INFLUENCING THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN: WHERE DO THE US, RUSSIAN, AND CHINESE INTERESTS COLLIDE? Simon Szilvási–Laura Szilágyi–Norbert Miklós
Events taking place in the Eastern Mediterranean do not only involve littoral states but are also of key interest for geographically distant powers. Therefore, non-regional actors, including major powers, such as the United States, Russia, and China, turn towards this region with great ambitions. This article has a threefold aim: firstly, to shed light on the US involvement in the region; secondly, to examine Russian interests in the Eastern Mediterranean, mainly from geopolitical and military aspects; thirdly, to explore China’s growing influence in the Eastern Mediterranean through its bilateral relations with two of the most important regional countries. Regarding the interests of the United States, this study limits its focus to two critically important countries: the State of Israel and the Republic of Turkey. The Russian Federation is primarily engaged in Syria and Libya, but it also maintains relations of specific importance with other Eastern Mediterranean states: Turkey, Egypt, and Israel. Therefore, the second part of the article aims to shed light on these ties. Finally, the third part will mainly discuss Egyptian– Chinese and Turkish–Chinese relations, since these countries have specific importance for Beijing’s foreign policy and its grandiose project, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). THE US STRATEGY IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN Some of the core interests of the US are to secure the freedom of navigation, to maintain free trade, and, especially, to ensure the availability of unrestricted access to naval straits.1 The Eastern Mediterranean holds two significant choke points, namely, the Suez Canal and the Dardanelles, connecting vital geographical areas 112
INTERESTS OF EXTERNAL ACTORS
and trade routes. Since 1956, Cairo has since 1956 owned the rights to operate the Suez Canal, where roughly 13% of the global trade passed through in 2019 according to Mohab Mamish, Head of the General Authority for Suez Canal Economic Zone.2 Recently, increasing Chinese investment in the canal and the surrounding infrastructure have also captured the United States’ attention.3 Another inescapable regional actor is the Russian Federation with its longestablished historical and cultural influence on many Eastern Mediterranean countries. Ever since Moscow increased its presence in the Syrian Arab Republic and the neighbouring countries because of its participation in the civil war, the United States must have sharpened the State Department’s focus to monitor its strategic competitor’s activities. The resolution of the Syrian conflict is still a primary goal of the US, which was also reaffirmed by the new Democrat president in 2020.4 Examining all of the potential actors in the region is beyond this paper’s scope; therefore, it will only concentrate on the relations of the US with two countries: the State of Israel and the Republic of Turkey. The US–Israeli Relations The United States of America has had historical relations with the Jewish state since the latter was founded in 1948. Protecting Israel and maintaining its qualitative military edge (i.e., its military superiority) among its neighbours became a cornerstone of US diplomatic efforts. This special bond was renewed throughout the decades of the 20th century regardless of the political changes in Washington. Under the Trump administration, former secretary of defense Mark Esper reassured Israel that the
