The first of which took place in 1917 with hope of boosting national food output through small-scale allotments and collective farming schemes known as the ‘Victory Gardens’. Allotment numbers tripled in size from around 500,000 in 1913 to around 1,500,000 by late 1917. World War II seen this trend repeated by the British Minister of Agriculture through their ‘Dig for Victory’ campaign which seen the dwindling numbers of allotments post WWI rise to around the 1,500,000 mark once more. In both instances rooftops, balconies, public parks and pontoons were all planted and worked on by civilians who were provided with literature, classes, seeds and fertilizer from the government.4 In more recent times Cuba has adopted similar solutions following the collapse of the Soviet Bloc in 1989, from which it conducted eighty percent of its trade.5 Coupled with the trade embargo imposed by the United States Cuba’s civilians grabbed every available piece of land for crops and livestock in the countries capital Havana, a collective effort reminiscent of the ‘Victory Gardens’. This unplanned action encouraged the Cuban government to sanction such acts and declared all public land available for cultivation.

Necessity has without question made urban agriculture a viable proposition in times of conflict or self sustenance, however in our economically driven free market is it a realistic alternative to the current contemporary condition of our food production?

Continuous Productive urban landscapes (CPULs) edited by Andre Viljoen looks into potential integration of such schemes within the contemporary European City model.

CPULs suggests all ‘green infrastructure’ synonymous with European cities could be utilised as areas of food production; imagining potential networks of urban produce with a closed system relationship to the city in which it lies. Viljoen discusses the benefits such a system would hold: “There are three primary environmental benefits from organic urban agriculture preserving biodiversity, tackling waste and reducing the amount of energy used to produce and distribute food.” (Viljoen, Andre. p.21)

3. More Space with Less Space: An Urban Design Strategy. ‘CPUL’s’

2. ‘Victory Garden’. 1939 - 1945, The Tower of London.

5

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

CJ Lim expands on this idea of circular economy for the city in his book Smartcities and Eco-Warriors. Lim describes how solid organic waste could be transformed into fertilizers through anaerobic digestion, and how greywater and blackwater from showers, sinks and gutters could be utilised to irrigate crops. A system he describes as:

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

“an overdue mediation between the countryside and city” (Lim, C.J.

p.29)

Having food available at our front doors would not only dramatically reduce emissions it would also provide jobs to the increasingly urban population, raise awareness of how and where our food comes from and has the potential of becoming a social buffer increasing interaction within urban environments.

Local Biodiversity would also profit from an increase in vegetal, water management is an invaluable aspect of this with flood risk increasing due to rising sea-levels. The impermeability of urban fabric does little in alleviating flood risk; with many of these areas potentially incorporating urban agriculture, water attenuation within the city would increase causing less strain on the drainage systems and eventual waterways.

4. A closed loop city. Imagining Recover.

5. Guangming SmartCity. Enironmental Strategy

1. Blythman, J. “Food Miles: The true cost of putting imported food on your plate”. The Independent, 31 May, online.

2. Accessed 12 January 2012.

3. Gray, R. “Greener by miles”. The Telegraph, 03 June 2007, online. Accessed 12 January 2012.

4. Stanley, Dave. “Sustainability in Practice, Achieveing the Uk’s Climate Change Commitments and the Efficiency of the Food Cycle.” (2002). E3 Consulting. Web. 5. Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005

6

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

The City and Verticalism

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Cities are expanding at unprecedented rates; migrants from rural regions seeking a more prosperous way of life increase urban population by 1.3 million each week.1 This has severe implications on the already densely populated urbanity present in many major cities.

Fueling this causes a thirst for land, not only in the city but has a direct influence on arable land feeding into urbanity. An area of land the size of South America is required to provide crop production for our growing population, this results in a huge amount of agricultural run-off and land pollution and accounts for significant depletion of rainforests.2 Verticalism has almost become a cliché manifestation for architects in resolving problems.

Architects utilise the framework for creating high density residential and commercial solutions for a number of issues. From Corbusier’s Ville Contemporaine proposal, solving a lack of Parisian green space in 1922, to Sir Basil Spence and his Hutchesontown development for the Gorbals. Completed in 1965 it replaced 62 acres of slums in Glasgow’s inner city with ten high-density blocks, freeing green space and promoting community during a time of economic hardship.

MVRDV’s Pig City project in the Netherlands was envisioned due to the dwindling availability of arable land in Holland. The project also highlights the inefficiency of current systems in place regarding ‘food miles’ accumulated by each pig as it is processed.3

1. Ville Contemporaine. Le Corbusier

If Urban Agriculture was to become a feasible proposition for the contemporary city, using available land alone may not be sufficient in providing for the growing population. With land prices in the city being prodigiously higher than its rural equivalent, a reevaluation of how urban development is carried out would be vital in integrating ideas in order for such developments to be economically viable as well as psychically.

Eric Vergne’s conceptual design for a vertical farm in New york attempts to address this issue. Dystopian Farm proposes a tower, which harnesses vanguard hydroponic, aeroponic and genetic technologies in Manhattan’s Hudson Yard area. The proposal suggests an integration of farmers (producers) and city dwellers (consumers), harnessing the potential of closed loop systems; from utilising greywater from residences, to markets within the building itself allowing consumers to literally buy food on their doorstep. Cutting edge technology is inherently present in the project from the structure of the building itself to the growing methods. Vergne acknowledges that a technocratic solution does not resist consumption; instead solutions can give an excuse for further dissipation of resources.

Dystopian Farm however interweaves technologically advanced solutions with the rudimentary, very natural relationship we once shared with our food. Combining political, cultural and social activities in one closed loop system breeds a new ecological process; one where man is in complete control.4

Genetic modification is of course a very controversial debate with many environmentalist objecting to the processes involved, however with systems such as mineral based growth (hydroponic) systems, many of these technologies are simply harnessing natures genius in producing food with the same nutrient content at a fraction of the price. Arguably this method can be seen as more environmentally friendly; by reducing the amount of arable land used whilst maintaining output would free millions of hectares of current agricultural land, allowing eco-systems to regenerate and environments to return to their natural habitats.

1. TALKS Carolyn Steel: How food shapes our cities. How food shapes our cities. ted.com. Jul 2009, Web. Accessed 18th Nov 2011 2. TEDxWindyCity -- Dickson Despommier -- The Vertical Farm. The Vertical Farm. Youtube.com. Nov 3, 2010, Web. Accessed 18th Nov 2011.

3. Maas, Winy, Jacob Van Rijs, and Richard Koek. FARMAX: Excursions on Density. Rotterdam: 010, 2006 4. Vergne, Eric. “Dystopian Farming.” Architectural Design 80.6 (2010): 94-101

2. Hutchesontown, Sir Basil Spence

7

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Utopia and the eco-city

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Utopia |yoōˈtōpēə| (also u.to.pi.a) noun

an imagined place or state of things in which everything is perfect. The word was first used in the book Utopia (1516) by Sir Thomas More. The opposite of dystopia .

ORIGIN based on Greek ou ‘not’ + topos ‘place.’ 1

Utopia is in meaning a paradox; used to describe the perfect place when its origin itself renders this impossible. This ‘unachievable’ destination has fuelled criticism toward Utopian visions, an argument based on circumventing societies real problems and providing solutions in ideal environments. Disapproval of such ideals fail to recognise that the historically significant visions of Plato, Thomas More and Francis Bacon addressed societies woes at the time, inspiring and in some ways in-sighting re-evaluation of how we live.2

Architects have continually toiled with their ‘ideal’ place. One inherent inclusion is nature, in most cases becoming swelling landscapes dotted with urbanity, not the current city model of expanding urbanity dotted with landscape. Ebenezer Howard’s ‘Garden Cities of Tomorrow’ (1902) proposed cities where five-sixths of the land was devoted to food production. Residential plots would be 20ft by 130ft, which Howard envisaged to be sufficient to feed a family of five people. Howard’s visions became reality through Letchworth Garden City and Welwyn Garden City in the UK. Housing, agriculture and industry are integrated between radial boulevards and parklands. 3

Post Industrial revolution however posed a greater challenge for architects in curating ideas of utopia. The rise of modernism witnessed numerous attempts at addressing the 20th century condition. Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City in 1932 attempted to harness the growing car culture of the time. Wright’s arcadian plans attempted to curate the new concept of suburban living in a utopian fashion, decentralising urban design and providing residents with an acre of land to construct their own house. Paolo Soleri (a student of Wright’s) took his mentors visions a step further through his futuristic Arcosanti project in Arizona. Designed as a catalyst for his Arcology concept (architecture + ecology) Arcosanti has been built by volunteers since 1970. Still under construction the project will house 5,000 people in the high desert of Arizona. 4 Urban construction has seen incremental growth with economy in newly industrialised countries (NIC). This recent boom and rapid influx of rural migrants has seen entire cities appear in the 21st century in countries such as India and China. The pre-recession boom also seen rapidly expanding urbanities within economic hubs such as Dubai and AbuDhabi. This has given rise to the ‘ecocity’; visions of a sustainable urbanity which attempts to create new models of how we live through efficient transportation, hydrological control systems and renewable energy production. Foster + Partners’ design for Masdar City in Abu Dhabi claims to be one of the first ‘sustainable urban developments’ of its kind. Planned on a northeast-southeast orientation makes best use of the cooling night breezes and lessens the effect of hot daytime winds. 5 The city currently relies entirely on its onsite photovoltaic electricity generation, however this will reduce to 20 percent as the city expands. 6

1. Welwyn Garden City, Ebenezer Howard.

2. Broadacre City, Frank Lloyd Wright.

3. Arcosanti, Paolo Soleri.

8

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

More high tech solutions are utilised within the cities water management system for which they claim can produce a reduction of twenty percent compared to conventional methods:

Case Studies

Conclusion

“Highly efficient fittings, fixtures and appliances, smart water meters that inform consumers of their consumption, and smart meters to identify leakage across the system are already in use.” (Masdar City, 2011)

Masdar City relies on technologically driven solutions to problems which would not exist in conditions more congruous to human life. The plan also fails to identify numerous unsustainable practices currently present in our current city model. This urbanity which is championed as pioneering architecture for the city fails to adhere to the most rudimentary of architectural principles outlined in Vitruvius’ Ten Books on Architecture: “if one of these elements, heat, becomes predominant in any body whatsoever, it destroys and dissolves all the others with its violence.” (Vitruvius, Pollio. p.18-19)

Vitruvius was of course reffering to siting a city where a good balance of heat, moisture and earth are key factors. These principles have been adhered to since the inception of the city as we know it. Why then do we allow our hungry economies to dictate where these developments should be placed? The UAE invest Billions in such projects, encouraging business investment from around the world despite the thought of living in such regions unthinkable before climate control technologies were developed. Investing in an area which requires a great deal more power to sustain itself seems oxymoronical in nature, however with such developmetns taking place it is important for architects to adress the paradigm and devise plans to make such schemes as efficient as possible. If this means harnessing any available techonology in the hope that improved systems can form from its experimentation, then these technologies should be present in such developments.

If we are to come close to realising a more environmentally friendly model for our contemporary city a focus of using less rather than producing more must be seriously considered. A re-evaluation of the inception and location of new urbanities must take place if we are to understand how to work with our rapidly deteriorating environment, rather than work against it.

4. Masdar City. Aerial Render, Foster + Partners

5. Masdar City. Courtyard view, Foster + Partners

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Stevenson, Angus, and Maurice Waite. Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011.

Lim, C. J., and Ed Liu. Smartcities + Eco-warriors. Abingdon [England: Routledge, 2010 Howard, Ebenezer. Garden Cities of Tomorrow. [Gloucester, Gloucestershire]: Dodo, 2010 Arcosanti : Home. Web. 10 Jan. 2012. <http://arcosanti.org/> Foster Partners. Web. 10 Jan. 2012. <http://www.fosterandpartners.com/>.

6. Masdar City. Web. 10 Jan. 2012. <http://www.masdarcity.ae/>.

9

Intoduction

Case Study 1

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Location: Havana, Cuba

Following the collapse of the Soviet Bloc in 1989, Cuba, the only remaining socialist state in the western world lost its most vital trade partner. These political events had a devastating impact on the local economy of Cuba, and more specifically the food security of the island state. The period now known as The Special Period, had a devastating impact on the agricultural economy due to a 50% reduction in pesticide and fertilizer imports.

Prior to the Soviet collapse, Cuban population depended on 57% of its caloric intake from imported food.

Initiatives were taken by popular groups and government organisations to encourage and implement urban gardeners to farm food crops within the urban farms. Faced with the food shortages and lack of cheap subsidised food from the government, the residents responded with particular vigour in Havana.

Organopรณnicos, a name derived from the technique of hydroponics but without the use of oil bases fertilizers is a system of urban organic gardens in Cuba. These typically consist of low concrete walls filled with organic matter and soil. The soil is irrigated with lines of drip irrigation laid on the surface of the growing media. This method was developed to provide a fresh food supply to the communities, while also providing jobs within neighbourhoods and at the same time beautifying urban areas.

Organopรณnicos along with intensive gardens are the methods employed for urban farming in the Cuban cities. The difference between the two is the structure of the garden. Intensive Gardens is the cultivation of crops on existing soil whereas Organopรณnicos is the cultivation of crops on raised beds. The latter is the preferred and more successful of the two due to the poor top soil quality in the urban context.

1. Urban Agriculture sites in Cienfuegos

Table 1 - Extent and Typology of Urban Farming in Cuba (1996)

Organopรณnicos Intensive Gardening (Alteri et al.)

No.

Area (ha.)

Yield (Kg/Sq.m.) Total Production (qq)

1613

250

16

430

165

12

840092 421000 2. Allotments in Cienfuegos

Table 2 - Extent of urban farming in the city of Havana. (after Companioni et al., 1997) Form of production

Total number of sites

Total area (ha.)

Intensive gardens

93 gardens

1700

Suburban farms

2423 private farms

7718

Organopรณnicos

Hydroponics & Zeoponics Popular gardens

Business and factory gardens Household gardens Total

(Alteri et al.)

96 gardens 3 locations

5000 gardens 385 gardens Unknown 8000

2380 111

1854 5368

Unknown 15092

3. Allotments in Cienfuegos

10

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

One of the challenges to farming in the urban context would be the requirements of vacant or appropriate land. Popular Gardens as they are known in Havana are usually vacant or abandoned plots located near or next to neighbourhoods. It can be said that the urban farming initiatives would not be successful without the social and political background to the movement in Cuba.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Gonzalez Novo and Murphy (2001) have described the Cuban experience as the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first nationwide co-ordinated urban agriculture programme, integrating access to land, extension services, research and technology development, new supply stores for small farmers and new marketing schemes and organisation of selling points for urban producers.â&#x20AC;? (Viljoen) It is notable that the programme has been low-tech in its operation, and this to a certain extent may have even benefited the programme. Because of its low-tech approach, the communities have been able to set up their own urban farms easily leading to greater participation. The initiative has been promoted by the government politically, financially and resourcefully. These factors along with the macro-economic situation created optimal conditions for such an initiative to be successful.

Case Studies

Conclusion

4. Allotments in Cienfuegos

Illustrated below are the different types of allotments that were created in the vacant spaces available in the city. The farms take a linear-form, where the occupants are usually led from the entrance to the seating areas at the end. The division of space in such a manner is easy to implement, with each section of the linear allotment tended by family or group.

Recycled materials are used to create the spaces inhabited by people and crops. Unused railway tracks are used to create structures, and fabrics to create areas of shade. A variety of crops are capable of thriving in such conditions.

5. Micro-void enclosure, housing a community garden.

Crops: Avocadom pumpkins, bananas, aloe, peas, fennel, chillies and herbs.

Materials: Stone, earth, gravel, car tyres, tiles

11

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

6. La Terminal Roads: Brown field site. Urban garden cultivated on a city block.

Crops: lettuce, onions, radish, beans, tomatoes, carrots, medicinal crops, hibiscus Materials: Stone, wood, concrete, earth, railway tracks for columns, shadow mesh.

7. Organoponico Cuatro Caminos: Exentsive Peri-Urban agriculture Crops: lettuce, tomatoes, beetroot, potatoes, okra, maize, onions, radishes, aubergines Materials: Stone, concrete, chain link fence, earth

8. Organoponico Pastorita Cienfuegos: Private apartment, joined to form allotments.

Crops: aloe, spinach, pumpkin, beans, herbs, citrus fruits.

Materials: pre-cast concrete slabs, beams, blocks, concrete fence posts, wire fence

The success of the programme can also be attributed to the fact that the urban centres have adopted the farming schemes, not only benefiting their communities but also reducing/eliminating the use of harmful oil based chemicals in agriculture. This set Havana as a precedent which other developing nations can follow.

It would be interesting to note whether the success of the urban agriculture can sustain itself once Cuba recovers from the events that triggered the Special Period.

12

Intoduction

Case Study 2

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Location: Bangkok, Thailand Client: Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Research: Canada’s International Centre for Sustainable Cities (ICSC) Funded by: Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)

“It is as if a consumer society, networked to global media and transport links, has been ‘superimposed on a wet rice-cultivating landscape’.” (Mcgrath, Brian and Thaitako)

Bangkok, with a population of over 12 million, is a thriving metropolis. However due to the rapid expansion of the city during the 1960’s up until 1980, 39% of the land within the city periphery lay vacant, the city is a test bed for urban agriculture. Keen to improve the ‘green’ rating of Bangkok, BMA (Bangkok Metropolitan Administration) commissioned TEI (Thailand Environment Institute) to help improve the urban green of the city.

1. Allotments in Cienfuegos

The specific tasks set were:

1. Teach members of two pilot communities in Bangkok about the benefits of urban green space.

2. Form community working groups in these two areas and guide these groups to plan, implement and maintain urban green space in their community.

2. Allotments in Cienfuegos

3. Develop and test a process or method of community involvement so the needs of the community and the larger-scale environmental benefits of urban greening can be met.

(Fraser)

The initiative involves low-tech approach to urban farming, where vacant land is given to the community along with government support in the form of seeds, tools and agricultural training. This approach reminiscent of the ‘Vicotry Gardens’ results in a quick stratup on a budget.

3. Allotments in Cienfuegos

These tasks were to not only provide Bangkok with a ‘green’ rating, but would also help to create hundreds of jobs. Food production would take place near to where it would be consumed, thus reducing transport costs significantly. As the community itself is involved, the food can be consumed within and the excess can then be sold to other communities in the city.

4. Allotments in Cienfuegos

13

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

“Ecologically, farming has other negative consequences, such as the despoliation of the world’s estuaries and the systematic elimination of most of the world’s hardwood forests.” (Doron)

Case Studies

Conclusion

5. Allotments in Cienfuegos

The opportunity cost of creating farms within the city periphery also means reduction in the deforestation elsewhere. Considering Thailand is a developing economy, deforestation of its land not only impacts the environment but is detrimental to tourism. The soil quality of the area is also reduced, leading to environmental damage on which local economies thrive.

The success of the project has been rated according to set criteria. The project was able to establish an urban green plan, with the areas of Bangkok Noi and Bangapi creating urban vegetable garden, now run by students from the area. Introduction of Aquaculture allows for fish to be farmed within the city also.

The projects resulted in a reduction in poverty, noted significantly at the Bangapi community garden. By cultivating the crops at the gardens, each family was able to increase its income by up to 20%.

Links with the government provided jobs for senior civil service, benefiting the community further. As was the case with Havana, the project was a success due to the involvement of the community and government.

6. Programmatic Map, Bangkok

14

Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Dense Verticalism (Case Studies 3 - 5)

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

“Over the next 50 years, rapid climate change issues will play a major role in agriculture. It is estimated for every 1o c of increase in atmospheric temperature, 10 % of the land where we now grow food crops will be lost.” (Webb) Vertical agriculture within the cityscape has several advantages over conventional agriculture: 1. Year round food supply with no crops lost to weather events.

2. No use of pesticides and herbicides.

3. Provides jobs for the urban population.

4. Reduction in water use (almost 70%)

5. Lower risk of contamination from human faecal material in the form of fertilizer

(Despommier)

The vertical farm concept was a direct response to the inadequate rooftop garden. In comparison of the floor space available, the rooftop area is minute compared even in a 3-10 story building. Retrofitting existing structures are an option, which would require the use of hydroponic systems along with LED lighting systems to provide all the nutrients and light for crops. However these systems would require energy to run, which could be converted from localised renewable sources such wind, solar, geothermal and tidal energy.

Another option through which vertical farming can be exploited through is new developments where the design of the structure itself takes into consideration the farming needs.

“Today, economic hardship is the main reason why urban agriculture is so common in cities in developing countries.” (Webb)

1. Circular Farm: Chris Jacobs

2. Farming the Skyline: Blake Kurasek

3. Urban Farm: Jung Min Nam

15

Intoduction

Case Study 3

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Project: Pig City Location: The Netherlands Client: Stroom, The Hague’s Centre for Visual Arts Architect: MVRDV

In 2001 MVRDV, a Dutch architectural firm, proposed the concept of Pig City. The theory behind this programme was based upon concentrated pig farming in the cities, where a vast majority of the meat is consumed.

Maas proposes raising pigs not next to one another but above one another – in giant towers: “Because our requirements have changed, our buildings must now change – even barns.” (Maas, Winy, Jacob Van Rijs, and Richard Koek)

Netherlands in 2000 was the largest exporter of pork within the European Union, with an estimated production of 16.5 million tonnes of pork. The population of the pigs at the same time was 15.2 million compared to the human population of 15.5 million.

1. Exterior perspective, Pig City

"One pig needs an area of 664 m2, including current food processing: composed of 50% intensive grain production and 50% industrial by-products. In the case of organic farming, pigs would be fed with 100% grain, leading to a required 130% more field surface due to the reduced grain production. This would cause a demand of 1726 m2 per pig, including the organic food processing. This would mean that there would be only 774 m2 per person left for other activities. In other words, 75 % of the Netherlands would be dedicated to pigs.” (Maas, Winy, Jacob Van Rijs, and Richard Koek)

With an immense pressure on the resources available, MVRDV have identified a crucial problem to which the proposed answer seems to be a ‘high-rise barn’. These structures would be 80 metres high where each level consists of social, eating and sleeping areas for the pigs.

2. Interior Perspective

This method of pig farming would have several benefits. Firstly, as Mass states, for the pig farming to continue in its current scale whilst becoming organic, huge pressures on the land resources would be felt. By housing pigs in towers, extensive cultivation can take place while reducing the foot print of the farms themselves.

Secondly, the farms are stacked on top of each other, therefore reducing the transport costs for farm suppliers. This reduced transportation and consequential external contact could prevent diseases such as foot and mouth and swine flu. These towers have the potential to become concentrated slaughterhouses, with self-sufficiency in recycled fertilizer and a central food core.

Pig City is a hint towards applying vertical farming on a large scale in response to the lack of arable land. MVRDV propose to reduce the land use of this type of farming, thereby bringing together the process of meat farming, cultivation and processing in a highly concentrated and centralised system.

3. Concentrated Farming, Pig City

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Intoduction

Case Study 4

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Project: Eco-Tower Location: Paris, France Client: Research based project Architect: soa architects

The Living Tower, by soa architects, is a tower proposed to be in the heart of the city where food and energy production is most needed. The towers integrate windmills, photovoltaic panels, rainwater and black water systems and Canadian wells to recycle and convert energy within the building. There is increased efficiency with thermal and hygrometrical regulation, which aims to create optimal conditions for human inhabitation as well as farming. â&#x20AC;&#x153;La Tour Vivante aims to associate agricultural production, dwelling, and other activities in a single vertical system.â&#x20AC;? (soa architects)

1. Exterior perspective: La Tour Vivante

This system in theory tries to associate the agricultural production, dwelling and activities in a single, concentrated and vertical system. As a result, the city would be denser while allowing a greater autonomy from reliance on rural agriculture. This would reduce the environmental and economic costs of transporting vast quantities of foodstuffs.

In its current state, food produce travels an average of 2,092 to 3,219 kilometres from farmer to consumer. The towers would eliminate the transport of produce considerably, thus reducing the need for refrigeration and storage. La Tour Vivante concept allows urban dwellers access to fresh produce without the use of preservatives. The plant and organic waste will generate a large amount of methane, which can then be collected and used as an energy source in the building.

The design incorporates 7000 m2 of greenhouse with a continuous linear surface of 875m.

In addition there are a total 3500m of soil-less tanks. This is estimated to produce: 1. 63000 Kg of tomatoes a year 2. 37300 feet of salads a year

2. Interior Perspective: Intergrating dwelling with farm

3. 9300 Kg of strawberries a year

(soa architects)

There are several other technological and architectural systems built into the tower which aid the farming programme. Rainwater is collected in the building, and used to water the hydroponic cultures. Rainwater is also transformed into drinking water by the transpiration/respiration on plants. Black water produced by the towers is utilised to feed and fertilize the soil for agricultural production.

The project is an intergration of changing values and technologies. By mixing the farming with the dwelling, the architects have brought together the notion of communal farming into a high-rise accommodation. The project can be successful if executed properly, and a lot of the success relies upon the technology involved being efficient.

3. Axo-section: Highlighting Technologies

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Intoduction

Case Study 5

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Project: Dystopian Farm Location: Hudson Yard, New York City Client: Research based project Architect: Eric Vergne

This project by Eric Vergne aims to bring together the two agents of agriculture, farmers and city dwellers. The design proposal is located on the Hudson Yard, New York City, one of the largest and densest urban areas in the world. Vergne’s concept not only challenges the idea of farming within the city but does so with a high-tech approach that will aim to enhance food production in the city. The systems proposed accept the condition of human intervention and involvement in the area of food production. This is extensive cultivation for the modern age.

“Romantic views of modern food production and utopian garden city additions are abandoned here. Rather, the skyscraper recognises that if urban farming is to provide adequately for a city, a dystopian stage of agricultural production that uses human control over the growth process must be accepted.” (Vergne, Eric)

The project will integrate advanced farming technologies such as genetic engineering, aeroponic watering, nutrient technologies (spraying water with nutrients) along with lighting, CO2 and thermal controls to create optimal environment for farming to take place.

Vergne’s vision for the farming not only aims to be functional but allows interaction to take place between the producer and the consumer. The vertical farm acts as a social hub in the urban dense form, thus creating opportunities for different urban experiences.

1. Exterior perspective. The urban farm in Manhattan’s Hudson Yard.

With the implementation of genetic engineering and control methods, there would be greater control and reduction over possible pests and diseases that can affect crops. As a result, the supply of the crop would become more stable whilst reducing price fluctuation.

Illustration 1 hints at the possible cell-like structures that could house these programmes.

The honey-comb structure borrows form from nature, finding efficiency in production and process. Image 2 refers to the possible market conditions that might occur with full automated cultivation and selling process.

The vertical farms, as highlighted in this report are still primarily at conceptual stage. It is difficult to gauge the success of concept until it has been realised. However these examples do provide a wide spectrum of what is possible with architectural and design intervention into the subject of urban agriculture.

“Overall, the dystopian urban farm does not simply attempt to solve a technological roblem, but rather to enmesh a technological solution with political, cultural and social activities into an ecological process.” (Vergne, Eric)

2. Ground-level market perspective.

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Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

3. Detail section

Case Studies

Conclusion

4. Programmatic elevations.

5. Vertical aeroponic growing diagram.

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Intoduction

Case Study 4

Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Project: Guanming Smart-city Location: Shenzhen, China Client: Stroom, Shenzhen Municipal Planning Bureau Architect: C.J.Lim/Studio 8 Architects

More recent explorations of the concept have been carried out by Bartlett academic C.J. Lim and in particular his proposals for the city of Guanming. The project named Guanming Smart-City is a conceptual city within the region of Shenzhen, China.

“Across Chinese cities, 85 per cent of vegetables consumed by residents are produced within those cities, and Shanghai and Beijing are fully self-sufficient in vegetables” (Hough, 1995. qtd.Webb).

1. Smart-city in plan

Lim has identified a tradition in the regional culture and is attempting to use the same on a larger scale with the introduction of advanced technology and cities centred on the concept of urban agriculture. For cities as large as Shenzhen, this scheme aims to develop a culture of food immediacy while providing jobs and high quality food within the city. As the target demographic is likely to be the urban poor, food security and the income of these communities are set to benefit from such a scheme.

The smart-city itself covers an area of 7.5 m2. Accommodating 200,000 inhabitants. The city uses the existing typology of the region to create clusters of housing and farming areas in the form of towers and craters in the landscape.

“Conventional agriculture is hugely dependent on water resources, and water management is identified by a UN world development report as mankind’s most serious challenge of the 21st century.” (Lim, CJ)

Each suburb is self-sufficient in its food and energy requirements. Lim has also incorporated vertical floral gardens with kitchen gardens providing space to socialise and interact.

Bio-gas provides clean and renewable energy for the transport system within the city. As the city would be located adjacent the Maozhou River, reed water-bed filtration system would provide the water for the city.

2. Exterior View of the Smart-city

Lim’s concept is trying to inherently inbed itself in the natural topography of the region. If replicated at different sites, the smart-cities will offer inhabitants a range of urban architectural experiences.

On the other hand, the smart-city is a well thought out proposal, one cannot be certain of its success or failures however. As we have seen from the Cuban and Bangkok examples, the success of these schemes is not only dependent on the technological aspects but also on socioeconomic conditions which allow such projects to take place over a period of time.

What also sets the idea of the ‘utopian city’ apart is the scale of the proposals. Unlike the Cuban case study, the smart-city concept envisages a new city master-planned to create vast urban farms.

2. Urban dwelling farmer

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Intoduction

Urban Agriculture

The Future of Urban Agriculture

Vertical Agriculture

Utopian Visions

Case Studies

Conclusion

Through this report we have attempted to highlight the key factors contrbuiting to the technologies and concepts of Urban Agriculture. The choosen case studies convey a vast array of possibilites; adressing a number of issues within geographically, socially and politically different environments.

From the self sustinaing low-tech approach in Cuba to the futuristic Vertical Farm; facing up to our poor relationship we have with our sustananence is a very real issue. We are in danger of repeating past mistakes if we do not come to terms with our un-sustainable practices within agriculture.

The Kyoto Protocol aknowledged the signifance of agriculutral pollution in December of last year. However with two of the worlds biggest polluters (China and U.S.A) not signed up to the agreeement it is difficult to envision the treaties success in changing practices for the long term.

The agreement, currently signed by 191 states is meeting new challenges; Canada’s recent withdrawl and the future possibility of Russia and Japan withdrawing from the treaty further decreases the treaties crediability.

If we are to see a change in practices, a solution of retro-fit as seen in Havanna and Bankok may not be enough to attract investment and significant changes. Our contemporary city is one born out of economy, in order to conform to this Urban Agriculture must become more ‘investment friendly’ and promise financial as well as environmental insentives if it is to come to the forefront of discussion. In order to do this a manufactured, futuristic appraoch must be adopted, allowing higher crop yield in smaller areas of land. Vertical Agriculture is therefore extremely important within the subject. As Vergne discusses in his project, a ‘dystopian’ phase must be felt before we can begin to consider a ‘utopian’ relationship with our food.

By understanding the case studies, the potential of combining these technologies and concepts could form a solution for the contemporary city.

Through utilsing vacant space within urbanity, projects could farm intensively and perhaps vertically in fulfilling the growing demand for food.

Incoorporation of mixed use development could make such schemes financially as well as environmentally sustainable. Such projects will create a new dynamism within the urbanity and bridge the gap between producer and consumer. Food miles would no longer be a factor, and utilsing high tech solutions would allow for year round crops and guaranteed food security.

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Bibliography Alteri, Miguel A., Nelso Companioni, Kristina Cañizares, Catherine Murphy, Peter Rosset, Martin Bourque, and Clara I. Nicholls. “The Greening of the “barrios”: Urban Agriculture for Food Security in Cuba.” Agriculture and Human Values 16 (1999): 131-40. Print.

Costanzo, Michele. MVRDV: Works and Projects, 1991-2006. Milan: Skira, 2006. Print.

Despommier, Dickson. “The Vertical Farm: Controlled Environment Agriculture Carried out in Tall Buildings Would Create Greater Food Safety and Security for Large Urban Populations.” Journal of Consumer Protection and Food Safety 6 (2010): 233-36. Print.

Doron, Gil. “Urban Agriculture: Small, Medium, Large.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 52-59. Print.

Franck, Karen A. “Food for the City, Food in the City.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 35-42. Print.

Franck, Karen A. “The City as Dining Room, Market and Farm.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 5-10. Print.

Fraser, Evan D.G. “Urban Ecology in Bangkok, Thailand: Community Participation, Urban Agriculture and Forestry.” Environments 30.1 (2002).

Print.

Lazarus, Mary Ann, and Chip Crawford. “Returning Genius to the Place.” Architectural Design 81.6 (2011): 48-53. Print.

Le, Corbusier, and Frederick Etchells. The City of Tomorrow and Its Planning. London: Architectural, 1971. Print.

Liddell, Howard. Eco-minimalism: The Antidote to Eco-bling. London: Riba Pub., 2008. Print.

Lim, C. J., and Ed Liu. Smartcities + Eco-warriors. Abingdon [England: Routledge, 2010. Print.

Lim, Cj. “Cultivating Smartcities.” Architectural Design 80.2 (2010): 96-103. Print.

Maas, Winy, Jacob Van Rijs, and Richard Koek. FARMAX: Excursions on Density. Rotterdam: 010, 2006. Print.

McGrath, Brian, and Danai Thaitakoo. “Tasting the Periphery: Bangkok’s Agri- and Aquacultural Fringe.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 43-51.

Print.

Mostafavi, Mohsen, and Gareth Doherty. Ecological Urbanism. Baden, Switzerland: Lars Müller, 2010. Print.

MVRDV. Reading MVRDV. Rotterdam: NAi, 2003. Print.

Serres, Michel, and Lawrence R. Schehr. The Parasite. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1982. Print.

Steel, Carolyn. Hungry City: How Food Shapes Our Lives. London: Chatto & Windus, 2008. Print.

“Urban Agriculture.” Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 14 Jan. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_agriculture>.

Vergne, Eric. “Dystopian Farming.” Architectural Design 80.6 (2010): 94-101. Print.

Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

Webb, Nigel L. “Urban Agriculture: Environment, Ecology and the Urban Poor.” URBAN FORUM 9.1 (1998). Print.

Yeang, Ken, and Michael Guerra. “Building Integrated Food Production.” Architectural Design 78.6 (2008): 128-31. Print.

and renewable energy for the transport system within the city. As the city would be located adjacent Lim, C. J., and Ed Liu. Smartcities + Ecowarriors. Abingdon [England: Routledge, 2010. Print.

Lim, Cj. “Cultivating Smartcities.” Architectural Design 80.2 (2010): 96-103. Print.

Maas, Winy, Jacob Van Rijs, and Richard Koek. FARMAX: Excursions on Density. Rotterdam: 010, 2006. Print.

McGrath, Brian, and Danai Thaitakoo. “Tasting the Periphery: Bangkok’s Agri- and Aquacultural Fringe.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 43-51.

Print.

Mostafavi, Mohsen, and Gareth Doherty. Ecological Urbanism. Baden, Switzerland: Lars Müller, 2010. Print.

MVRDV. Reading MVRDV. Rotterdam: NAi, 2003. Print.

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Serres, Michel, and Lawrence R. Schehr. The Parasite. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1982. Print.

Steel, Carolyn. Hungry City: How Food Shapes Our Lives. London: Chatto & Windus, 2008. Print.

“Urban Agriculture.” Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 14 Jan. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_agriculture>.

Vergne, Eric. “Dystopian Farming.” Architectural Design 80.6 (2010): 94-101. Print.

Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

Webb, Nigel L. “URBAN AGRICULTURE: Environment, Ecology and the Urban Poor.” URBAN FORUM 9.1 (1998). Print.

Yeang, Ken, and Michael Guerra. “Building Integrated Food Production.” Architectural Design 78.6 (2008): 128-31. Print.

Vitruvius, Pollio. Vitruvius: The Ten Books of Architecture. New York: Dover Publications, 1960. Print.

Images Introduction 1. Anara Tower “Press Releases – Atkins.” Atkins. Web. 15 Jan. 2012. <http://www.atkinsglobal.com/en/media-centre/news-releases/2008/ tameer-unveils-atkins>.

Urban Agriculture

1. 1. Forest and deforested landscapes of the world. “Map and Analyze | The Global Partnership on Forest Landscape Restoration.” Home | The Global Partnership on Forest Landscape Restoration. Web. 15 Jan. 2012. <http://ideastransformlandscapes.org/what-we-do/map-and-analyze/>.

2. 1939 – 1945, The Tower of London. Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print. P.102

3. More space with less space: An urban design strategy Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print. P.13

4. Imagining Recovery Lim, C. J., and Ed Liu. Smartcities + Eco-warriors. Abingdon [England: Routledge, 2010. Print. P. 23

Vertical Agriculture

1. Ville Conntempoaraine..” Borxu design”. Web. 15 Jan 2012.<http://www.borxu.com/cmap/Ville%20Contemporaine.jpg>

2. View from ground level of hanging balconies in Area C with child in foreground, 1965. “Basil Spence – celebration of a modern architect”.

Wen. 15 Jan 2012 http://www.basilspence.org.uk/living/buildings/gorbals

Utopian Visions

1. Welwyn Garden City. “Britain from Above”. Web. 15 Jan 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/britainfromabove/site/i/512/welwyngardencity.jpg 2. Broadacre City. “growingupinamerica”. Web. 15 Jan 2012. http://growingupinamerica.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/32405094_04-1.jpg

3. Arcosanti. “Darren’s rides.” Web 15 Jan 2012. < http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-aboKjIf3TQc/TuONcZ4DtaI/AAAAAAAAT3M/LuqND6n41NQ/ s1600/IMG_0664.JPG> 4. Central Courtyard of the Masdar Institue Campus. “Masdar City.” Web. 15 Jan 2012. < http://www.masdarcity.ae/en/48/resource-centre/ image-gallery/?gal=3>

5. Aerial Artist Impression of final development. “Masdar City”. Web. 15 Jan 2012. <http://www.masdarcity.ae/en/48/resource-centre/imagegallery/?gal=4>

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Cuba 1. Urban Agriculture sites in Cienfuegos. Source: Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

2. Allotments in Cienfuegos. Source: Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

3. Allotments in Cienfuegos. Source: Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

4. Allotments in Cienfuegos. Source: Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

5. Plan and Photograph illustrating allotment. Source: Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

6. Plan and Photograph illustrating allotment. Source: Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

7. Plan and Photograph illustrating allotment. Source: Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

8. Plan and Photograph illustrating allotment. Source: Viljoen, André. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural, 2005. Print.

Bangkok

1. Urban Agriculture on the periphery. Source: McGrath, Brian, and Danai Thaitakoo. “Tasting the Periphery: Bangkok’s Agri- and Aquacultural Fringe.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 43-51. Print.

2. Programmatic Map. Source: McGrath, Brian, and Danai Thaitakoo. “Tasting the Periphery: Bangkok’s Agri- and Aquacultural Fringe.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 43-51. Print.

3. Urban Agriculture. . Source: McGrath, Brian, and Danai Thaitakoo. “Tasting the Periphery: Bangkok’s Agri- and Aquacultural Fringe.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 43-51. Print.

4. Rice Paddies. Source: McGrath, Brian, and Danai Thaitakoo. “Tasting the Periphery: Bangkok’s Agri- and Aquacultural Fringe.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 43-51. Print.

5. Map indicating farm-city hybrid.. Source: McGrath, Brian, and Danai Thaitakoo. “Tasting the Periphery: Bangkok’s Agri- and Aquacultural Fringe.” Architectural Design 75.3 (2005): 43-51. Print

Pig City

1. Exterior perspective, Pig City. Source: http://www.mvrdv.nl/#/news/181pigcity 2. Interior Perspective, Source: http://www.mvrdv.nl/#/news/181pigcity

3. Interior Spaces, Pig City. Source: http://www.mvrdv.nl/#/news/181pigcity

4. Concentrated Farming, Pig City. Source: http://www.mvrdv.nl/#/news/181pigcity

La Tour Vivante

1. Exterior perspective: La Tour Vivante Source: http://www.soa-architectes.fr/en/#/en/projects/show/27

2. Interior perspective: Integrating dwelling and farm Source: http://www.soa-architectes.fr/en/#/en/projects/show/27 3. Axonometric Section: Highlighting Technologies Source: http://www.soa-architectes.fr/en/#/en/projects/show/27

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Dystopian Farming 1. Exterior perspective. The urban farm in Manhattan’s Hudson Yard. Source: Vergne, Eric. “Dystopian Farming.” Architectural Design 80.6 (2010): 94-101.

2. Ground-level market perspective. Although located throughout the high-rise, the market dispenses crops to customers upon request.

Source: Vergne, Eric. “Dystopian Farming.” Architectural Design 80.6 (2010): 94-101.

3. Vertical aeroponic growing diagram. Source: Vergne, Eric. “Dystopian Farming.” Architectural Design 80.6 (2010): 94-101.

4. Programmatic elevations. Aggregation of programmatic elements occurs throughout the Dystopian Farm Skyscraper. Source: Vergne, Eric.

“Dystopian Farming.” Architectural Design 80.6 (2010): 94-101.

5. Detail section. Aggregation of programmatic elements occurs throughout the Dystopian Farm Skyscraper. Source: Vergne, Eric. “Dystopian Farming.” Architectural Design 80.6 (2010): 94-101.

Guanming Smart City

1. Smart-city in plan, Source: http://www.cjlim-studio8.com/

2. Exterior View of the Smart-city, Source: http://www.cjlim-studio8.com/ 3. Urban dwelling farmer, Source: http://www.cjlim-studio8.com/

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