Journal 2012 by APF RTU

ISSN 1691-4333 (Print) ISSN 2255-8764 (Online)

SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF RIGA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY RĪGAS TEHNISKĀS UNIVERSITĀTES ZINĀTNISKIE RAKSTI

ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING ARHITEKTŪRA UN PILSĒTPLĀNOŠANA 2012 / 6 Editor in Chief Jānis Krastiņš

RĪGA, RTU IZDEVNIECĪBA, 2012

Editor in Chief – Galvenais redaktors Jānis Krastiņš, Dr. habil. arch., Professor, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Editorial Board – Redkolēģija Uģis Bratuškins, Dr. arch., Assoc. Professor, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Jānis Briņķis, Dr. arch., Professor, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Claes Caldenby, PhD, Professor, Chalmers University of Technology, Gotheborg, Sweden Frank Eckardt, PhD, Professor, Bauhaus Universität Weimar, Weimar, Germany Helka-Liisa Hentilä, PhD, Professor, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland Mart Kalm, PhD, Professor, Estonian Academy of Arts, Tallinn, Estonia Ojārs Spārītis, Dr. art, Professor, Art Academy of Latvia, Riga, Latvia Gintaras Stauskis, PhD, Assoc. Professor, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Vilnius, Lithuania Ivars Strautmanis, Dr. habil. arch., Professor, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Sandra Treija, Dr. arch., Assoc. Professor, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Jānis Zilgalvis, Dr. arch., Assistant Professor, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Secretary & Layout Designer – Sekretārs un salikuma autors Arne Riekstiņš, Dr. arch., Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Address of the Editorial Board – Redkolēģijas adrese Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning Riga Technical University Āzenes iela 16, Riga, LV-1048, Latvia Tel: +371 67089212 Fax: +371 67089130 E-mail: arne.riekstins@rtu.lv The submitted articles are peer-reviewed according to the rules of «RTU Scientific Journal». Rakstus recenzē saskaņā ar izdevuma «RTU Zinātniskie raksti» recenzēšanas noteikumiem. Reviewers: Dr. arch., Assoc. Prof. Gunārs Asaris; Dr. arch., Assoc. Prof. Uģis Bratuškins; Dr. arch., Prof. Jānis Briņķis; PhD, Assoc. Prof. Daniel B. Hess; Dr. habil. arch., Prof. Jānis Krastiņš; Dr. habil. arch., Prof. Ivars Strautmanis; Dr. arch., Assoc. Prof. Sandra Treija; Dr. arch., Prof. Martina Zbašnik-Senegačnik; Dr. arch., Assoc. Prof. Daiga Zigmunde; Dr. arch., Assoc. Prof. Jānis Zilgalvis.

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Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Contents Preface . ............................................................................................................................................................. 5 Una Īle

Compositional Planning of Residential Outdoor Space in Courtyards ......................................................... 6 Viktorija Prilenska

City Branding as a Tool for Urban Regeneration: Towards a Theoretical Framework ............................ 12 Regina Raycheva

Architecture of Residential Buildings in Bulgaria from the Revival Period . ............................................ 17 Edita Riaubienė

Use of Architectural Heritage: Challenges of Preservation and Adaptation ............................................. 25 Rika Kisnarini, Emilia van Egmond, Masi Mohammadi

Importance of Functionality in Realizing Sustainability of Low Cost Apartments in Surabaya, Indonesia ................................................................................................ 31 Jānis Krastiņš

Āgenskalna Priedes Housing District ............................................................................................................ 37 Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš

A Culture House – a Nucleus of a Collective Farm of Soviet Latvia ......................................................... 43 Aija Ziemeļniece

Conservation and Development Guidelines of the Historic Green Structure of Duke Jacob’s Canal . ................................................................................................................................... 51

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Saturs Priekšvārds . ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 Una Īle

Compositional Planning of Residential Outdoor Space in Courtyards ......................................................... 6 Viktorija Prilenska

City Branding as a Tool for Urban Regeneration: Towards a Theoretical Framework ............................ 12 Regina Raycheva

Architecture of Residential Buildings in Bulgaria from the Revival Period . ............................................ 17 Edita Riaubienė

Use of Architectural Heritage: Challenges of Preservation and Adaptation ............................................. 25 Rika Kisnarini, Emilia van Egmond, Masi Mohammadi

Āgenskalna Priedes ......................................................................................................................................... 57 Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš

Kultūras nams padomju Latvijas kolhoza centrā . ......................................................................................... 60 Aija Ziemeļniece

Hercoga Jēkaba kanāla vēsturiskās zaļās struktūras saglabāšanas un attīstības nostādnes ................... 64

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Preface

Priekšvārds

The scientific journal of Riga Technical University (RTU) Architecture and Urban Planning, so far mostly reflecting consequences of architectural research in Latvia, constantly turns into an international tribune of architectural science. Therefore its main language is English. Starting with this issue, the journal is no more an annual. It will be published several times in a year. The articles have been written by lecturers and PhD students from the RTU, the Latvian University of Agriculture and researchers from Lithuania, the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Indonesia. Problems of the quality of built-up environment, ecology, and conservation of cultural heritage, as well as these of the history of architecture and urbanism are examined. Successful practical work is impossible without reasonable theoretical basis. Therefore the information presented in this edition may be useful in professional creative work to architects, who perform practical designing tasks, and urban planners, as well as to institutions responsible for preservation and protection of cultural heritage.

Rīgas Tehniskās universitātes (RTU) zinātnisko rakstu izdevums Arhitektūra un pilsētplānošana, kas līdz šim galvenokārt bija Latvijas arhitektūras teorētisko pētījumu spogulis, aizvien plašāk un dziļāk kļūst par starptautisku arhitektūras zinātnes tribīni. Tāpēc izdevuma pamatvaloda ir angļu. Ar šo numuru izdevums vairs nav arī gadagrāmata. Tas tiks publicēts vairākas reizes gadā. Bez RTU un Latvijas Lauksaimniecības universitātes mācībspēku un doktorantūras studentu darbiem šajā numurā publicēti arī Lietuvas, Nīderlandes, Bulgārijas un Indonēzijas pētnieku raksti. Tajos analizētas vides kvalitātes un ekoloģijas, kā arī kultūras mantojuma saglabāšanas un aizsardzības problēmas un iztirzāti arhitektūras un pilsētbūvniecības vēstures jautājumi. Sekmīga praktiskā darbība nav īstenojama bez zinātniski pamatotas teorētiskās bāzes. Tāpēc rakstu krājumā publicētais var noderēt profesionālajā radošajā darbā gan arhitektiem – praktiskajiem projektētājiem, gan pilsētplānošanas speciālistiem, gan par kultūras mantojuma saglabāšanu un aizsardzību atbildīgajām institūcijām.

Editor in Chief

Galvenais redaktors

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Compositional Planning of Residential Outdoor Space in Courtyards Una Īle, Latvia University of Agriculture in order to form a balanced and well planned residential outdoor space; thus, providing pleasant exploitation possibilities of the residential outdoor space for every inhabitant. The research excludes the study of solutions to planning residential outdoor territory composition from the ecological perspective; therefore, this issue can be studied in further researches. Our delight of the landscape composition depends on the fact whether we appreciate alignment and interaction of its elements. Such order necessarily has to consist of the similarities of the physical characteristics of the elements or harmonious interaction of its interspace, i.e. different objects in composition have to be harmonious in colour, form or pattern or in harmonious similarity in respect to sequence recurrence and balance. Speaking subjectively, delight is based on pleasant interest interrelation created by different features. Recurrence, sequence and balance, which make order in the composition, in this respect are not only the recurrence, sequence and balance of objects or characteristics, but awake interest to all of them [7]. The region of Riga develops faster than other regions of Latvia; therefore, undesirable facts summoned by uncoordinated development and threats are expressed there harder than in other places [8]. Consequently, this article studies the large-scale residential areas of Riga, built in the 21st century, and their residential outdoor space from the perspective of compositional planning.

Abstract. The aim of the article is to evaluate the solutions to residential outdoor territory planning for the 21st century residential area courtyards in Riga. Applying the comparative method to the research, several residential outdoor spaces have been analysed according to their compositional planning solutions and their elements. Consequently, the research studies the relation between the scale and spatial forms of the residential area courtyards that form the residential area with the compositional elements – forms, proportions, colours, contrasts, nuances, rhythm etc. Keywords: compositional planning, elements, outdoor space.

The conception of composition is borrowed from Latin where it means a link, connection. In the process of composition creating, it has to be taken into consideration the size, mass, pattern, geometrical form, layout, colours and shadows of the objects. Solidarity, proportions, perspectives, laws of the line composition, symmetry, asymmetry, contrast, shades, rhythm, scale and many other details are significant, as well [1]. Evaluating the relations of scale and landscape form, it is necessary to notice that the properly chosen scale and proportions is the guarantee for appropriate perception of the landscaped spatial composition, for encoding the conception of the idea [5]. The structure of the composition is visually illustrated in the scheme (Figure 1). In every situation the residential housing and its outdoor territory compositional planning is of great importance. The research has established that different elements in the outdoor territory composition need to be mutually harmonious in colour, forms and shapes, and scale,

I. Elements

Compositional Planning Outdoor Space

in the

Residential

In the landscape composition, our attention is paid to the object because of its form. Relation among the elements creating the form could be so ordinary, so obvious, so easy to understand that we instantly like the object set, in such a way like single separate quiddity. Or its form is directly that we have known for a very long time; therefore, it can take our interest, because we are used to see it and because it has more associations in our minds [7]. Some are human fabrications, while others are abstracted from natural elements. Among the many possibilities, the most rudimentary shapes are the square, triangle, and circle [3]. The topic is about the object location in relation to other objects and observer. Arranging objects in space frontal, spatial and deeply spatial composition could be created [1, 7]. Relative force with the help of which different objects of composition will pay attention to them, observer feels intuitively, is a very important aspect in every planning. Since spatial compositions are large, it is less possible to perceive viewpoints; as well brain memory abilities are more significant in the achievement of the total composition effect. The same refers to the style and characteristics, as well as to the unity and perfection of emotional effect. Landscape composition can satisfy even if it creates a wider visual area than it could be included in a figurative unit. There could be three – dimensions,

Fig. 1. The scheme of compositional structure.

Architecture and Urban Planning Una Īle. Compositional Planning of Residential Outdoor Space in Courtyards

plan organization and intuitive memory provoked by features of location [7]. Such spaces fit for an individual function, a place of restrained emphasis, and / or as one space among others. Their simplicity makes them easily recognized and understandable, thus providing a feeling of familiarity and comfort [3]. The latest residential building standard designs in Latvia, which allow freer rearrangement of separate sections, provide the possibility to split the total scale of the building and this way to create the subordination of divided space and its element scale in new residential areas. In every particular situation the image of the building and surrounding outdoor territory is very important to the courtyard. When perceiving spatial environment, forms and proportions of objects are important as visual images through mediation of which we get information both about the essence and correlations of these objects, and space type, measures, proportions [14]. Information that reflects architectonically organized environment and objective qualities of its separate forms not only gives necessary knowledge that helps to orientate in the increasing variety of spatial forms, but rather substantially affects our emotions [12]. The sense of proportions comparing with scale sense is considered to be the result of qualitative development of psyche, where in addition to hereditary information opinions become important, which are gained as a result of life experience about environment and its individualities, art, culture, its different expressions, as well as social life in its various forms. From the informative point of view, the most characteristic and easy perceived features are silhouette and plastic formation [5]. In general cases, common spatial construction originality depends on the silhouette of spatial system (lines) – vertical culmination of the composition, on the planning (horizontal mass composition) and on the plastic formation referring both to the form (form system) in common, and its separate elements [12]. There are innumerable forms that the landscape architect can employ to mold exterior space [3]. Space perception and composition are two different conception groups that have corresponded so far with a few interrelated fields of problems, researches and opinions. On the one hand, it is human psychophysiology, but on the other – subject environment with traditional elements of its composition – form, proportions, colour, etc. [14]. Thus, the most significant disadvantages created because of the weak spatial structure often are not noticed till the moment that it is already too late to change something [2]. In turn, the features of plastic formation more clearly come to the light in inhomogeneity and dynamics of the spatial structure, as well as in the lights and darks game of surfaces. Therefore, in the dominant form of environment perception – in movement – silhouette and plastic formation are the most capacious and emotionally the most active information parts [5]. Urban residential areas are the first communication space that children enter society. Recreational sites are integral part of urban residential areas. In the specific planning and design, they are often ignored or made for adults [15]. Trying to define the term of rhythm, very many and various explanations of the conception “rhythm” are at the interface. The origin of Greek conception rhytmos (rhythm) is connected with the verb rhëo (to stream/ to flow). Any perceptible form existing in the fluency of time process flow is one of the formal fundamental principles [6]. On the level of modern residential area courtyards,

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Fig. 2. Tree boxes located in a certain rhythmic pattern in the residential outdoor space in “Dienvidu Pakavs I” (“The Southern Horseshoe I”), Vienības gatve, Riga, Latvia, 2012. [16]

Fig. 3. Rhythmically planned greenery with evergreen plants in a residential outdoor space in “Ziedoņdārza mājas”, A. Čaka iela, Riga, Latvia, 2012. [16]

Fig. 4. Example of residential outdoor space landscape solutions in “Tomsona terases”, Tomsona iela, Riga, Latvia, 2012. [16]

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Una Īle. Compositional Planning of Residential Outdoor Space in Courtyards

Fig. 7. Children playground in “Dienvidu Pakavs II” (“The Southern Horseshoe II”), Vienības gatve, Riga, Latvia, 2011. [16]

Fig. 5. Example of landscape for a resting area in the residential area in Imanta, Riga, Latvia, 2010. [16]

organisation, though, pleasant emotions gained by its existence is the human mind organisational principle. Courtyard landscape spatial planning designs are multitudinous, visually illustrated in the Figures 4–6. When considering colouristic structure of composition, most important is sequence of tones. Every surface has its own effect in composition, determined by light and its reflections. Differences are observed: tone differences, intensity differences of tone depth and impact of the light intensity on the eye [7]. II. Examples of Landscape in the Residential Outdoor Space

It has to be noted that landscape architecture as one of the important territorial environmental planning elements develops on the basis of progressive functional, economical and aesthetical factors. It solves the development of human private living space quality in the widest urban development aspect. The projects of landscape architecture are integral, as well as impellent territorial environmental planning part [4, 13]. By considering these factors in the large-scale residential areas of Latvia, the landscape space in courtyards would improve step by step. It would be a pity if the multilateral experience gained in the past few years on the projecting and building of houses appropriate to the conditions of Latvia were wasted, and the standstill time in apartment building area lasted [8]. The residential building complex “The Southern Horseshoe” in Riga, region of Ziepniekkalns, can be mentioned as one of the qualitative examples of residential area planning.

Fig. 6. Examples of resting area in “Ziedoņdārza mājas”, A. Čaka iela, Riga, Latvia, 2010. [16]

rhythm in spatial space expresses itself variously, for example, rhythmical location of public outdoor territory landscaping elements and installation in the outdoor residential territory; it is visually illustrated in the scheme of the Figures 2, 3. Thus, recurrence is the most important of the order forms and is the element that appears most frequently. To achieve the harmony, there has to be principle of recurrence, it can also be a sequence and balance in form, colour, material, structure. Satiated recurrence comes to the exaggeration and monotony. Its opposition variety is not always the best solution. Variety is not the principle of

Architecture and Urban Planning Una Īle. Compositional Planning of Residential Outdoor Space in Courtyards

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Fig. 9. Children playground for residents located near the underground parking lot in Imanta, Riga, Latvia, 2011. [16]

Fig. 8. Children playground for younger children in “Dienvidu Pakavs II”, Vienības gatve, Riga, Latvia, 2011. [16]

In case if the first occasional visions of developer were implemented, then the present and typical building landscape of Ziepniekkalns, i.e. nine-storey and twelve-storey buildings of Series 119, would be supplemented with some more impersonal residential and office towers. Architects managed to convince the customer of circumferential or horseshoeshaped building advantages, of the necessity for the rebirth of Ziepniekkalns, of human scale and qualitative public outdoor territory improvement, without losing customer economically grounded indicators and the ones determined by urban building regulations: numbers of square metres, price of square metres, selling possibilities and building density, insolation, etc. The quality of the residential outdoor territory is not just bare developer’s concern for the city, but it is a thought-out part of the functionally aesthetical common image in the courtyard [11, 9]. The courtyard territory is freely available to the pedestrians of the neighbouring buildings; its double-level planning creates a special feeling of private territory, and the secret of the outdoor territory comes out only in the close-up. Changes of colour levels in the residential outdoor territory logically distinguish two playing zones – for smaller and older children, visually illustrated in the Figures 7–8. Almost all children requirements have been thought out there: to crawl, to climb, to slide, to draw and to form, but one very important is missing – to swing. Berry bushes, fruit-trees at the children sandboxes reveal the latest world tendencies. Along with autumn leaf drop, the issue about the upkeep of steep terrace could become particularly topical.

Fig. 10. Resting area without greenery zones in Biķernieku iela, Riga, Latvia, 2012. [16]

Fig. 11. Example of residential outdoor space planning in Biķernieku iela, Riga, Latvia, 2012. [16]

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Una Īle. Compositional Planning of Residential Outdoor Space in Courtyards

There are not places provided for motor vehicles in the courtyard planning – parking lots are located underground, which is a modern and ecological solution concerned with children safety and health. In both projects “Southern Horseshoe I” and “Southern Horseshoe II”, thanks to the architects’ jobs well done, the preserved trees have become the central elements of the courtyard – Quercus (oak trees) and Tilia (lime trees) [11]. Particular difference of the residential building territory set at the beginning of the 21st century from the former residential building territory is the request for at least one parking place for each apartment. Besides, a developer has to accomplish this request within his land plot. If the whole courtyard is built: it is possible to locate parking lots both underground, and overground, and in a separate multi-storey building. If one building is built, then the number of apartments there practically depends on the number of parking places; courtyard as a parking lot and obligatory children playground on the corner of the land plot, visually illustrated in the Figures 9–11. In case of the underground parking lot – relevant rise in price of the building and improvement without trees. In turn, partly deepened underground parking lots under the plot part create so far unfamiliar designs in vertical planning. When buying the apartment, a purchaser is used to decline expensive underground parking place and keep the car in the street. The solution would be – planning the parking facilities for motor vehicles close to the living places in complex with the urban development plan and other citizens’ needs: health centres, schools and kindergartens, instead of diverting them to occasional objects [8]. The transformation of the former factories into the residential or office buildings (it is not a novelty today, but logical development – industrialization in the centre of the city is neither economically, nor ecologically grounded). It has been found out in the research that often the idea about children playground in the courtyard is missing in such designs, where only narrow utilitarian necessity is solved – parking lots, visually illustrated in the Figures 12–13. Therefore, this fact outlines negative trends. Exactly organised outdoor territories in housing areas facilitate communication among the groups of local residents [10]. In turn, it is a very necessary aspect in a modern chaotic life rhythm to make new social connections.

Fig. 12. Former flour warehouse “Druva”, which was transformed into a largescale residential housing, Rūpniecības iela, Riga, Latvia, 2012. [16]

Fig. 13. Large-scale residential housing area courtyards in Riga, Rupniecības iela, Riga, Latvia, 2012. [16]

Conclusions

The research established that the residential outdoor territories planned and built in the 21st century in Riga are very diverse, which is approved by the examples selected. The analysed examples of the residential outdoor spaces accentuate those issues that where either neglected in the whole primary projecting process, or were not completely finished in the final building process. As a result, such territories, where multiple inconsistencies have been detected, are posing discomfort and lack appropriate greenery systems and good recreational areas for the territory residents. The greenery areas are minimal or absent; the residential outdoors are made up of the asphalted parking lots and mass built paved concrete paths that with their visual appearance diminish the desire of the residents to spend their time in these territories. As a result, looking from the relation of the spatial shapes in the residential area courtyards that makes up this residential outdoor space with different compositional elements, these territories can

Fig. 14. Example of residential outdoor space without a planned area for children playground, Rupniecības iela, Riga, Latvia, 2012. [16]

Architecture and Urban Planning Una Īle. Compositional Planning of Residential Outdoor Space in Courtyards

be characterised as formal and often practically unexploitable for recreational possibilities for residents. It means that the image of every residential outdoor space affects the residents’ desire to spend their time in these territories, and looking from the mutual relation between the shapes in these compositions, they do not provide the planned effect, if they are not functionally useful for the residents to spend their free time. An appropriate and functional approach to planning residential outdoor territory composition is one of the most important factors for the territory inhabitant to feel comfortable and pleasant in its area of residence. The harmony in the residential area is based on the functional and aesthetically qualitative solutions to compositional planning in courtyards.

Una Īle, Landscape architect (2006). Master of Science in Landscape architecture (2008). Doctor of Architecture in Landscape Architecture sub-sector (2011). Docent (since 2012) at the Faculty of Rural Engineers, Department of Architecture and Construction of the Latvia University of Agriculture. Publications: • Īle, U. Guideline for development of landscape spatial composition of the residential areas. Annual 16th International Scientific Conference Proceedings : Research for Rural Development 2010. Jelgava: PERI, 2010, p. 169–173. ISSN 1691–4031. • Īle, U. Principles for planning residential area greenery. Annual 17th International Scientific Conference Proceedings : Research for Rural Development 2011. Jelgava: PERI, 2011, p. 182–188. ISSN 1691–4031. • Īle, U. Landscape composition development stages in multi-storey residential areas of the Baltic Sea region. Science – future of Lithuania. Vilnius: Vilnius Technika, 2011, Vol. 3, p. 16−22. ISSN 2029–2341. • Īle, U. The Aesthetic Quality of Landscape Composition in the Multi-storey Residential Areas. Ilgtspējīga telpiskā attīstība (RTU zinātniskie raksti : 14. sērija). Rīga: RTU, 2011, 3. sējums, 108.−114. lpp. ISSN 1691–6174. • Īle, U. Development tendencies of landscape composition in the urban residential areas of Latvia. Civilengineering ’11. Jelgava: LLU, 2011, p. 193−201. ISSN 2255−7776.

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Ainavu dizaina pamatprincipi [tiešsaiste]. Arhitektūras un celtniecības aģentūra [skatīts 18.04.2012.]. http://lv.lv.allconstructions.com/portal/ categories/303/1/0/1/article/1425/ainavu-dizaina-pamatprincipi Bertaud, A. Note on Riga Spatial Structure [skatīts 18.04.2012.]. http://alainbertaud.com/images/Note_on_Riga_Spatial_Structure_Rev.pdf Booth, N. Foundations of Landscape Architecture: Integrating Form and Space Using the Language of Site Design. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, p. 5−74. Briņķis, J. The Main Trends in the Transformations of the Functional and Architectural – Spatial Structures of the Populated Areas of Latvia. Architecture and Construction Science (Scientific Proceedings of Riga Technical University, Series 2). Rīga: RTU, 2004, Vol. 5, p. 26−29. Briņķis, J. Architectural and Spatial Aspects of Regional Development. Architecture and Urban Planning (Scientific Journal of Riga Technical University, Series 10). Rīga: RTU, 2007, Vol. 1, p. 101−108. Grišins, V. Rhythm and Architecture. Architecture and Construction Science (Scientific Proceedings of Riga Technical University, Series 2). Rīga: RTU, 2001, Vol. 2, p. 49−54. Hubbard, H. V. Landscape composition. An Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design. USA: Read Books, 2010. p. 88−129. Krēgers, I. Brīnuma sausais atlikums. Latvijas Arhitektūra, 2009, Nr. 84, 76.−78. lpp. Ķempe, I. Jaunlaiku darbarūķu mājiņas. Latvijas Arhitektūra, 2009, Nr. 83, 40.−43. lpp. Rukšāne, I. „Park Side” Rūpniecības ielā. Latvijas Arhitektūra, 2009, Nr. 85, 40.−44. lpp. Rukšāne, I. Ziepniekkalna pārvērtības. Latvijas Arhitektūra, 2009, Nr. 82, 20.−26. lpp. Strautmanis, I. Dialogs ar telpu. Rīga: Liesma, 1977, 25.−127. lpp. Strautmanis, I. Māksla arhitektūrā. Rīga: Liesma, 1982, 71.−86. lpp. Šusts, V. Telpas uztvere un kompozīcija. Rīga: Zvaigzne, 1979. 127 lpp. Xiao, Z., Gong, W., Hao, L. Study on children’s outdoor recreational site design in urban residential areas. Advanced Materials Research : 2nd International Conference on Structures and Building Materials, Hangzhou, China, March 9−11. Hangzhou ,2012, Vol. 450−451, p. 995−998. Photo by Una Īle.

Contact Data

Una Īle Dr. arch., Landscape architect Latvia University of Agriculture Address: Akadēmijas iela 19, Jelgava, LV−3003, Latvia Phone: +371 29185575 E-mail: unaile@llu.lv

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

City Branding as a Tool for Urban Regeneration: Towards a Theoretical Framework Viktorija Prilenska, Delft University of Technology statement that traditional development strategies have proved not to be as productive anymore as they used to be [3; 4].

Abstract. This paper studies the concept of city branding in general and its objectives, and examines the most common branding strategies – the creative city and the experience city. Further on, the paper elaborates on the notion of image-reality consistency and explores the role of flagship developments in branding and urban regeneration. Consequently, a strong casual link between city branding and urban regeneration is established.

I. City Branding and its Goals

The brands add certain value to products, contribute into construction of consumer identity and link the consumer with the community of brand users [1; 8]. Therefore, out of various products with more or less the same attributes, a product with a brand identity is likely to gain a competitive advantage [7]. Although cities are not products, city branding “has been practised consciously or unconsciously for as long as cities have competed with each other” [8, 510]. Furthermore, cities or places need to be promoted as brands to be “recognised as existing”, “perceived ... as possessing qualities superior to those of competitors” and “consumed in a manner commensurate with the objectives of the [city or] place” [8, 510]. The notions of city brand and branding do not have clear definitions yet. Kavaratzis [6] argues that cities resemble corporate brands because they are complex entities which deal with multiple identities, address various stakeholders and have social responsibilities. Therefore, cities can be promoted in a similar way to corporate brands. Like products which are sold under an umbrella brand, various aspects of cities can be marketed. For example, a city can be promoted as a place to live, to work, destination to visit and opportunity to invest [8]. City branding has various regional variations. While in the US city branding aims to stimulate economic growth, in Europe it is aimed to improve all aspects of socio-economic well-being [13]. Kavaratzis [7], in turn, emphasizes that the ultimate goal of all city branding related activities is to improve the quality of life for local residents. City branding is generally understood as a whole set of actions to build the positive image of the city and communicate it among various target groups via visuals, narratives and events locally and internationally to gain a competitive advantage among other cities [7; 18]. The objectives of city branding are: to attract inward investment and tourists and to “reinforce local identity and identification of the citizens with their city” [6, 70]. Thus, city branding is a means to improve “external” and “internal” images of the city [18]. According to Kavaratzis and Ashworth [8] there are three types of place branding: 1) the name of geographic location as a brand name, 2) co-branding of place and product and 3) branding of a place per se. In relation to this typology, it is necessary to mention the two city branding strategies that have gained exceptional popularity recently, the “creative city” and the “experience city” strategies [4; 11; 14; 18]. These strategies involve the second and the third types of place branding and will be discussed further on.

Keywords: city branding, creative city, experience city, flagship developments, urban regeneration.

In the current economic paradigm, which is described as a transition period from the industrial to knowledge economy, such factors as proximity to markets and supply of labour do not play a significant role [4; 11]. Furthermore, former industrial cities try to reduce their dependence on manufacturing and develop alternative sources of income, such as high-tech industries or leisure consumption [4; 11; 18]. However, industrial city image is a major obstacle on the way to economic diversification [13; 18]. Furthermore, the shift towards the knowledge economy has made firms and labour markets extremely flexible and fluid [15]. Industries and workers relocate to the cities which provide better business and living opportunities [4; 12]. The growing mobility of financial and human resources exacerbates the intraurban competition. Nowadays, cities increasingly have to compete for inward investment, tourists and new residents. The image of the city plays a significant role in the location choices made by investors, firms and individuals [18]. However, it is not enough to create an attractive image, it is essential to make it well-known locally and internationally. Under these circumstances, city branding becomes an exceptionally important tool for image-building and image-communication [6; 8]. This paper argues that in addition to competitive advantages city branding stimulates the urban regeneration of the city. Indeed, image-reconstruction is impossible if there are no tangible changes in the place quality [6; 7; 8; 13]. “An image campaign without any improvement in reality would be hollow and short-lived” [13, 347]. By discussing the notion of city branding and its goals, commonplace branding strategies, as well as image-reality consistency and the role of flagship developments in city branding and urban regeneration, the paper builds a strong casual relationship between city branding and urban redevelopment. There is an on-going debate weather city authorities should invest into city branding rather than pursue traditional urban and economic development strategies, such as infrastructure improvement or tax breaks [4; 14; 15]. However, it is not the aim of the paper to discuss the efficacy of city branding in comparison to other development strategies. Instead, the paper is based on the

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Fig. 1. City image communication, adopted from Kavaratzis. [6]

II. Creative City Strategy

employment opportunities and career prospects, the creative class values are: 1. qualitative and affordable housing; 2. public amenities and services; 3. short travel times; 4. lifestyle opportunities; 5. cultural opportunities; 6. quality of city spaces, such as well maintained green and public spaces, access to water, good architecture etc. Most of these factors are either spatial, or have spatial implications. Moreover, the report emphasized that educated and skilful people prefer to live in satellite cities, because these cities provide the “other quality of life such as green spaces, forest and seaside” [12, 88]. Therefore, the quality of urban environment is of utmost importance for creative workers [3]. Despite the criticism [5; 14; 15], the creative class theory gained popularity among city authorities. The notion of the “creative city” and associated urban redevelopment became widely used in city branding [14; 18].

The goals of city branding are to foster economic development of the city and to improve well-being of its residents. The driving force of economic progress in the current economic paradigm is human capital, namely educated, skilful and productive people [4; 5; 12; 15]. In other words, there is a strong correlation between regional economic growth and high concentration of qualified workers in the area [4; 5; 12]. Florida [4] has supplemented the human capital theory by specifying the type of human capital, the creative class, as the one contributing to economic progress, and by defining the factors which shape location choices of these people. Creative people are attracted by “creative centres”, the cities that “have high concentrations of creative economic outcomes” [4, 8], namely innovations and high-tech industries, are diverse, tolerant and provide a variety of high-quality experiences. In other words, “creative cities” are the centres of technology, talent and tolerance. Furthermore, he stated that there is a causality between a high percentage of the creative class of the total workforce and subsequent economic growth of the city [3]. The creative class theory, especially the causal relationship between educated and skilful people and economic progress was statistically proved in the study of the Danish creative class [12]. The survey indicated that some of high-tech industries relocate to be able to recruit highly-qualified employees. Through a number of focus interviews the location choice factors essential for these workers were listed. Apart from

III. Experience City Strategy

Only a few cities, however, are able to turn into creative centres. Many other cities have insufficient resources for knowledge-based development, in other words they do not have a “technology” component [11]. These cities can benefit from the experiences they offer, for example the ones based on authenticity and nature [11; 12]. In these circumstances cities benefit from consumption

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outcomes of the marketing campaign of the 1980s. Although urban tourism has increased significantly, the attractiveness of the city for potential residents has not improved due to a huge image-reality gap between widely marketed images and degraded suburbs. Thereby, city branding consists of spatial and communication components. Kavaratzis [6] calls it primary, secondary and tertiary communication (Figure 1). Primary communication, in turn, is divided into spatial and non-spatial (the author’s classification). Spatial communication is a set of interventions aimed to improve the physical quality of the city, such as large-scale redevelopment and infrastructure projects. Non-spatial communication deals with enhancement of social environment, service provision and event organisation. The secondary communication is promotion of the new city image by the interested parties. Tertiary communication is “a word of mouth”, the reflection on the city image reinforced by media or competitor cities, which can not be influenced. Any statements about the image-reality gap spread through the tertiary communication. Therefore, it is necessary to improve both spatial and nonspatial components of the urban environment prior to a branding campaign. Spatial changes, in turn, are essential, because they provide visual images used in city branding [18]. The impact of branding campaigns on spatial quality of the city is summarized as a closed-loop diagram (Figure 2), where an attractive urban environment generates a positive image of the city which is exploited in urban branding. As a result of a branding campaign, the city attracts tourists, investors and new residents and strengthens its local identity. All these actors bring extra financial resources which, in turn, can be invested to improve spatial quality of the city. Flagship project development can be one of the techniques to improve the urban environment because it is able to catalyse further regeneration process. This technique will be discussed in the following section.

Fig. 2. Mutual dependency of city branding and spatial quality.

which becomes “a driver of growth” [11, 841] and the creative class “because of its potential to consume” [18, 381]. Lorentzen [11] argues that the city per se along with “placebound experiences” becomes the object of production and consumption and is branded and co-branded as a product. The relation of certain experience-product to a particular city or place becomes part of the experience-product identity and in this way increases the value of the experience-product. Therefore, place quality is a determinative factor of success. According to Lorentzen “place-bound experiences” include: 1. events, for example, Salzburg Festspiele (Austria) and Bayreuth Festspiele (Germany); 2. activities, such as shopping, hiking, sports, handicraft and artistic activities; 3. services, like theme restaurants, wellness centres, art galleries, theatres and cinemas; 4. places as a “stage” for activities and in themselves, such as castles, squares, parks, woods, beaches, museums, malls and whole cities. The concept of “experience city” is “a window of opportunity” for the cities which due to their size, location or historically do not have potential for developing high-tech industries [11]. To sum up, there are two widely spread city branding concepts: the “creative city” and the “experience city”. While the idea of “creative city” may incorporate the “experience city” notion, the “experience city” concept provides economic growth opportunities for cities with limited high-tech industry development options. Both branding concepts have spatial implications, which require adjustments of the physical structure of the city. In the “creative city” paradigm the pleasant urban environment strengthens the competitive advantage of the city, while in the “experience city” the urban quality is a key attraction factor.

V. Flagship Developments and Urban Regeneration

According to Kavaratzis [6] there are three techniques of urban branding that have gained popularity among city authorities recently: 1. personality related branding, such as Gaudi architecture in Barcelona; 2. development of flagship projects, such as Guggenheim museum in Bilbao; 3. organisation of hallmark events, such as Bayreuth Festival in Germany. Although, all the three techniques have certain spatial implications, flagship project development has the most evident spatial expression. Furthermore, it is argued that flagship projects are powerful urban regeneration tools [16; 17]. Indeed, these projects “transform the area in two ways: first, by their own presence, and second, as catalysts of additional capital investment and the attraction of consumption” [17, 171]. It is important to emphasize that flagship developments are not restricted exclusively to architecture icons, but include a wide range of urban projects which are beneficial for public and are capable to bring life into unused spaces, such as, for instance, open air swimming pool, skateboarding park or city beach. Furthermore,

IV. Image-Reality Consistency

The success of a branding campaign depends on the consistency of city image and reality [6; 13]. The new city image should be reflected in the spatial structure of the city [18]. On the example of the city of Glasgow, Paddison [13] illustrates the disputable

Architecture and Urban Planning Viktorija Prilenska. City Branding as a Tool for Urban Regeneration: Towards a Theoretical Framework

these projects can be financed to a large extent by private sector or local community. In case of private investment, however, public interests must be considered. The purpose of some flagship projects is pure branding, as in case of Frederikshavn Palm Beach [10]; other flagship projects are developed with multiple objectives including branding as one of them, as in case of Oslo Opera House [16] and Golden Angel in Prague [17]. For the Frederikshavn Palm Beach project exotic palm trees were planted on the city beach on the Baltic Sea coast. The Beach became a brand and a major attraction for locals and tourists. It launched incentives for the construction of a new pier and water playing facilities and for the holiday resort development [10]. Oslo Opera House is the first project of a large-scale urban regeneration plan aimed to redevelop a run-down industrial area. It is argued that, due to the successful public space developed as part of the project, the area was returned to the citizens [16]. Temelova [17] argues that the Golden Angel project has catalysed redevelopment of brownfield sites, renovation of existing buildings and enhancement of public spaces in the area. Furthermore, “the whole neighbourhood became perceived as a secure location to invest in” [10: 178], due to the success of the Golden Angel itself and because of “celebrity architect” Jean Nouvel and “internationally recognized developer” ING Group involved in the project. All the above-mentioned flagship project examples turned out to be successful and have launched further redevelopment of the area. However, Temelova [10] argues that despite being strong promotional tools both locally and internationally, the outcome and success of flagship projects may significantly differ across the cities. Smith and von Krogh Strand [16] emphasize that flagship projects improve the spatial quality of the city on the condition that public interests are recognised.

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Beach the expenses were as high as required for plantation and maintenance of palm trees and arrangement of some basic public facilities. The value of the project was in the innovative idea of tropical plants in moderate climate on the cold beach [11]. In case of the Golden Angel project all construction works were financed by private investors, while the municipality paid the improvement of public spaces only [17]. Conclusions

To sum up, city branding is a complex multi-faceted notion which consists of multiple place brands which, in turn, address various stakeholders. It is a set of actions aimed to improve the competitiveness of the city internationally and reinforce the identification of local residents with the city. Although the object of branding is the image of the city rather than the city per se, the image should be derived from reality. Therefore, city branding starts with tangible interventions. These interventions include both spatial and non-spatial aspects, such as redevelopment of the urban tissue, community building, service provision and event organisation. The new image attracts tourists, investors and new residents, who bring additional financial resources, which, in turn, boost economic development of the city and can be invested into new interventions. Commonplace city brands are the “creative city” and the “experience city”. The latter notion represents development opportunities for those cities which do not have enough hightech potential to become “creative centres”. The concepts of “creative city” and “experience city” result into a certain urban form, which, on the one hand, is consumption oriented, and, on the other hand, is of a human scale. Both concepts often involve large-scale urban regeneration projects to meet the demands of target audiences. While in the “creative city” qualitative urban environment is an essential supplement to the employment and career opportunities, in the “experience city” it is a primary attraction element, an experience product or the “stage” for experience events, activities and services. Ambitious urban redevelopment projects start with flagship projects, which are simultaneously powerful place branding tools and catalysts for further regeneration. The flagship projects are often promoted locally and internationally, as in case of Oslo Opera House, to gain public interest and attract investment to the area and this way to boost its further development. Local residents often benefit from the spin-off effects generated by flagship projects, such as improvement of public spaces or renovation of the existing housing stock. Although the concepts of city branding and associated urban redevelopment are often criticised for being the cause of clichéd environments and social bifurcations, the benefits are obvious, and the negative effects may be alleviated by specific city policies.

VI. Criticism

The implementation of city branding and associated urban redevelopment are criticised for production of standardised, sanitised and gentrified urban environments [1; 14]. It is argued that city authorities use commonplace urban design and branding methods which result into “sameness” [6; 14], namely “up-scale streetscapes, expensive shopping facilities, and well-appointed residential enclaves” [15, 4]. Furthermore, urban regeneration projects usually lead to the increase in rents and land values in the area, therefore less well-off residents and local businesses are squeezed out. This way socio-spatial segregation is increased and social tensions are sharpened [1; 14; 15; 17]. The notion of “creative city” undergoes the most severe criticism in this context. “Creative centres” are the epitome of a “dual city”, where the highly qualified workers co-exist with the “masses of low-wage low-skill workers” [4; 15]. Moreover, “creative centres” epitomize gentrified “enclaves in an urban landscape where poverty and social deprivation still widely prevail” [15, 12]. To ameliorate possible negative effects of city branding, city authorities need to focus on unique features of the city and stimulate local business incentives and citizen participation in decision making [1; 6]. Furthermore, large flagship developments are often criticised for being over expensive, however, in case Frederikshavn Palm

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References 1.

4. 5.

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Viktorija Prilenska (Riga, 1985), B. arch. (Riga Technical University, 2008), Dip. arch. (Riga Technical University, 2010, with distinction), M. Sc. in architecture, urbanism and building sciences (Delft University of Technology, 2012; thesis Towards a Green Metropolis : Designing a Waterfront in Riga; mentors prof. ir. H. Bekkering, and ir. S. Nijhuis). SUPPORT COACH at International Office of Delft University of Technology (2012), COACH at International Office of Delft University of Technology (2011), ARCHITECT TECHNICIAN at architecture offices Kubs and Virtu. Participated in several scientific conferences.

Chatterton, P., Hollands, R. Theorising urban playscapes : Producing, regulating and consuming youthful nightlife city spaces. Urban Studies, 2002, No. 39, p. 95–116. Cybriwsky, R. Changing patterns of urban public space : Observations and assessments from the Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. Cities, 1999, No. 16 , p. 223–231. Florida, R. The rise of the creative class: why cities without gays and rock bands are losing the economic development race [online]. Washington Monthly, 2002 [cited 19.12.2011]. www.washingtonmonthly.com Florida, R. Cities and the creative class. City & Community, 2003, No. 2, p. 3–19. Glaeser, E. L. Review of Richard Florida’s “The Rise of the Creative Class” [online]. Creative Class Group, 2004 [cited 20.02.2012]. www. creativeclass.com Kavaratzis, M. From city marketing to city branding: Towards a theoretical framework for developing city brands. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 1 (2004), p. 58–73. University of Groningen, From City Marketing to City Branding: An Interdisciplinary Analysis with Reference to Amsterdam, Budapest and Athens (PhD Dissertation by M. Kavaratzis, 2008). 214 p. Kavaratzis, M., Ashworth, G. J. City branding : An effective assertion of identity or a transitory marketing trick? Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 2005, No. 96, p. 506–514. Konijnendijk, C. C. Green cities, competitive cities – promoting the role of green space in city branding. 22nd IFPRA World Congress : quality services – parks, recreation and tourism. Hong Kong, China, November 15-18, 2010. Lorentzen, A. Knowledge Networks in the Experience Economy : An Analysis of Four Flagship Projects in Frederikshavn (Center for Regional Udvikling). Aalborg: Department of Development and Planning, 2008. 32 p. Lorentzen, A. Cities in the experience economy. European Planning Studies, 2009, No. 17, p. 829–845. Lorenzen, M. Knowledge city models: Lessons from a study of the Danish creative class. The 3rd Knowledge Cities World Summit : from theory to practice (Melbourne, Australia, November 16–19). Melbourne, 2010, p. 363–390. Paddison, R. City marketing, image reconstruction and urban regeneration. Urban Studies, 1993, No. 30, p. 339–350. Peck, J. Struggling with the creative class. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 2005, No.29, p. 740–770. Scott, A. J. Creative cities: Conceptual issues and policy questions. Journal of Urban Affairs, 2006, No. 28, p. 1–17. Smith, A. Von Krogh Strand, I. Oslo’s new Opera House : Cultural flagship, regeneration tool or destination icon? European Urban and Regional Studies, 2011, No.18, p. 93–110. Temelová, J. Flagship developments and the physical upgrading of the post-socialist inner city : The Golden Angel project in Prague. Geografiska Annaler, Series B : Human Geography. 2007, No. 89, p. 169–181. Vanolo, A. The image of the creative city: Some reflections on urban branding in Turin. Cities, 2008, No. 25, p. 370–382.

Publications: • Prilenska V. Riots in Riga. Atlantis : Magazine by Polis – Platform for Urbanism. Delft University of Technology, 2011, Vol. 22, No. 1, p. 20–21. • Prilenska V., Bērziņš E. The use of natural coastal erosion process for island shaping at Cape of Bernāti = Dabīgas jūras krasta erozijas procesa izmantošana salas veidošanai Bernātu ragā. RTU 51 Student Scientific and Technical Conference Proceedings. Riga Technical University, 2010, Vol. 1, p. 8. • Prilenska V., Briņķis J. Social housing = Sociālais mājoklis. RTU 49 Student Scientific and Technical Conference Proceedings. Rīga: RTU, 2008, Vol. 1, p. 14. Current and previous research interests: city branding, intercity competition, creative cities, recreational space networks in cities, tools for measuring recreational space provision in cities, water management, coastal erosion, social housing. Member of TU Delft Urbanism and Landscape Architecture student society Polis.

Viktorija Prilenska Phone: +371 26340187 E-mail: vprilenska@gmail.com

Contact Data

Acknowledgements: Anna Maria Fernandez-Maldonado and Remon Rooij for their guidance in the developing of this paper.

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Architecture of Residential Buildings in Bulgaria from the Revival Period

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Regina Raycheva, University of Forestry of Sofia Abstract. The paper considers house architecture in Bulgarian lands during the Revival period –from the end of 18th century to the end of 19th century. The paper also examines the impact of climate, religion, livelihood, etc. on the development of different regional types. The resulting composition, structure, architectural image and interior, as well as adaptability to terrain conditions, adequacy to social requirements, building traditions are analyzed. Similarities, differences and local features are being considered with the intent to follow the evolution and spread of architecture, typical of the Balkan region. Comparisons are drawn between the rich city houses in Plovdiv, Koprivshtiza, Melnik, Samokov, etc., and Turkish houses in Istanbul, Edirne, Safranbolu, etc. By complying with various religious, functional, representative, climatic and terrain requirements, a distinguishable architectural language can be traced. Keywords: building tradition, residential architecture, revival architectural style, national heritage

The Bulgarian town house from the period of Late Revival has been particularly well studied and documented by a generation of researchers from the first and second half of the 20th century, with an increasing interest and appreciation, as time passed. We can say today that important Revival houses, rebuilt, reconstructed or restored, are highly valued as national heritage, as proof of the talent and artistic achievement of Bulgarian master-builders from the 19th century. Late Revival town houses feature symmetry as their most typical feature. In the 60s, authors were divided on the issue of architectural influences and origin of style. Some came to the conclusion that they were Baroque houses [1; 2], others stated that Revival houses demonstrated the influence of Italian Renaissance [4]. Also, Chr. Peev [4] pointed out influences coming both by way of following examples from Istanbul, according to the desire of house-owners, or the building style developed by the master-builders, who travelled the whole Balkan peninsula (including Istanbul) in order to build for different investors. M. Bichev stated there were three different centres of architectural influence: Odessa, Vienna and Istanbul, pointing out that Vienna influence should not be underestimated at all [1]. He is of the opinion that these houses show characteristic Baroque features, like the dynamic role of the staircase in the composition, the clearly defined axes of symmetry, concave-convex elements on the facade, such as bow pediments, bow-jetties, the oval reception hall on the second floor, etc. Later, G. Kojuharov and R. Angelova stressed on the “genetic connection and firsthand role of the local architectural and building tradition in the creation and evolution of the closed symmetric house, without denouncing the presence of foreign reference and influence on the evolution and formation of its architectural image” [3]. All

Fig. 1–3. Argir Koyumdjioglu House in Plovdiv. Hayat of the upper floor, façade [8], plan of upper floor.

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Fig. 4–5. Georgi Mavridi House (Lamartin House) in Plovdiv. Street façade [9], plan of the first floor.

Fig. 6–7. Dimitar Georgiadi House. Street façade [8], first floor plan.

authors agree on the presence of such foreign influence, but are of the opinion that the local tradition marks a long evolution, followed by these builders, creating a typical architectural language. The purpose of this paper is to outline common features and differences between Bulgarian town houses in Plovdiv, Koprivshtitza, Samokov, Melnik and Turkish houses in Istanbul, Safranbolu, etc. However, first of all, the basic formative factors of these buildings will be outlined.

the beginning of the 19th century, where the main activity was the processing of crops or craft production (weaving, spinning of wool etc.). The basement was used for living, while the upper storey was used for large gatherings of people on family festive occasions, such as marriage, baptising, etc. These events took place in the large vestibule on the main storey, with a place for musicians. The representative storey had a symmetrical composition, consisting of a central hall, (hayat), and usually four rooms flanked the hall on both sides; one of which was used for guests, one was a ladies’ reception, other – a study of the owner, etc. Those rooms had windows looking into the hall. Such houses were owned by rich merchants or bankers in Plovdiv, Koprivshtiza, Russe, etc. Some Bulgarian architectural historians pointed out that this large hall was the closed-in balcony (chardak) in earlier village houses.

I. The Late Revival Bulgarian Town House

Function. The Later Revival Town houses in Bulgarian lands were built for formal, representative functions. They differed considerably from the earlier traditional type of house, built at

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Fig. 8–9. Kableshkov House in Koprivshtiza. Yard façade, upper floor plan.

Fig. 10–11. Arie House in Samokov. Façade and interior [8].

Climatic and Terrain Solutions. Considering the terrain and climate, two types of site planning solutions were possible, according to Chr. Peev [4]: 1. The house overlooked the street, when the plot bordered the street line, and had its official entrance directly from the street. 2. The house was of a freestanding type, surrounded by a garden. The main entrance gate was set in a high wall surrounding the plot; from there the visitor could enter the house by a stately entrance door under a bow-pediment portico. Climatic conditions in Plovdiv allowed the houses to be built of the half-timber structure because of the considerably higher summer temperatures; the walls did not have to be too thick.

People used the basement (which was stone-built) as basic dwelling space (also in winter); the upper floor was kept as reception space and was warmed with fireplaces accordingly. Structure. The houses were of a mixed structure: basements were built of stone masonry, while the major storey was of the half-timber structure. The walls were built with vertical wooden structural members (posts) spaced approx. 70 to 80 cm, forming bays filled with mud bricks or stone rubble, and the wall thus formed was plastered on both sides, with the facade decorated with beautiful wall paintings. The windows were set in slightly wider bays (1.00–1.10 m according to Chr. Peev [5]), grouped by two or three to form a compositional element on the facade. The house was covered by a wooden roof structure with wide overhanging eaves, covered by ceramic tiles/roof slate slabs in

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Fig. 15. Ahmet Afif Pasa Yali (Waterside mansion), Yenikoy. [12]

Fig. 12–14. Melnik, Kordopulu House. Façade [10], interior [11] and main floor plan.

Fig. 16. Safranbolu traditional house. [13]

mountain areas. The use of wooden roof structure developed rather big structural bays: Koyumdjioglu house in Plovdiv has its main storey hayat in the form of an ellipse, measuring 7 by 11 m; The Big House of Arie in Samokov, a real palace, torn down in 1947, had a rectangular hayat, measuring 27 by 7.60 m. Architecture. Late Revival residential architecture can be divided into two major types: single storied houses; and two or more storied houses. The single storied type had a stone-mason basement, partly dug out in the terrain, usually used as storage area or kitchen and bath or other purposes. An entrance was reached by two symmetrical flights of steps, reaching a landing, approx. 1.0–1.50 m level above the court. Under this landing, another flight of steps lead down to a low central door of the basement. After climbing the entrance steps one entered a large

vestibule with a ceiling higher than the adjacent rooms. This entrance vestibule had a stately and ornamented wood carved ceiling with a central ‘sun’ – applied wooden rosette. This hall had a rectangular, oval/elliptic or round form. The two storied house had a considerably lower stone basement, a central hayat reached by a stately entrance under a two- or four-columned portico, recessed to form an entrance niche, leading to a large ground floor hall, thus forming a strong axis to a beautiful symmetrical stair at the bottom of the hall. This stair consisted of two flights of steps, leading up to the larger and higher hall upstairs. This one followed the rules listed above: elliptical or round form, a ceiling higher than the adjacent rooms. A wooden ceiling culminated the composition with a central rosette symbolizing the sun. The adjacent rooms were symmetrical on both sides of the hall;

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Fig. 17. The organization of space in the nomadic tent: 1. Chimney opening; 2. Main top cover; 3. Ridge; 4. Felt door curtain; 5. Side cover; 6. Chest; 7. Iron stake for hanging clothes and weapons; 8. Hearth; 9. Raised seating platform; 10. Rush mat seating; 11. Mareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s milk containers; 12. Frames for saddles and harness; 13. Threshold. Source: Kucukerman O. [7]

Fig. 18. Comparison of the organization of space in the tent and the house. 1. Multi-purpose central area; 2. Periphery used for seating; 3. Closed utility areas, cupboards, chests, bedding; 4. Heating. The central hearth in the tent is moved to a side wall in the house. Source: Kucukerman O. [7]

their doors flanked decorative niches in the concave walls of the hayat, pointing out a secondary axis, perpendicular to the major one. Bichev [1], pointed out the dynamic composition, alternating different spatial elements to culminate in this room. Interior. Wood carving and wall-painting were the most typical decorative approaches to treat the basic surfaces of the interior: ceilings, walls, built-in storage units, fireplaces, window frames, etc. Ceilings consisted of a large decorative frame, surrounding a flat zone formed by wide planks and decorated with shaped thin wooden slats, nailed over the joints between planks. These slats usually formed a decorative pattern in the form of a net or a more elaborate star pattern. In the centre, a rosette was attached, made up of a circular arrangement of separate carved elements to form the sun. The ceiling was coved, painted with round twigs and

flowers in the Renaissance tradition. Wood carving decorated the built-in cupboards in the walls with doors richly decorated with carved panels and shaped frames. In the centre of the cupboards, a decorative arched niche was set, which was flanked by two rows of arched ventilation openings. This niche had a wooden or marble horizontal top in front; its surface was decorated with wall-paintings with architectural landscapes, flower vases, faraway exotic sea ports, palaces, gardens. Traditionally, furnishing consisted of built-in seating under the windows. The windows were set in wooden frames, crested with bow pediments; from the outside they had wooden shutters. Above the windows, a long shelf was fitted so that it covered all interior builtin units and the fireplace. On the upper storey, rooms had the cupboard-cum-niche arrangement, while heating was done with

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Regina Raycheva. Architecture of Residential Buildings in Bulgaria from the Revival Period

Examples. The Symmetrical Town House, as it is called in Bulgarian scientific publications, is well represented in Plovdiv, Koprivshtitza, Karlovo, Samokov, Russe, Melnik etc. In this publication, the examples are provided from these cities, including views, plans, interiors to show the typical architecture and furnishing. II. The Turkish House

Evolution, Basic Elements and Spatial Relationships. “The traditional Turkish houses started to be built in Anatolian cities in the 15th and 16th centuries and spread all over the Ottoman Empire. In different regions, different types were built, depending on the climate and geographical conditions, local resources and culture” [7]. The traditional Turkish house evolved from the dwelling of the nomad tribes: the tent, or yurt. Kucukerman [6] stated that the house, as the successor to the tent, kept the same functions and the same relations between the individual tents (rooms in the house) and their common area, called a sofa. Each room was multi-functional, it provided space for sleeping, seating, cooking, eating and even bathing. In this way, the room in a Turkish house was autonomous, and the several rooms on the storey were actually a model of the family; they all shared a common sofa, which was their uniting space. The room itself had a clear three-partite division of the space. First, there was an area, which served as an entrance zone. In it, the built-in wardrobes were placed, and in the same row, the entrance door was hidden in such a way, that none from the sofa space could see inside. This area was also used by servants, who waited for orders. Next, there was a raised zone, with its periphery used for seating. This zone was made special both by the raising of level (one step high) and by means of a low parapet and columns, supporting arches. The ceiling was, therefore, developed in two parts: the entrance and the room. The fireplace was set in the larger space. All wall elements: fireplace, windows, cupboards and wardrobes, were neatly organized under one uniting element: a shelf about 2.2 m high from the floor; above this shelf there was only the even white surface of the wall with decorative stained windows. This second row of windows was a specific feature, giving the room definition in relation to height, and a brilliant effect of coloured light falling on the white wall opposite. Furniture was built-in seating around a central free space, which could be used either for eating or sleeping. A low round table was laid; people sat around it for meals. For sleeping, either mattresses were laid on the floor, to be taken away during the day, or the built-in seating was used. In this way, the living storey consisted of these independent rooms gathered around the central sofa space. ”One of the rooms may be designated for the use of the head of the household – although its spatial interrelationships are the same as the other rooms – and is called the “Basoda”, the main room” [7]. The sofa was the common space, uniting all rooms. The sofa types differed considerably from ‘open’ to ‘closed or inner sofa’, and a ‘central sofa’, as the last stage of the development of 19th century. These sofa types determined the type of house plan accordingly. The central sofa featured extensions, called eyvans, between the rooms. Sometimes this extension was used to house the staircase, sometimes it was used for a seating zone.

Fig. 19. Genesis of the sofa as an intermediate space between the rooms. Both the group of tents and the living units share a common area. „The relationship between the rooms and the sofa in the house is the same as that between the individual tents and their common area”, Source: Kucukerman O. [7]

Fig. 20–21. Turkish house from Youruk Village, Safranbolu. Interior [14] and fireplace [15].

braziers; cooking was altogether removed to the living part of the house on the first storey. Walls were decorated with painted pilasters with capitals, dividing the surface into decorative panels with landscape paintings. Floors were covered with rugs. Imported furniture from Vienna or Paris formed groups according to the room function: armchairs, sofas, tables; or writing table with armchair, etc.

Architecture and Urban Planning Regina Raycheva. Architecture of Residential Buildings in Bulgaria from the Revival Period

Structural Properties. Turkish houses had a timber structure on stone masonry basement walls that followed the street line. In order to gain space and achieve a regular rectangular shape, rooms on the living floor were widened by means of jetties, which gave a typical image of the house. Street architecture, in this way, was formed by these projecting upper storeys. The overhangs, both of jetties and the roof eaves, were thus also a result of the light timber structure. The timber skeleton allowed for better performance in earthquakes, another factor for Western Turkish regions. Timber members were infilled with adobe, mudbrick, wattle-and-daub, which did not add much weight to the building. By comparing the Bulgarian and Turkish houses, it is possible to find many similarities and differences. Religion and family structure. Because of different religion and family life, the Bulgarian house had functional ‘specialization’ of the rooms, and not man-woman differentiation. The traditional rooms were ‘v’kashti’ (room for cooking and dining) and ‘soba’(bedroom). The open balcony (chardak) was more a space for processing crops or weaving, it was also communication zone with the staircase. This functional distinction was kept in the rich merchants’houses in Plovdiv and Koprivshtitza. Rooms were accessible by a door that was usually diagonally placed in the plan of the room. The Turkish house was one of a Muslim extended family; because of polygamy, it consisted of many nuclear families. Therefore its structure of independent living units allowed for their division and privacy. The spaces for women and men were thus easily divided into ‘selyamlik’ and ‘haremlik’. The interior of the rooms could not be seen from the hall. The hall was the main gathering and production space in the house. Plan. Turkish houses had a clear four-partite plan of the living floor, with a large cross-shaped central hall with eyvans, which served as a distributing space between the four rooms. This space had no analogue in Late Revival houses in Plovdiv; however, the large hall might be seen as an organizing space of similar functions. Visually, the four eyvans divided the hayat, while in Plovdiv houses the hall was a unifying feature. The interiors of Turkish and Bulgarian houses differ considerably, although individual elements exist in both types. The division of ‘service area and central area’ in the room space does not exist in Bulgarian houses. Built-in furniture, though, is present in both types. The basic difference, in the author’s opinion, is the height of the main living storey. Due to restrictive building regulations for non-Muslims, the height was kept to 3.00 m versus 3.60 m for Muslim population. Climatic reasons have brought about a higher room space, obviously to draw the hot air above and keep the cool in summer. The second row of windows is very rare: from the examples given, only Kordopulu house in Melnik (Figure 16) has a double row of windows. Increased height brought about a different silhouette and a different proportion in facade structure: houses in Istanbul, Safranbolu, etc., are much higher. Bulgarian house architecture produces in general a typical horisontal facade, featuring wide roof eaves and the supporting brackets under the jetties. Examples of one-storey houses in Koprivshtitza, Samokov (Figure 13), are often present. Facade treatment. Wall-painting as exterior decoration was not common in Turkish houses; however, the inside walls were often painted with floral motifs. On the contrary, Bulgarian builders

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Fig. 22. Istanbul houses feature considerable height and ecclectic facade decoration. [16]

had turned to it as a characteristic device, both from the outside and the inside. Wood-carving was widely used for decoration in both types. Bulgarian façades featured porticos on wood columns, over entrances, especially in the case of freestanding houses in a garden environment. Pediments marked a difference: bow pediments, convex-concave 3D forms, were typical in Plovdiv, Koprivshtiza etc. Turkish houses in Safranbolu had triangular pediments; the houses in Istanbul showed Baroque motives and sometimes bow pediments. The preference for ‘star’ motives and geometrical patterns on the ceiling was Turkish, whereas Bulgarian builders preferred ‘sun’motives with plant ornaments, round patterns, flowers, undulating rays etc. Fireplaces usually had the same conical awning shape, although shorter than the ones in the Turkish houses; but in certain regions they were placed in the corner of the room and had a straight form. Decorative niches were present in both types as part of built-in storage furniture, decorative flower vase motifs were depicted in wall paintings. After comparison, it is possible to conclude that the style developed during the second half of 19th century was a continuation of local building tradition, with a number of references from other Oriental and West European sources, ecclectically grouped in the manner of mix of styles in the late 19th century. Thus, an architectural vernacular language was formed, using similar ‘words’, to tell a different story.

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Regina Raycheva. Architecture of Residential Buildings in Bulgaria from the Revival Period

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16.

Regina Raycheva, (Sofia, 1956). graduated architecture at the University of Architecture, Construction, and Geodesy (UACG) in Sofia in 1980, PhD in architecture from UACG in 1996, Associate Professor in 1999. Major field of study: interior architecture, design, history of furniture. Presently works as Associate Professor at the University of Forestry in Sofia, Bulgaria; teaches „Styles in interior and furniture”, „Interior Architecture”, and is tutor to diploma students and Doctoral students. Elected Head of Department “Interior and Furniture Design” at the Faculty of Forest Industry for the period 2004-2007. Previously worked as Furniture Designer and Interior Architect in Sofia, and after that, as an Assistant and Lecturer at The University of Forestry in Sofia, Lecturer at Higher Construction School „Luben Karavelov”, teaching Interior to students in architecture. Publications include articles in journals, participations in Scientific Conferences in Bulgaria and abroad. Major fields of research: Interior Design, History of Interior and Furniture, History of Architecture, Furniture Design, Design Education. Major publications include the following three study books: Interior Architecture, History of Interior and Furniture; Styles in Interior and Furniture: • Райчева, Р. Вътрешна архитектура, София, Лесотехнически университет, 1996. • Райчева, Р. История на интериора и мебелите, София, Мартилен, 1999. • Райчева, Р. Стилове в интериора и мебелите, София, Мартилен, 2012. Membership: Union of Bulgarian Architects. Regina Raycheva speaks excellent English, good French and German. Coordinator of project TEMPUS S_JEP-12479-97, later Institutional Coordinator of the UF under Socrates and now Erasmus Program of the University of Forestry. Organizer and coordinator for an Intensive Program in 2005 (Erasmus 76946-IC-1-20041-BG-ERASMUS-IPUC-1) with students and teachers from 6 universities from abroad taking part, also participating as lecturer and teacher in Intensive Programs at Salzburg University of Applied Sciences.

Бичев, М. Български барок. София: Наука и изкуство, 1955. Cтр. 78–82. Златев, Т. Българската къща през епохата на Възраждането. София: Наука и изкуство, 1955. Cтр. 25–26. Кожухаров, Г., Ангелова, Р. Пловдивската симетрична къща, София: БАН, 1971. Cтр. 165–166. Пеев, Хр. Пловдивската къща през епохата на Възраждането, София: Техника, 1960. Cтр. 77. Пеев, Хр. Студии върху българската възрожденска архитектура, София: Наука и изкуство, 1956. Cтр. 17, 62–76. Kucukerman, O. Turkish House: In Search of its Spatial Identity. Istanbul: TTOK, 1991. P. 66. Polvan, S., Raycheva, R. Comparative Analysis Of 19th C Dwelling Architecture in Turkey and Bulgaria. Fourth Conference „Innovations in Woodworking Industry and Engineering Design”. Sofia, 2012, Vol. I, № 1, p. 63–70. Photos № 1, 6, 10, 12 by Regina Raycheva. 48745631 [online]. Panoramio [cited 22.06.2012]. http://www.panoramio. com/photo/48745631 index.php?lang=BG&menu=gallery [online]. Kordopulova-house. com [cited 16.09.2011]. http://www.kordopulova-house.com/index. php?lang=BG&menu=gallery House of Kordopoulos Melnik 2.jpg [online]. Wikipedia [cited 01.07.2012.]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:House_of_Kordopoulos_Melnik_2.JPG showthread.php?t=999651 [online]. Skyscrapercity [cited 09.05.2012]. http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=999651 Safranbolu [online]. Webshots [cited 08.05.2012). http://good-times. webshots.com/photo/2015340970015376128msrzkd Interior View of Old Turkish House, Yoruk Village, Safranbolu [online]. Webshots [cited 09.05.2012]. http://travel.webshots.com/ photo/2382993840011713375hAwPNZ Traditional Safranbolu Housing [online]. Webshots [cited 09.05.2012) times.webshots.com/photo/2618166010055513482OUKscP Istanbul – House at the Bosphorous in Sariyer [online]. Webshots [cited 09.05.2012]. http://travel.webshots.com/ photo/1202138329036172436amqJEI

Contact Data

Regina Raycheva, Assoc. Prof., arch., PhD University of Forestry, Dept. of Interior and Furniture Design 10, Kliment Ochridski Blvd., 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria Phone/fax: +35929624198 Mobile phone: +359899864347 E-mail: rexi@abv.bg

Architecture and Urban Planning

Use of Architectural Heritage: Challenges of Preservation and Adaptation

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Edita Riaubienė, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University development”. In the current legislation [9], the aim of heritage protection is supplemented with aspiration of “public awareness of heritage and use of it”. There is indicated that “cultural and educational tourism is one of the public uses of heritage, but it is necessary to maintain the authentic heritage form”. Therefore, the provisions of heritage use in Lithuania developed from rather pragmatic to culturally adaptive, creating stronger links with the modern society. Contemporary heritage management emphasizes active and different use of heritage resources. Scientists state that heritage use can be diverse, depending on the users’ objectives and expectations. While heritage objects are usually applied to museums, the modern society is already willing to build more innovation and stronger relationship with heritage. Public can no longer be limited to passive cognition [10]. Other scientists, by accepting earlier thoughts, indicate the need to interpret heritage and thereby bring together the public, but at the same time saving heritage authenticity [11]. Lithuanian researches agree with F. Tilden’s thesis, that heritage must be understood through its

Abstract. The problem of the 21st century heritage preservation is to raise the heritage to modern life. The study object is the adaptation of architectural heritage and ways of using it. The review of international and Lithuanian legislation and scientists’ insights formed a controversial equation: maximum preservation, minimum changes, appropriate adaptation. The analysis of medieval castles detected prevailing adaptation conception in Lithuania (“ruins’ park”, “anemic”) and recent signs of technological interpretation. Keywords: adaptation, architectural heritage, authenticity, heritage legislation, heritage use, interpretation, medieval castles.

The study focuses on the protection of architectural heritage at the beginning of the 21st century, when the main objective of heritage preservation in post-modern consumer society is to “raise heritage to contemporary life”. Thus, the methods and terms of heritage adaptation and use for contemporary society are analyzed in the paper. The consistent analysis of international and Lithuanian heritage documents has revealed the regulatory perspective of this aspect. This paper provides a brief overview of the scientists’ foresights on authenticity as the essential prerequisite for heritage preservation and its interface with heritage adaptation and use. The cultural value of five Lithuanian medieval castles has been defined in terms of their typology, plan, spatial structure, material, technology and environment. The relations of their preservation works and authenticity, the balance of adaptation performance and heritage authenticity have been studied. The comparison with similar objects in other European countries, tendencies of their use and adaptation have revealed the perspectives of the Lithuanian situation in heritage adaptation for the needs of modern society. I. Aspects

Adaptation and Use in Legislation Preservation

Heritage

Reviewing international heritage documents, the main declared goals and general principles of preservation have been highlighted, as well as the approach to heritage use and application has been identified. The objectives of these documents indicate the evolution from “protect” [1], “preserve and transmit” [2; 3], “preserve authenticity and transfer” [4], towards “to provide heritage active role in society” [5], to “preserve and use for sustainable human development and quality of life” [6]. The provision of preservation still remains, but heritage transmission to future generations now must be implemented by heritage integration in postmodern, consumer society life. The evolution of heritage protection legislation in Lithuania has showed that since 1967 the legal provisions [7] has followed the spirit of Venice Charter; heritage management activities have been separated from its use and adaptation activities [8]. There is stated that heritage is “used for scientific, educational and cultural

Fig. 1–2. Kaunas castle: the view of the abandoned and ruined castle in 1930; after the last restoration and adaptation in 2011.

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Edita Riaubienė. Use of Architectural Heritage: Challenges of Preservation and Adaptation

interpretation, after understanding it must be appreciated, and while appreciated, heritage must be protected [12]. Thus, the nature of heritage preservation lies in its interpretation that can be defined as an art to clarify the heritage meaning for visitors, pointing the need to protect it [13]. Heritage perception today should cover many visitors’ sensations and capacities, promote their creativity, critical thinking in terms of evaluating the past and making conjunction with the present [14]. As heritage use and adjustment for the needs of modern society have complex correlation with heritage authenticity, specialists require maximum of protection, minimal change and proper use of cultural heritage [15] and recommend separating new from old, and at the same time to maintain the consistency of the whole [11]. Although such provisions look correct, they are very difficult to implement; it refers to preservation, or changes through consensus as a certain balance between heritage authenticity and its modern use. II. Use and Adaptation of Lithuanian Medieval Castles

The research of contemporary use and adaptation of the Lithuanian architectural heritage has concentrated on medieval castles, since these objects are the oldest remaining. They lost their original purpose long ago that is why their analysis would show real situation in this field. Five medieval castles have been analyzed: remaining authenticity has been studied according to primary function, shape, material, structure, technology, environment [9]. It has also been examined how the change in function and activities of new application have affected heritage authenticity. The current interpretation of objects and their consistency with heritage authenticity has been researched. Medininkai castle environment has changed little; only integrity of form has been lost due to natural decay. Last century the castle was preserved and fragmentary restored. Currently the project of “adjustment for tourism need” is running there, providing a “complex and unique tourist attraction object”. The lost form was restored (by survey data and analogues); warehouse was totally reconstructed (by historic iconography). There are also planed some novelties as the stage in the courtyard, medieval craft town, cafes, souvenir shop, and parking near the castle territory. The heritage commercialization risk appears there as its clear cultural interpretation is almost neglected. Kaunas castle has lost most of its authenticity in various aspects: only 1/3 of plan is left and 1/4 of castle form remains; the environment has been damaged by the river flow and urban development. The tower was restored (1964) and adjusted for the small museum exposure. Since 2005, the tourist information center is located there, and intensive studies of castle feasibility have started. However, very little was discussed about the nature of castle use ant its interpretation; the concerns mostly related to the way how to deal with the material remains, how to reconstruct them. Now the implementation of minimum intervention project has already finished. The tower height and roof form has been designed by historical analogues. In order to differ from the authentic brick wall, the openwork masonry has been suggested, but it has totally ignored the semantics of defensive object. The new element – concrete stairs – suggests modern aesthetics, and this meets legal requirements for novelties in heritage (Figures 1–2).

Fig. 3–5. Vilnius upper castle: the view of the castle hill in 1916; the western tower of the castle; the lift to the upper castle installed in 2003.

Architecture and Urban Planning Edita Riaubienė. Use of Architectural Heritage: Challenges of Preservation and Adaptation

Environment of Vilnius upper castle remained most authentic, but the form and material authenticity was heavily damaged. In the early 20th century, the castle became available for public; the donjon was restored and the viewpoint was installed there (1936); the tower was applied to the museum display (1960). Only recently new elements have emerged in the castle, which meet the requirements of the modern society: the coated exit on the overview (1995), and the lift on the hill slope (2005) (Figures 3–5). These novelties reflect modern aesthetics and are measures of heritage adaptation. The given museum and city overview function satisfies optimal use of this object, regarded as a symbol of Vilnius and Lithuania. Respecting social and political importance, castle management and expressive interpretation are constantly questioned, carefully valued; therefore, the decisions of adaptation remain quite prudent, conservative in nature. Trakai peninsula castle functioned until the mid 16th century. Now there is a great loss of authentic form and the environment has been altered by urban development. In the mid 20th century, the castle was preserved for maintaining its “ruins” image. According to the adaptation for tourism needs project (2009), the restored towers were equipped with educational classes, expositions and craft workshops. Every year the “medieval feast” is organized in the castle; this event is very popular and activates the object usability and public cognition. Trakai island castle had defensive significance till the 15th century, later there was Grand Duke Residence (till the 17th century). Its environment survived best of all, but more than half of the form was lost; therefore, restoration and reconstruction activities were executed using reliable historic data, analogous and hypothetic forms. The decision to rebuild was reasoned by the object great significance for state and nation, by desire to preserve the relicts and to use for the museum exposition (1962). The great wish was to restore at least one of the medieval castles in Lithuania by creating its image “what it could be” and turn the castle itself into exhibit (Figures 6–8). Currently the castle is ongoing museum activities, educational tourism, and recently there have started to organize cultural events, music festivals, concerts and other themed entertainment events that activate this heritage object participation in modern society life. In the 20th century, medieval castles were preserved and used for cultural purposes, mainly as the spaces for museum expositions. As these objects lost most of their authentic form, reconstruction prevailed there. Visual similarity of original and restored forms testifies the cautious and shy approach that is completely opposite to the clear interpretation of history and novelty. The 21st century has activated heritage adaptation and use for the tourism. “Live interpretation” method have raised the issue of heritage proper use and adaptation that manifests the historical pageant, reviving the spirit of historical era and highlighting the value of heritage. The recent activities of heritage adaptation in Lithuania include modern materials, technologies and forms, but these decisions are very uncertain, like feeling fear and distrust in modern aesthetics. The concept of novelty in Lithuanian heritage management is traditionally regarded as a negative phenomenon. The problem of old and new relation still exists, and it reveals the difficulties to separate and to harmonize at the same time. This situation also indicates the lack of clear strategy of heritage interpretation.

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Fig. 6–8. Trakai island castle: the ruins of the castle palace in 1939; the restored palace in the castle (2012); the view of the entirely restored castle (2012).

III. Trends of Medieval Castle Application and Use in Europe

The study of the medieval castles in other European countries is centered on their modern use and the ways of their application for society needs. The interface of authenticity preservation and adaptation has been investigated; and the possibilities to interpret old and new, historical and contemporary, the past and the present have been observed.

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Edita Riaubienė. Use of Architectural Heritage: Challenges of Preservation and Adaptation

(1991) in Denmark and Castelgrande castle (1991) in Switzerland (Figures 11–12). The Danish castle was heavily injured; it was researched, and then entirely restored. New elements were formed from different color and size bricks; the structural interior elements (columns and stairs) of modern forms are even claimed to be a piece of art, but at the same time they respectfully leave the space for the visual perception of historic substance. Interior space is used for museum and exposure. The restoration and fragmental reconstruction of Swiss castle was executed in modern materials and monumental forms that constituted coherent whole with the historic castle. The inner space is dominated by modern aesthetics, and its monumentality perfectly fits the defensive semantics of the castle. In addition to the above-discussed types of heritage adaptation, one more can be named as “without a clear conception”. This is like an intermediate position, when objects have to play more active role in public life. Therefore, they are used without a clear or explicit view of the historicity and contemporaneity. Such objects often lack integrity, aesthetic coherence, and they cause an impression of incompleteness (Lida castle, Belarus, Ivangorod castle, Russia). The restoration and adaptation of Malbork castle in Poland is an exceptional case. The castle was restored in traditional materials and forms. However, inner spaces manifest the concept of adaptation, where the space is divided into three groups. Authentic substance prevails in the first group; in the second group, modern expression balances with authenticity. The third group of spaces consists entirely of modern forms, because this area has been fully reconstructed; and temporary exhibition are organized here. This project demonstrates the idea of time that can be perceived through the object stages – from its original construction to the present day. Thus, the medieval castle accommodates three different interpretations – authenticity; authenticity and modernity; modernity (Past, Past + Present, Present).

Fig. 9–10. The castles adapted according to “park of ruins” conception: Ogrodzieniec castles in Poland; Castle Praca Nova in Lisbon (2010).

“Park of ruins” concept emerged in the Romantic era, but in today’s heritage preservation it can be considered the most moderate and natural heritage application method, when the object is maintained in such state, as it reached our times. The object itself becomes a showpiece, it is often used in a “passive” way; the perception of authentic object allows experiencing sense of time flow. This use and application conception is popular for the object, which has lost integrity of form, but has retained their authentic environment (Flint castle in Wales, Novogrudok in Belarus, Ogrodzieniec in Poland). Such adaptation is characterized by minimal intervention, avoiding novelties, and making emphasis on the feeling of natural evolution, change and loss. Castle Praca Nova in Lisbon (Figures 9–10) is also consistent with this concept, i.e. with introduction of new forms and materials. These new elements act as the preservation tools, and their purist forms look like they hang over the ruins. As a result, physical and time distance of the exhibited structures is made obvious. Other conception of heritage application can be called “authenticity and innovation”. In this case, heritage adaptation is based on equal dialogue of history and novelty, and implemented by composing the shapes and materials of different ages. The use of contrast principle is complex and risky, because the opposite properties “old and new”, and the opposite directions “separate and connect” must be harmonized [11]. The success of this kind of heritage application illustrates the case of Koldingus castle

Conclusions

Heritage legislation and scientific insights have highlighted the current situation, when heritage preservation and transmission to future generations is based on its close and immediate relationship with modern society, i.e. heritage must be an active participant of public everyday life. Such a situation indicates interaction of two contradictory objectives: to preserve the authentic heritage per se and to adapt it to the modern society that desires different experiences and active entertainment. This leads to a difficult task as there is not a dilemma: to preserve authenticity or to change it by adapting; to preserve or to use; to seperate or to combine, but the solution must include all factors. In this case the requirement for creative and different heritage interpretation appears, according to the aspirations and desires of society. As interpretation is perceived as an art to clarify the meaning of a heritage object to visitors, it is a creative process that requires a lot of different skills, original ideas, creative thinking. The practice of Lithuanian heritage (medieval castles) use and adaptation is dominated by the provision of heritage preservation per se, and heritage interpretation, disclosure and way of its adaptation are perceived as a secondary, minimal

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measure. That is why even today in heritage adaptation practice the retrospective forms, traditional, already tested solutions are used that are not irrelevant to modern society (muzeologisation of the restored and reconstructed heritage). Lithuanian heritage adaptation process lacks the clear representation of relationship of past and present; that is rather successfully implemented in other European countries by the concepts of “authenticity and innovations”. Heritage adaptation and interpretation activities in Lithuania poorly cover public opinion and are mostly guided by institutional decisions; such a situation is not topical. Over the last decade positive changes have emerged: the method of “live interpretation” is increasingly being used in the Lithuanian medieval castles that manifest as historical pageant, artistic performances, concerts and craft fairs. References 1.

10. 11. 12. 13.

14. 15.

The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments, 1931 [online]. ICOMOS [cited 05.01.2012]. http://www.icomos.org/index.php/ en/charters-and-texts?id=167:the-athens-charter-for-the-restoration-ofhistoric-monuments&catid=179:charters-and-standards European Charter of the Architectural Heritage [online]. Council of Europe. 1975 [cited 05.01.2012.]. http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/ user_upload/culture/cultureMain/Instruments/European_Charter.pdf Convention for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe [online]. Council of Europe. 1985 [cited 05.01.2012.]. http://conventions. coe.int/treaty/en/treaties/html/121.htm International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites (The Venice Charter) [online]. ICOMOS. 1964 [cited 05.01.2012.] http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.pdf Recommendation concerning the Protection, at National Level, of the Cultural and Natural Heritage [online]. UNESCO. 1972 [cited 17.01.2012.]. http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13087&URL_ DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society (Faro) [online]. Council of Europe. 2005 [cited 05.01.2012.]. http://conventions.coe.int/ Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/199.htm Kultūros paminklų apsaugos įstatymas (1967) ir jo taikymo instrukcija (1972) [online]. Vilnius, [cited 17.01.2012.]. http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter/ w5_show?p_r=883&p_d=8576&p_k=1 (“Cultural Heritage Protection Law”) Istorijos ir kultūros paminklų apsaugos ir naudojimo nuostatai. LTSR AT ir Vyriausybės žinios, 1982, Nr.36, 796–813 p. (Historical and Cultural Monuments Protection and Use Regulations) LR nekilnojamojo kultūros paveldo apsaugos istatymas [online]. KPD. 2005 [cited 17.01.2012.]. http://www.kpd.lt/KPD20050609iNr259 (“Immovable Cultural Heritage Protection Act”) Ashworth G., Howard P. Europos paveldas. Planavimas ir valdymas. Vilnius: Versus Aurea. 2008. 199 p. Feilden, B.M., Jokilehto, J. Pasaulio kultūros paveldo vietų bei vietovių priežiūros gairės. Vilnius: Savastis, 1998. 160 p. Tilden, F. Interpreting our heritage. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 2008. 224 p. Aldridge, D. How the ship of interpretation was blown off course in the tempest: some philosophical thoughts. Heritage interpretation, 1989, vol. 1, p. 64–87. Čepaitiene R. Paveldosauga globaliame pasaulyje. Vilnius: LII, 2011. 376 p. Glemža, J. Nekilnojamojo kultūros paveldo apsauga ir tvarkymas. Vilnius: VDA, 2002. p. 252.

Fig. 11–12. The castles adapted according to the “authenticity and innovation” conception: the interior of Koldingus castle in Denmark, restored and adapted in 1991; the entrance to the Castelgrande castle in Switzerland (restored in 1991).

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Edita Riaubienė. Use of Architectural Heritage: Challenges of Preservation and Adaptation

Edita Riaubienė (b. 1967, Vilnius), First degree in Architecture (1994), Vilnius Gediminas Technical University); Master of Architecture (1997, VGTU), Doctor of Humanities (Arts) (2003, VGTU). After the doctoral thesis was defended (“Architectural heritage preservation in Lithuania (1918–2000): legal possibilities and results of conservation”, 2003) started lecturing in the Department of Architecture Fundamentals and Theory (VGTU), and in 2004 became the ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR. 2003–2011 was working as VICE DEAN of the Faculty of Architecture (VGTU). The member of the „Board of the evaluation of immovable heritage“ in Ministry of Culture of Lithuania, Department of Cultural Heritage (2005–2011). Guest lectures at the “Roma la Sapienza” University, Roma (2004), Gotland University in Visby (2005), Czech Technical University, Prague (2005), “Moderna” University in Lisbon (2007), “Kyungpook National University”, Daegu, South Korea (2009). The research interest covers theory of cultural heritage and architectural heritage preservation, and architectural theory and history. Participated in 6 national conferences (2000, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2010) and 6 international conferences in Tallinn (1999), Oulu (2000), Helsingborg (2002), Gotland (2005), Vilnius (2007), Riga (2008). Author of 13 scientific publications: 8 of them are in the national scientific journals (2000, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2009, 2010), others are in the international scientific publications (2000, 2004, 2007); more than 60 articles in the Lithuanian architectural professional press; book for studies “Doors in Architecture” (2009). Published articles: • Riaubienė, E. The Evaluation Criteria of Cultural Heritage in Lithuania. Wooden Architecture in Northern Europe. Szczecin: Wydawnictwo Hogben, 2004, p. 159–164. ISBN 83-916682-9-0 • Riaubienė, E. Vilnius architectural heritage preservation and reconstruction phenomenon. Inventories and heritage management. Visby: Gotland University, 2007, p. 93–101. ISBN 9789197580052 • Riaubienė, E. Evolution and trends of understanding of authenticity in heritage preservation. Urban heritage: research, interpretation, education. Vilnius: Technika, 2007, p. 77–82. ISBN 9789955281771

Contact Data

Edita Riaubienė Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Faculty of Architecture Address: Pylimo 26/1, Vilnius 01132, Lithuania Phone: +370 61216573 E-mail: edita.riaubiene@vgtu.lt

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Importance of Functionality in Realizing Sustainability of Low Cost Apartments in Surabaya, Indonesia Rika Kisnarini, Emilia van Egmond, Masi Mohammadi, Eindhoven University of Technology

A lack of functionality is caused by insufficiency of dwelling space. Despite the wealth of studies on housing, also in tropical developing countries, literature study findings necessitate to echo. Priemus [3] stated that “there were too many theories and a lack of empirical evidence, an uneasy perspective for housing research”. Social housing in the world showed a large uniformity in spatial arrangement of houses. They cannot easily be adapted to the requirements of individual households. This research particularly focuses on the functionality of low cost apartment space design. The main aim is to gain knowledge and understanding of particular users’ demands for functionality of the space design. Functionality in this research means whether the activities of users held within the units can take place in a proper manner. More specifically, this research investigates whether the design of the apartment provides sufficient space for users to carry out their daily household activities.

Abstract. This paper researches daily household activities and use of space at low cost apartments in Surabaya, Indonesia. In-depth interviews on where & how much space required for activities were done. Functionality is assessed by standards and classified as highly, functional, less, and non-functional. Findings: 13 of 14 apartments have open floor plans with no fixed partitioning; 70% families tend to separate private from the more public space; families entertain, eat, iron, play, work and relax while watching TV in the more public space of multi-functional zone in the unit. Units are concluded less sufficient especially for multi-functional and toilet spaces. It is recommended that unit area of 18 m2 be discontinued. To be functional, developed unit should be at least 32 m2. Keywords: functionality, low cost apartments, users’ activities, Surabaya, sustainability.

Presently, housing studies focus on sustainability worldwide. To be sustainable, a house should be more than a physical structure to people, it should be a home. Yet, the way home is defined varies considerably throughout literature and between individuals [4]. Home is defined as a social environment that depends on time or the impression of time and is represented by a personalized physical environment, such as a house that nurtures the attachment of meaning [9]. In this sense, a house is a physical structure that fulfills lower level needs such as protection from weather and intrusion, but the home will also fulfill higher-level needs, i.e. fulfilling one’s ideals and values or creation of positive memories [1]. Recent research underpins that a better match between buildings and users’ real needs will determine functionality and will influence the users’ satisfaction. The inhabitants thus might be longer satisfied with the building, which leads to a higher level of durability of the building. There should be a capability amongst the stakeholders in the construction industry to meet the inhabitants’ requirements. This capability refers to the ability to understand and translate the language in which the requirements are expressed by the users into that of the suppliers in the construction industry. In conclusion, to be functional and sustainable, a house should not act only as a dwelling but more as home. The designs and building systems should meet the users’ requirements.

I. Methodology

Voordt et al [16] states that functionality of a building refers to the extent, to which domestic activities are supported by the amount and form of space, and spatial relationship between rooms. Also, World Building Design Guide (WBDG) [17] and West Beverly N. [14] reveal that functionality of buildings refers to adequacy of space design and room dimensions to allow occupants to carry out their daily activities. The demands of users for space can be determined by investigating the users’ activities (Manning [15] and Voordt et al [16]). Accordingly, the functionality of the space design can be assessed by checking whether the space size for conducting a particular activity meets the minimum standards. Most scholars in previous studies on apartment space design (e.g. by Demirkan and Kutlusoy [8]; Saarikangas [11]; Breitbart [7] and Minami [10]) have acknowledged the importance of users’ characteristics since these have impact on their activities and thus on their particular space demands. These viewpoints has led to the application of activity based approach in this research, thereby taking into account the users’ characteristics that determine the activities and resulting space demand.

Fig. 1. Demands for space designs are approached through users’ activities influenced by users’ characteristics.

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Rika Kisnarini, Emilia van Egmond, Masi Mohammadi. Importance of Functionality in Realizing Sustainability of Low Cost Apartments in Surabaya, Indonesia

The Apartment Floor Plans. In order to enable analysis and ease comparability to available standard requirements, it is necessary to group the collected unit floor plans into smaller groups. Amongst 14 apartment buildings, there is only one with fixed partitioning in its floor plan. Mostly, the existing units of low cost apartments in Surabaya, 13 out of 14, are designed in open plan. It means that in selecting the standard reference, they are considered to be studio. More specifically, the units are classified into four patterns: (1) Fixed plan with one fixed bedroom and individual toilet, pantry, and balcony; (2) Open plan with collectively provided toilet and pantry; (3) Units with private toilet and pantry, some of which have their toilet and pantry located outside or at the balcony, and (4) Units with toilet and pantry inside as they have no balcony. To facilitate the evaluation of functionality, the floor-plans were subdivided into zones. Each particular zone facilitates several household activities, which by this research were found to be dominant activities, taking place in the zone. This zoning is necessary since standard requirements for different spaces in the floor-plan are indicated by their aggregated functional space in literature instead of space for each activity. For instance, it is easier to find references for space requirements such as for livingroom, dining-room, and bedroom then for drying, eating, praying etc. Therefore, zoning of classified unit plans that divide units into multi-function, kitchen, toilet, and balcony zones, is derived.

Based on the theoretical framework (Figure 1), research instruments have been developed by finding a list of household activities carried out by the users of low cost apartments in Surabaya, Indonesia, in the daily life. This has been done by investigating literature, as well as consulting and discussing it with experts in the fields. This list has been used to prepare questionnaires for data collection. The data required in this research is obtained by questionnaires and the in-depth interviews. 300 respondents of 14 building population, 21 households in each apartment block, are taken as samples. The data collected in the field survey includes the information on where and how much space is required for doing each activity; basic characteristics of user population; and space design of the 14 apartment buildings by interviewing and obtaining the drawings from local authorities. All data of plans are (re-)drawn and processed by using CAD. Processing of the remaining data is carried out by using Excel. II. Results

The Standard Requirements. The functionality in this paper is assessed by comparing the space area used in the existing plan to the standard requirement in literature. In selecting the available literature, the dominant household member resulted in this research guides. Therefore 4 people as the nominating household member is being the key. This dominant household member that assumed to be 2 parents and 2 children is used in choosing which house type to be taken as the comparison. The most local requirements are prioritized. Therefore, the standard of Indonesia, released by Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan PU (Development and Research Center, Public Works) 1984 in Table 1, is applied. All spaces referred and listed below are those applied to 4 people, the dominant household member.

Table 2 Average area of existing (unit) zones / spaces.

Units having zones 300 300 195 126 195

Table 1 National standard of house spaces for 4 people consists of 2 parents and 2 children. Source: Board of Research and Development, Public Works Indonesia.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Space House in Indonesia for 4 people Sitting + Dining (Living room) Sleeping (master bedroom) Sleeping (one double bedroom) Kitchen Bathroom (toilet) & WC Washing Ironing

Area (m2) 48 13.6 9.3 9 4 2.52 3 3

Zone Whole unit Multi-function Balcony Kitchen Toilet

Zone Area Average

Max

Min

23.1 m2 17.7 m2 2.6 m2 2.6 m2 2.6 m2

32 23.5 4.5 4 3.5

19.2 15.2 1.2 1.5 2

The Floor Plan Spaces. As presented in the previous paragraph, not all units have balconies. Identically, not all units have kitchens and toilets, therefore in averaging the space area, the count of column member (unit having zones) is important. Moreover, area data of maximum and minimum are essential too especially for the assessment, in which, when average area is less functional to meet the standard, the maximum area may meet it. The average, maximum, and minimum space areas of those zones are listed in Table 2. The average space area of each zone in Table 2 should manage to include all the use of space of its activity loads, each of which is averaged by calculating the plot area pointed by users indicating where and how much space is used. The data of average use of space in Table 3 below is applied to the assessing process, as the existing zone, to be compared to the standardized space, should be fulfilled with this use of space. That is why averaging the area of space use of each activity is obliged. Daily Household Activities. One of the most important data collected in this research is related to the place, where each activity is carried out by the user. Result of excel process that indicates

The standard space area for the whole unit is that for grounded individual house, instead of apartment unit. The standard house area covers its own fixed living-room, bedroom, dining-room, kitchen, bathroom, and storage, for 2 parents and 2 children. While the units assessed are mostly open plan apartments, in which activities are mixed with each other in unit zones, particularly in multi-functional zone. Thus, this Indonesian standard is less comparable for the whole unit. That is why a different standard for apartment is needed. The international apartment guidelines by ACT [13] describe that minimum standard for studio apartment is 40 sqm.

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Table 3 Results of average use of space of each activity.

A B C D F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

Activity Washing Drying Ironing Storing-1 Cooking Eating Dishwashing Storing-2 Bathing Sleeping Praying Studying Child-caring Storing-3 TV-watching Relaxing Playing Entertaining Storing-4

Average area 1.47 1.65 1.64 0.75 2.22 2.92 1.57 1.34 2.4 4.57 1.95 4.1 3.2 1.38 3.85 3 3.91 3.47 1.07

Fig. 2. Hypothetical division of multi-functional zone into more public and more private sub-zones.

The hypothetical division has to support the activity loads of multi-functional zone, as listed in Table 4. By further data processing, dominant activities, taking place in each sub-zone, then are indicated. Although they are subdivided, these sub-zones Table 5 Activity loads of multi-functional sub-zones comparable to the living-room and bedroom.

The more public sub-zone

the dominant activities taken place in each zone, considered to be activity loads in Table 4 below, shows that multi-functional zone accommodates the most activities, by having 12 activities, in which kitchen only facilitates 3, toilet 3, and balcony 5 activities.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Table 4

Activity loads of each zone.

Multi-Functional zone

Kitchen zone

1. Ironing 2. Eating 3. Storing-2 4. Sleeping 5. Praying 6. Studying 7. Child-caring 8. Storing-3 9. TV-watching 10. Relaxing 11. Entertaining 12. Storing-4

1. Cooking 2. Dishwashing 3. Storing-2

Balcony zone

Toilet zone

1. Washing 2. Storing-1 3. Bathing

Entertaining Eating TV-watching Ironing Playing Storing-4

Comparable to the living-room (sitting and dining room)

The more private sub-zone 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Sleeping Relaxing Praying Studying Storing-2 Storing-3

Comparable to bedroom

are interrelated closely. The activity loads of each sub-zone is determined as listed in the following Table 5. Furniture and Appliances. In the arrangement of existing unit plans, a set of furniture or equipment and appliances are involved in the space design. In the assessment phase, furniture applied to the existing unit is at least comparable to the one involved in the standard. Dominant furniture and appliances are those used in >3 activities, indicated as the most basic furniture & means that should be at least available in low cost apartment units.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Drying Storing-1 Cooking Dishwashing 5. Storing-2

Table 6 The use of dominant furniture in activities.

Total activities 3 5 4 4 7 13 7 4 6 5 11

From Table 4, kitchen and toilet are zones that directly have comparable standardized spaces (Table 1). On the contrary, multi-functional zone needs further steps to be comparable to the available standard spaces. One of findings in this research indicates the tendency that most respondents i.e. 70% families separate their private spaces from the more public spaces, in which, 51% use cupboard, 19% â&#x20AC;&#x201C; partitions, 18% â&#x20AC;&#x201C; curtains, and the rest 12% use others (walls) as the separator. This finding suggests subdivision of multi-functional zone that divides it into the more public and more private sub-zones.

Table Bucket Rack Cupboard Bed Mattress Fan TV set Water Sewer Electricity

Furniture

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Rika Kisnarini, Emilia van Egmond, Masi Mohammadi. Importance of Functionality in Realizing Sustainability of Low Cost Apartments in Surabaya, Indonesia

functional when they meet the standard or more than 100% of standard requirement. They are scored functional when they reach 80% to 100%. Less functional is given when achievement is 60%â&#x20AC;&#x201C;80%, and they are considered not functional when only manage to meet <60% standard requirement. Functionality in this research is assessed by comparing either the average existing space (Table 2) or the zone area (Table 4 and 5) that is derived from total average use of space of activities included as loads (Table 3), to that space requirements are referred by standards (Table 1). Functionality Assessment of the Whole Unit. The whole unit space is judged as not functional when assessed by using the national standard, as it is the standard for the individual housing. Even, when using the ACT apartment standard, the average existing unit area is still far below 40 sqm, the standard for studio apartment. When max area of 32 sqm is applied, the judgment moved closer to the standard, by reaching 80% of meeting capability. Functionality Assessment of Kitchen. The activities in the existing kitchen are cooking, dishwashing, and storing-2 (Table 4) that are all exactly the same as those in the standardized kitchen. Thus, no deviation at all in this assessment, they are definitely comparable. The result of comparison of average existing kitchen is just functional. However, when the compared space is the kitchen zone, the functionality increased to highly functional. Functionality Assessment of Toilet. According to Table 4, besides bathing, the toilet should also facilitate the conduction of traditional washing and storing-1. For storing-1, it would be no big deal as it can be provided on the wall side above, by no particular additional space required. Yet, for washing, space area of 3 sqm should suffice this activity. To be fair, the toilet should be compared with the area of bathroom + washing area that even the maximum existing reached only 63% achievement, therefore judged as less functional. When the compared space is toilet zone, the capability increased to 84% by obtaining functional judgment. Functionality Assessment of Multi-functional Zone. Since ironing is not included in the standardized living-room in the assessment, the standard space for living-room should be added by space for ironing. The result showed not functional for judgment of existing, but highly functional by 115% for the more public sub-zone and functional by 89% for the more private subzone. When the standard space is added by the ironing space, the judgment for more public sub-zone of multi-functional zone is no longer highly functional, but just functional, by achieving 95% capability. Functionality Assessment of Balcony. Balcony is important in an apartment, as it is the only possible outdoor space in nonindividual dwelling. The activity loads of balcony in this research, listed in Table 4, are drying, storing-1, cooking, dish-washing, and storing-2. Except drying, all the rest of loads are conducted in the other zones i.e. storing-1 is conducted in the toilet, while the other three activities: cooking, dishwashing and storing-2, take place in the kitchen zone. Users prioritize balcony as the drying place. Yet, it is difficult to find a suitable standard to refer to. Therefore, in this paper the balcony is not assessed as comparable space is not found.

Fig. 3â&#x20AC;&#x201C;5. Mattress as the multi-use furniture in low cost apartments.

III. Analysis

Functionality in this research is assessed in % by considering its capability in approaching the standard. The whole unit and zones of low cost apartments are therefore judged as highly

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Fig. 6â&#x20AC;&#x201C;9. Drying place reality existed at low cost apartments in Surabaya.

frequency the use of mattress is. The only difference is that the private sub-zone should provide not only storing-3 that deals with clothes, sheets, and similar, but also storing-2 that deals with food. In fact, bedroom in standard includes only a wardrobe. Multi-functional zone in low cost apartments in Surabaya requires no particular dining space, as residents have storage for food in private sub-zone and eating place in public sub-zone. For the balcony, it is assumed that the drying space, which is located in the balcony, can be arranged by the determination of its depth influenced by the consideration of how many lines in the drying system are needed, plus some 60 to 90 centimeters for the human movement and circulation. In conclusion, the space design provided by the government is basically less sufficient but they are acceptable. This acceptance is not purely because of the sufficiency of space provided, but primarily due to the creativity of residents, as well as the adapting capability of users in meeting the space existed to their needs. The simplest example can be presented is related to the functionality of zone spaces, which always are better than that of the existing spaces, and the major use of mattresses is considered to be multifunctional. Residents use mattresses for various activities, not only for sleeping and relaxing, but also for entertaining, eating, TV-watching, ironing, playing, praying, and studying; thus, they can reduce and save the space required. Moreover, when it is possible, they construct mezzanine, extend the balcony, and occupy corridor to extend the space. Functionality especially the adequacy of space size is really relevant and essential in realizing the sustainability of low cost apartments in Surabaya as this enables residents to live properly and attracts them to stay longer and happier. To improve the functionality, the government has to consider the real daily activities and meet the standard required. The space design seemed not taken into account the usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; activities especially the consideration of how and where the users wash, iron, and dry clothes particularly when there is no balcony. The smallest units which areas are 18 m2 proved inadequacy and inhumane particularly when occupied by more than 4 members, therefore advised to be discontinued. Inhabitants so far by pressure managed to accept the existing space and adapt their space demands to the space provided. Yet, too big space shortage i.e. when occupancy is more than 4, may result in inhumane living, slum impression, and occupation of public space such as the corridor. Accordingly, continuation of largest units which area is 32 m2 is recommended, even larger if possible, in order to approach the standard.

Conclusions

When the maximum of whole unit space area of 32 sqm is compared to studio apartment, the judgment can be functional. It means that to be more sustainable, the space area of unit plans in Surabaya deserves to be enlarged to approach the standard in order to prolong the life time. The government has shown increment of unit area in the development of low cost apartments since 1985. In the earliest period of 1990s, unit space area of Sombo, Simo, Dupak, and Penjar-1 was only 18 sqm (Silas, 1990). Toilets and kitchens were provided collectively outside the units. Yet the later built low cost apartments were designed in a larger area, i.e. 21, 24, and the unit area of Gunungsari as the newest apartment, was 32 sqm. Thus, the government has the intention to keep enlarging the unit area to meet standard requirement. Moreover, intension to improve service is also seen, by no longer providing kitchens and toilets collectively, but privately, which, in fact, is more favorable by residents. For kitchen zone, there is no significant weakness regarding space area provided. For toilet zone, space requirement should share the space for washing, since most respondents do the washing activity traditionally at this zone. For multi-functional zone, assessment of average and max existing area result in not functional and less functional. Assessment of the zone is divided into public and private subzones. Although the judgment is highly for the former, and functional for the latter, both of them have the consequences. The public sub-zone has 5 active activities that may occur in the same space. 4 of them can take place at the same time, but not ironing. They have to remove all ironing items when suddenly they have guests to entertain. Otherwise they have to share space. In standard, there is no ironing activity in the living-room. Space for ironing is provided separately, which according to Table 1 requires 3 sqm for its own, by which it turns this sub-zone no longer highly functional. As respondents have become accustomed to adapt their activities to the existing space, everything is manageable. The private sub-zone, which has 4 active activities, has almost the same inclusive activities as those standardized. Both of them prepare spaces for sleeping and relaxing by providing a bed. Yet, beds in this research are mostly just mattresses directly put on the floor instead of on a bed case like that in standard. This bed is not only for sleeping and relaxing, but also for studying and even praying. Most household members require no particular study table including chair for studying, reading or doing homework. As listed in dominant furniture (Table 6), it is seen how high in

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Rika Kisnarini, Emilia van Egmond, Masi Mohammadi. Importance of Functionality in Realizing Sustainability of Low Cost Apartments in Surabaya, Indonesia

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Rika Kisnarini (I.T.S., 1972), B. Arch. (1981), M. uhm (IHS-Erasmus Rotterdam, the Netherlands & UHM Lund University, Sweden, 2000), on going PhD studies at Unit AUDE Faculty of ABP Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands (research thesis Functionality and Adaptability of Low Cost Apartment Space Design in Tropical Developing Countries; tutor Prof. Jouke M Post). LECTURER at the Department of Architecture Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning (I.T.S. since 1983). COORDINATOR of Development Study (Post Graduate Program of I. T. S. since 2004). CHIEF of Architectural Science Laboratory (I. T. S. Department of Architecture, since 2007). MEMBER of Housing laboratory. • Kisnarini, R. Influence of Geometry on Natural Lighting of Low Cost Flat Common Space. ANZAScA 42nd Annual Conference on Innovation, Inspiration, and Instruction New Knowledge in the Architectural Science, November 26-28, 2008. New Castle (Australia), 2008, p. 327–333. • Kisnarini, R. Importance of Lifespan Inclusion in Low Cost Apartment Design in Developing Countries. International Symposium on Construction in Developing Economies: Commonalities among Diversities. October 5–7, 2009. Penang (Malaysia), 2009, p. 428–436. • Kisnarini, R. Maintaining Comfort on Adaptability of Low Cost Apartment Units Due to Changing Demand. 11th Sustainable Environmental Architecture (SENVAR) Conference. October 14, 2010. Surabaya (Indonesia), 2010, p. V1–V8. Current and previous research interests: low cost housing, natural lighting and ventilation. Awards: First Winner of Tanjung Emas Semarang Monument Design 1985. Second runner-up winner of Surabaya Tugu Pahlawan Monument Design Competition 1988. Membership: member of (East Java) Indonesian Architect Association.

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Dr. ir. Emilia van Egmond. MSc in Architecture and Building Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands. PhD in Innovation and Technology Capabilities in Construction, Dept. Civil Engineering, Delft University of Technology. 10 years of practical experience in Architecture and Building Engineering in The Netherlands and abroad, a. o. Ghana, West Africa. More than 25 years academic experience in Innovation and Technology Development for Sustainable Construction in International Perspective. Member of various international research committees, a. o. CIB on Innovation in Construction; Construction in Developing countries. Further information on the website of Eindhoven University of Technology (TUe) http://www.tue.nl Dr. ir. Masi Mohammadi. Civil engineering (BSc.), Architectural design and product development (MSc.), and Embedding smart technological innovations in living environment (PhD., Faculty of Architectural Design and Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands). Works as a scientific fellow and lecturer at HAN University of Applied sciences (chair Architecture in Health) and as an Assistant Professor at Eindhoven University of Technology (chair Building Technology), in the Netherlands. Senior researcher and project manager in different nationwide projects based in this field, which help in improving people’s quality of life by improving the quality of housing. Participant of various scientific conferences, an editorial member of the magazine Facility Management Technologies in Healthcare (FMT), and a reviewer of conferences, among them the Gerontechnology World Congress ISG-ISARC 2012. The focus of the research: Smart and sustainable living environment, New architectural and technological means and methods for enabling aging-in-place and the acceptance of smart (care) applications through domesticating and personalizing it, as well as applying need-based technology in the homes, and the diffusion process of technologies, and empirical studies on the breakthrough of smart care technologies and on the residential needs, and the attitude of users in regards to advanced technological innovations.

Contact Data

Rika Kisnarini Department of Architecture, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning, I.T.S. Address: Kampus ITS, Keputih Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia. Phone: +62 31 5924301 Email: r.kisnarini@tue.nl or rika@arch.its.ac.id

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Āgenskalna Priedes Housing District

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Jānis Krastiņš, Riga Technical University Ordinary residential buildings had to be constructed to standard designs. The most common standard design was the one sent from Moscow for Series 316, i.e. a five-storey section-type residential house. As a rule, these houses were built of white silicate bricks using red bricks along the sides of window openings or between several window openings. Standard designs could not be used in historic urban environment with the existing buildings, therefore mostly vacant, unoccupied areas were selected for new developments. And there were many such areas on the outskirts of Riga. Thus, the site selected for the first large-scale housing estate was in Āgenskalns – a hilly area in Pārdaugava overgrown with sparse pine-trees bordering on Kristapa, Dreiliņu, Āgenskalna and Alises Streets. This site was intersected by Melnsila Street which bent around the so-called “Big Hill” – a dune raising more than 15 meters high in the central part of the territory. On the opposite side of Melnsila Street there was a lower dune or “the Little Hill’. Behind it, in the gully, there was a small natural pond. This area or Āgenskalna Priedes had been favoured as a recreational site by inhabitants of Riga since the late 19th century, especially in snowy winters when people were sledging down “the Big Hill” and skiing. There even was a toboggan track that was managed by Āgenskalns Riflemen Society (Der Hagensberger Schützergesellschaft) at the beginning of the 20th century [3]. It also collected fees from visitors for winter fun rides. In the period between the wars all the territory of Āgenskalna Priedes district was a freely accessible public area and such it remained also after World War II. The author of this article himself well remembers these days when as a small boy he used to go there to enjoy an hour or two skiing, and later walked every day through this district to Riga Secondary School No 5 (now Riga State Gymnasium of German) that he finished in 1961. Thus, the author saw and experienced firsthand all the changes affecting this area in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

Abstract. Urban history of the first land architecture of the first large-scale housing district in Riga „Āgenskalna priedes” is examined and systematized in the article. This housing is executed in two stages. During the second stage prefabricated large-panel residential buildings of Series 464 were used, introducing the general industrialization of construction. Keywords: housing, the modern movement, urban planning.

Āgenskalna Priedes or Pine-trees of Āgenskalns is the first large-scale residential district in Riga. It was built in two stages between 1958 and 1962. It was the time marked by radical changes in architectural style, mass-building technology and urban planning: “socialist realism” prevailing in the Soviet realm was replaced with a simple and rational style in architecture that to some extent may be compared to Modern Movement, assembly of large prefabricated concrete elements replaced traditional construction methods and construction became more extensive covering larger territories with standard buildings. Thus, this district became a herald of a whole new era in architecture and urban planning. After World War II the gradually fading echoes of the prewar Neo-eclecticism that derived from classical architecture still prevailed in the world. In the Soviet Union and in all its occupied territories, this retrospective trend was maintained by means of strict ideological dictates. Official slogans preordained art, and architecture as well, to be “socialist in content and national in form”. This so-called style of socialist realism “relied on the principles of the party, moral substance and nationalism and adhered to the traditions of realistic art of the past in its creative method” [1]. The mission attributed to art was to inspire masses of working people to new heroic deeds at work. Architectural finishes of buildings exploited various elements of classical vocabulary, sometimes including some symbol of communist ideology, like a five-pointed star or the hammer and sickle, in column capitals. Yet “socialist realism” in architecture, sometimes also referred to as Stalin’s Baroque, was proclaimed to be “excesses” that should be eliminated, replacing contrived and expensive decorative ornaments with simple forms that were naturally related to their function. In this regard, in 1955, the Soviet government passed a decree Measures for the Further Industrialization, Quality Improvement and Cost Reduction of Construction. While at a special meeting, which had to be attended by all architects of the Soviet Union, it was announced that in future the main focus in architecture should be placed on “solution of the major social, technical and ideological challenges, based on comprehensive development of industrial methods of mass construction” [2]. Architectural finish was not completed of many buildings constructed in the mid-1950s, e.g. columns lacked capitals, and it was permitted to construct new buildings to the so-called individual designs only in special cases, e.g. when the house was intended for high-ranking members of the Communist Party.

Fig. 1. Riga State Gymnasium II. 1931. I. Blankenburgs.

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Jānis Krastiņš. Āgenskalna Priedes Housing District

Fig. 4. The district of Āgenskalna Priedes in 1939 Riga Development Plan. [4]

Fig. 2. The water tower in Āgenskalns. 1910. W. Bockslaff. Raised in 1939. P. Pāvulāns.

Fig. 5. The corner of Melnsila and Āgenskalna Streets. On the right – a row of birches marking the direction of the old street.

The present-day building of Riga State Gymnasium of German, located at Āgenskalna iela 21a, was built to the design by architect Indriķis Blankenburgs in 1931 as Riga State Gymnasium II. This red brick building is an excellent example of regional interpretation of Modern Movement (Figure 1). Another impressive structure rises on the opposite south-eastern side of the district – the water tower of Āgenskalns, which was built in 1910 (architect Wilhelm Bockslaff) and raised by 7.5 m in 1939 (engineer Pāvils Pāvulāns, Figure 2). In the late 1950s it was decided to develop the district of Āgenskalna Priedes as a sports and recreation area. The construction of a stadium including a full-size football pitch and a 400-meter running track around it began in the spring of 1958 at the foot of “the Big Hill” in the north-eastern part of the territory, which was less overgrown by trees. A foundation pit was dug nearby for construction of a sports hall. However, the cinder track of the stadium was not completed and during PE classes it was used for short-distance running. Construction of sports facilities soon stopped, while all energy was devoted to the development of the residential district. It began with the razing of “the Big Hill”. Previously, walking to school from Kalnciema Street toward Āgenskalna Street, this high dune picturesquely completed the

Fig. 3. Āgenskalna Priedes. An aerial photo taken in the 1930s. In the centre – “the Big Hill” with a toboggan track.

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Fig. 6. Āgenskalna Priedes. A layout scheme. 1958. N. Rendelis.

Fig. 8. Āgenskalna Priedes. Buildings of Series 316 with artists’ studios. A view from SW. 1961. [5]

Fig. 7. A layout of sections of Series 316 residential building and a two-room flat.

perspective view (Figures 2 and 3). It was dug up right through the middle and a new straight stretch of Melnsila Street was created. A row of birches on the corner of Melnsila and Āgenskalna Streets still mark the location of the old street section (Figure 5). In the summer of 1959, steep walls of sand still rose on both sides of the new Melnsila Street. The remains of the hill were gradually razed, sand was transported to a silicate brick factory, and “the Big Hill” was only a memory. “The Little Hill” in the south-western part of the territory was also levelled and the first residential buildings of the new district started appearing there. The layout design was developed by the architect Nikolajs Rendelis in 1958 (Figure 6). Most of the buildings are located freely along the perimeter of the block obliquely facing the street axes. At that time this layout principle was widely used; apparently it had to show insolation and other sanitary and hygienic advantages of the buildings in comparison with the tight pattern of traditional perimeter blocks. In the district of Āgenskalna Priedes this layout principle also allowed placing almost all buildings meridionally ensuring insolation of those flats, where all windows were located only on one side. Standard buildings of Series 316 were used in the first construction stage that was completed in 1961. This standard

Fig. 9. Āgenskalna Priedes. Buildings of Series 316 with artists’ studios. A photo taken in 2012.

design was adjusted for the district of Āgenskalna Priedes by architects Artūrs Reinfelds, Lidija Plakane, Lidija Ose, Regīna Jaunušāne, Ivars Bumbieris, Imants Jākobsons and Modris Ģelzis. Shops and other public service establishments have been attached to four buildings along Melnsila Street. Residential buildings mostly have one-room or two-room flats. The area of combined toilet and bathroom facilities slightly exceeds 2m2. In order to achieve high economical efficiency, halls in the flats are also small. They were measured using a made-up coefficient k2 that expressed the proportion of the floor-space of living rooms to the total area of the flat. This coefficient had to be as close to one as possible. It also accounts for the awkward kitchen solution in these flats since the area in front of the kitchen door was included in the floor-space of the living room (Figure 7).

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Jānis Krastiņš. Āgenskalna Priedes Housing District

Fig. 12. Āgenskalna Priedes. Corridor-type buildings and a group of pine-trees at Kristapa Street.

Fig. 13. The reservoir at the café in Āgenskalna Street. A photo taken in 1964. [6]

Corridor-type four-storey buildings are lining up Kristapa Street, yet their architectural image cannot be distinguished from the buildings of Series 316. During the first construction stage, in the middle of the block there was also constructed a longer building consisting of four five-storey houses of two sections of Series 316 linked together in a semicircle. Artists’ studios were arranged above the two central houses, thus endowing a rather monotonous architectural environment with some distinguishing features (Figures 8, 9 and 11). The same solution was later reapplied to other places in Riga. A single pine-tree has survived in the big yard to the west of the buildings with artists’ studios (Figure 10). In the autumn of 2011, when the meeting of the representatives of DOCOMOMO Nordic-Baltic regional group was held in Riga, its participants found here one of the last cones. Other pine-trees in this yard have withered away and have been replaced by a thicket of deciduous underbrush. Still some pine-trees can be seen in the southern corner of the block opposite the corner of Kristapa and Dreiliņu Streets where a new copse of pine-trees is growing (Figure 12). The environment does not create a pleasant atmosphere. A spacious reservoir at the newly built café in Āgenskalna Street was one of the most interesting decorative elements (Figure 13). It was created in the place where once a natural pond was located.

Fig. 10. Āgenskalna Priedes. Buildings of Series 316 with artists’ studios. A photo taken in 2012.

Fig. 11. Āgenskalna Priedes. Buildings of Series 316 with artists’ studios. A view from the east. A photo taken in 2012.

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Fig. 14. The playground built instead of the reservoir in 2012.

Fig. 16. Āgenskalna Priedes. The 2nd construction stage. Residential buildings of Series 464 in Alīses Street.

Fig. 15. A three-room flat in a Series 464-A residential house.

Fig. 17. Residential buildings of Series 464 in Alīses Street.

However, this reservoir proved to be dangerous because it was almost impossible to get out of water on one’s own climbing up the steep concrete walls of the reservoir, especially for children, if they had accidentally fallen in. Therefore it was necessary to fill the reservoir and a playground was built instead (Figure 14). There are also a few simpler children’s playgrounds. At the end of 1961, the last remains of “the Big Hill” still retained to the northeast of Melnsila Street were removed. And immediately the second construction stage began. The layout of the district relied on the same principle as in the first stage, except several buildings along Melnsila and Āgenskalna Streets were positioned parallel to street axes. A free-standing building with a restaurant and shops rose up on the roadside in the middle of Melnsila Street. Later it was rebuilt several times. During the second construction stage prefabricated large-panel residential buildings of Series 464 were used. Previously several such buildings were erected in various places in Riga for the sake of experiment, yet in Āgenskalns industrial construction methods on a massive scale were used for the first time. The assembly of all buildings was completed in 1962. Auxiliary rooms in Series 464 buildings were slightly more convenient than in Series 316, which later acquired a nickname Khrushchevkas, yet the width of walls of some living rooms

reached only 2.8 m (Figure 15). Such rooms provided only enough space for meandering between the furniture. Also the quality of prefabricated building elements used in the Āgenskalns district was rather low. Joints connecting the panels were inaccurate and filled with primitive materials. Façades had to be painted, but the paint did not stay long on the surface of concrete panels. After completion of the Āgenskalns district when new large-scale residential areas were constructed in Riga, the buildings of this series had an improved layout, and the finish of exterior walls was already made in the factory. The quality of neighbourhood created during the second construction stage does not differ from the previous development. Inner courtyard includes some elements of a children’s playground. Roads within the block are so narrow that cars can barely pass each other without mounting the kerbs. It is true that the ideological dictate of that period regarded private property, including personal cars, as an obstacle for reaching the promised land of communism. However, the striving to be as economical as possible actually devalued the basic quality requirements for the living environment. Now the roadsides and in some places even the lawns have been damaged by cars. The architectural framework of the neighbourhood is repetitive and monotonous (Figures 16–19). In fact, some scattered deciduous trees are the only form of greenery.

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Jānis Krastiņš. Āgenskalna Priedes Housing District

References 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Социалистический реализм. Энциклопедический словарь в двух томах. Москва: Советская Энциклопедия, 1964. Т. 2, стр. 425. (Socialist realism. In: Encyclopaedic Dictionary in Two Volumes. Moscow, 1964) Bceoбщая истopия apхитектуры в 12 томах. Mocква, 1975. Том 12, Пepвая книгa, cтp. 20. Caune, A. Rīgas Pārdaugava pirms 100 gadiem: Pārdaugavas iedzīvotāji 19. gs. beigu un 20. gs. sākuma atklātnēs. Rīga: Zinātne, 1998. 68. lpp. Jaunākais Rīgas pilsētas plāns (X izdevums). Rīga: P. Mantnieka kartogrāfijas institūts, 1939. Rīga (sast. M. Pāvele). Rīga: Latvijas valsts izdevniecība, 1961. 193. lpp. Āgenskalna vēsture [tiešsaiste]. Cita Rīga: Pilsēta no cita skatupunkta [skatīts 24.04.2012.]. http://www.citariga.lv/lat/agenskalns/vesture/ Āgenskalna vēsture [tiešsaiste]. Cita Rīga: Pilsēta no cita skatupunkta [skatīts 24.04.2012.]. http://www.citariga.lv/lat/agenskalns/vesture/ Rīga 245 fotoattēlos = Рига в 245 фотографиях = Riga in 245 Photographs (sast., teksts un mākslinieks Andris Nikolajevs). Rīga: Avots, 1990. 168 lpp.

Jānis Krastiņš, architect. Born 23.06.1943. in Riga. 1967 – graduated Riga Polytechnic institute (now Riga Technical University; RTU); 1973 – Doctor of Architecture, 1991 – habilitated Doctor of Architecture (Dr.habil.arch.); 1994 – full member of Latvian Academy of Sciences. Since 1972 – ASSOCIATED PROFESSOR, since 1992 – PROFESSOR at RTU, Head of the Department of History of Architecture and Theory of Architectural Design. Have been visiting scholar at Vienna Technical University (1987) and Columbia University, New York (1994), visiting professor at Yuan-Ze University, Chung-li, Taoyan, Taiwan (2000) and guest lecturer in Finland, Sweden, Belgium, Germany, Poland, Austria, Canada and other countries. Publications: more than 640 items, published in Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Iceland, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom and the United States of America, including 25 books. The first of them are: JŪGENDSTILS RĪGAS ARHITEKTŪRĀ, Rīga, 1980, 224 lpp. (Art Nouveau in the Architecture of Riga, in Latvian) and EKLEKTISMS RĪGAS ARHITEKTŪRĀ, Rīga, 1988, 280 lpp. (Eclecticism in the Architecture of Riga, in Latvian). The recent books are: RĪGAS ARHITEKTŪRAS STILI / ARCHITECTURAL STYLES IN RIGA / APХИТЕКТУРНЫЕ CТИЛИ PИГИ, Rīga: Jumava, 2005, 240 lpp.; RĪGAS JŪGENDSTILA ĒKAS. CEĻVEDIS PA JŪGENDSTILA METROPOLES ARHITEKTŪRU / ART NOUVEAU BUILDINGS IN RIGA. A GUIDE TO ARCHITECTURE OF ART NOUVEAU METROPOLIS, Rīga: ADD projekts, 2007, 408 p. (in Latvian and English) and ARHITEKTS JĀNIS ALKSNIS 1869– 1939 ARCHITECT, Rīga: ADD projekts, 2009, 400 p. (in Latvian and English). Professional awards: Förderungsbeitrag des Camillo Sitte-Fonds (Austria, 1985), Jānis Baumanis award in Architecture (Latvia, 1989), Fulbright award (USA, 1994), Great medal of the Latvian Academy of Sciences (1998), Baltic Assembly award (1998), Riga-award (2002), Cultural heritage award (Latvia) of 2004.

Fig. 18 and 19. Āgenskalna Priedes. The 2nd construction stage. Residential buildings of Series 464 in Kristapa Street and in a crescent around the inner courtyard.

The enthusiasm over sunny and healthy living conditions in the new housing estates spurred by the political ideology gradually abated. Nevertheless thirty-five (!) photos out of about 270 included in the photo album Riga [7] that was published in 1981 show the new large-scale housing estates. During the Soviet period, all publications were strictly censored, and the content of such an album also had to reflect the bright future where everybody lived in new and well-furnished apartments. Yet the public opinion and aesthetic ideals are developing regardless of the political dictate, and in a similar album published at the outset of the Soviet collapse [8] only two pictures can be found diffidently depicting large-scale housing estates. Today the district of Āgenskalna Priedes is an existing urban reality. If we leave aside nostalgia for unique and popular elements of nature that once existed there amid a relatively dense built-up environment, this particular reality should be evaluated comparing it to the subsequently built, much larger housing complexes. From this point of view, Āgenskalna Priedes is one of the best examples of good neighbourhood infrastructure since most of large-scale housing estates constructed during the Soviet period chronically lack public service objects. Today a section of Melnsila Street between Kristapa and Āgenskalna Streets is a quite lively public open space with convenient public transport, shops and other reasonably well functioning public spaces. In any case, the district of Āgenskalna Priedes is a cultural and historical monument in its own right.

Contact Data

Jānis Krastiņš Professor, Dr.habil.arch. Riga Technical University, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning Address: Āzenes iela 16, Riga, LV-1048, Latvia Phone: +371 67089256, +371 67089115 Fax: +371 67089130 E-mail: Janis.Krastins_1@rtu.lv

Architecture and Urban Planning

A Culture House – a Nucleus of a Collective Farm of Soviet Latvia

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Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš, Riga Technical University decrease in population and administrative reforms. The financing for their maintenance was also significantly cut; 2. the uneven development and different financing mechanisms constitute a threat for depletion and destruction of cultural heritage. Developing housing estates, no analysis has been performed as to the location of cultural establishments. No basic principles for incorporation of the existing cultural establishments into the network of new administrative regions have been defined; 3. samples of high quality building layouts, façade finish and interior designs are lost because of insufficient funding, lack of public awareness and poor quality of building repair and renovation works. It all contributes to depletion of cultural heritage.

Abstract: The aim of the study is to identify and assess the aesthetic quality of culture houses constructed during the Soviet period in the countryside of Latvia and determine their significance for the architectural heritage of Latvia. This article analyses two distinctly different periods in cultural development of rural areas and construction of culture houses. The first period covers the time span from 1955 till 1975, when standard designs of culture houses were used in architecture. The second period refers to the time between 1975 and 1990, when public opinion drastically changed and a search for national identity renewed. It was the time when the number of individual designs considerably increased. Keywords: architecture, cultural heritage, history, soviet legacy.

For more than 150 years culture houses have taken a prominent place in urban development and cultural landscape of the countryside of Latvia. They are not only an important part of cultural heritage, but also a key to the existence of Latvian nation and Latvian traditions, national spirit and values. The controversial attitude to this part of cultural heritage of Latvia has been a good incentive for a profound analysis of culture houses. The Soviet regime changed the lifestyle of people both in the cities and in the countryside. It transformed the traditional rural cultural landscape attempting to eradicate a lifelong tradition of living on farmsteads substituting it with villages of collective farms. The imposed changes, however, could not change an inherent need of people to maintain their ancestral traditions. In the centres of newly established collective farms of Soviet Latvia several cultural establishments were built, i.e. schools, culture houses, open-air stages etc. The aim of the study is to identify and assess the aesthetic quality of culture houses of the countryside and determine their place in the architectural heritage of Latvia. Two tasks have been set to achieve this aim: 1. to ascertain and analyse types of buildings of culture houses and follow the evolution of their stylistic and aesthetic principles; 2. to compare and evaluate general development of culture houses and determine the possible sources of influence and analogies. Two distinctly different periods in development of rural cultural environment and construction of culture houses have been analysed. The first period lasted from 1955 till 1975, when standard designs were used. The second period refers to the time between 1975 and 1990, when public opinion drastically changed and a search for national identity renewed. Today several outstanding problems related to the culture houses of Latvia can be highlighted: 1. administrative centres in Latvia, where culture houses operated, have been eliminated as a result of a rapid

Fig. 1. Balvi culture house at Brīvības iela 61. 1954.

Fig. 2. Kārsava culture house at Vienības iela 49C. 1959.

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Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš. A Culture House – a Nucleus of a Collective Farm of Soviet Latvia

Fig. 3. Preiļi culture house at Raiņa bulvāris 28. 1958. [4]

Fig. 5. A standard design for a culture house with 400 and 600 seats. Architects P. Švābe and E. Leitāne. 1959. A drawing by A. Eniņa.

Fig. 4. Krustpils culture house in Jēkabpils at Rīgas iela 210/212. 1954–1959. [5]

Fig. 6. Dagda culture house. Architects P. Švābe and E. Leitāne. 1959.

The methodological principles of the research are based on the architectural analysis of culture houses and summarisation, systematisation and classification of architectural and historical information about the buildings of cultural and educational establishments. A series of unpublished sources and archival materials has been explored and a method of monographic and historical approach has been employed. The buildings of cultural and educational establishments have been ascertained, inspected and photographed, and a visually comparative analysis has been made.

the first culture houses were built in towns and collective farm villages in Latvia. One standard design was used to build the culture house in Balvi at Brīvības iela 61 in 1954 (Figure 1), the culture house in Preiļi at Raiņa bulvāris 28 in 1958 (Figure 3) and the culture house in Krāslava at Vienības iela 49C in 1959 (Figure 2). These buildings contain spacious rooms with the total area of 1700 square meters. The large assembly hall with 450 seats is encircled by administrative offices and auxiliary rooms. These buildings also include the small hall with 70 seats and rooms for amateur groups. The portico of the great order dominates the main façade. Fenestration has an even pattern regardless of the size of interior spaces. Details of architectural finish are bulky, and they are supplemented either by massive cornices or intermediate cornices. This architectural style is called “socialist realism” [2] or retrospectivism [3]. The shapes of the community centers built in the 1950s are mostly robust and pretentious. In fact, the architecture of these buildings still strongly relied on neo-eclectic features introduced in the last years before the war, which embodied the idea of “the cult of the leader”. This retrospective trend is also reflected in the architecture of Baloži culture house at Skolas iela 4 (built in 1961) and

I. Rural Culture Houses Between 1955 and 1975

In 1940, immediately after the occupation of Latvia and annexation by the Soviet Union the land reform was initiated. As a result, large farms privately owning over 30 hectares of land were eliminated in the rural areas of Latvia. Initially, the expropriated land properties were divided among smaller farms and landless peasants. Over a period of ten years all Latvian farmers had to join collective farms or kolkhozes (abbreviated from Russian – колективное хозяйство i.e. a collective farm [1]). Establishment of collective farms and collectivisation of properties meant a radical change in vernacular land management traditions, yet already in the mid-1950s, recovering from war,

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Fig. 7. A standard design for a culture house with an assembly hall with 450 seats and a cinema hall with 245 seats. Architect A. Tītmane. 1959. A drawing by A. Eniņa.

Fig. 9. The culture house “Enerģētiķis” in Salaspils district. 1980.

Fig. 8. Kauguri culture house. 1989.

Fig. 10. Architect Tīkmanis working on his diploma design “A Tourist Centre at Lake Kaķīši”. On the left – his fellow student Uldis Pabērzs. 1968. [12]

Krustpils culture house in Jēkabpils, Rīgas iela 210/212 (built in 1954–1959).The main façade of Krustpils culture house resembles a grand portal. Above it a fine cornice runs, which also encircles both wings of the building (Figure 4). The luxurious interior design also displays monumental decorative elements and free improvisation with the elements of orders which is characteristic of this period and its striving for ostentatious luxury what had to imply the rightness of the regime. There is a certain degree of incongruity between the use of antique forms in the finish of the buildings and their modern spatial structure, constructions, as well as technical facilities. In the late 1950s, when construction of large-scale residential districts began in the cities of Latvia using pre-fabricated building constructions [2], the same degree of industrialisation was also applied to the architecture of public buildings. Several new standard designs for culture houses were developed. They were used both in the largest cities of Latvia and in the small centres of collective farms. In 1962, the culture house of the fishermen’s collective farm “Banga” was opened in Roja, at Zvejnieku iela 5. Its architecture marked a transition from a separate use of one standard design and its widespread use in construction of culture houses.

A culture house with 400 or 600 seats (architects P. Švābe and E. Leitāne, 1959) was one of the first standard designs widely used in Soviet Latvia [6]. Such culture houses were built in Dagda, Zilupe, Ventspils, Ludza and other towns. The volumes of an assembly hall and a foyer are arranged freely and asymmetrically, placing the main entrance next to the end wall of the hall. In Dagda, Zilupe and Ludza the buildings are retracted from the street lines providing enough space around them (Figures 5 and 6). On the other hand, in Ventspils, the culture house was squeezed within a dense perimeter block. The culture house has an inappropriate scale and it is too bulky for the environment. Evident is a refusal to use any decorative elements both in the façades and interiors. No relation can be seen to the architectural traditions of asymmetric free-standing buildings of people’s houses – as regards composition of volumes, understanding of scale, and spatial qualities – built in the pre-war period in towns and small cities. Quite often in smaller collective farms a culture house with 400 seats for spectators turned out to be too large. Therefore a new standard design was developed for culture houses with the total area of about 1000 square meters. This two-storey rectangular structure of these buildings has a four-sided roof. Windows in the façades are arranged in an even rhythmical pattern.

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Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš. A Culture House – a Nucleus of a Collective Farm of Soviet Latvia

Fig. 11. The standard design for the culture house in the collective farm “Lenin” in Kocēni, Valmiera region and in the collective farm “Zelta druva” in Dobele region. A model. Architect L. Tīkmanis. 1968–1976. [12]

Fig. 13. Mālpils culture house with 600 seats. 1975–1988. [12]

Fig. 12. Mālpils culture house with 600 seats. 1975–1988. [12]

Fig. 14. Mālpils culture house with 600 seats. In the foreground, the architect Ē. L. Tīkmanis. Around 1988. [12]

These houses largely resemble residential buildings and do not appear imposing. This design was used to build culture houses in Alsviķi, Aglona, Biksti, Mērsrags etc. In the countryside and towns of Latvia, a standard design for a culture house with an assembly hall with 450 seats and a cinema hall with 245 seats was widely used (architect A. Tītmane, 1959). Both halls are connected via a gallery with the rooms for amateur clubs located above it on the top floors (Figure 7). For example, this design was used for the culture houses in Ilūkste district, Sigulda, Smiltene etc. A mirror image of the building layout was also used e.g. in the culture house in Skrunda. The façade finish displays minor variations due to different finishing techniques used, thus the culture house of Daugavpils Vorstadt at Vidzemes iela 41 has pointed, unplastered brick walls, while painted plaster has been used for the façades of the culture house in Gulbene. Mass construction of culture houses and the dominant ideology precluded the use of more refined architectural and artistic means of expression in the architecture of those buildings. The visual image of the people’s houses built between 1955 and 1975 lack distinctive aesthetic qualities. A special attention should be paid to the quality of the public open spaces surrounding the people’s houses. It is necessary to explain the ideological role of monumental and decorative arts, the importance of decorative

sculptures in organisation of external and internal spaces and the need for outdoor small architectural forms. Quite often, as a result of conversions carried out today, works of fine arts are lost. Thus, after the façade insulation, the monumental relief depicting a girl in a national costume has disappeared from above the main entrance of the people’s house of Dagda district. A special attention should be paid to the problem of architectural regeneration of the people’s houses built during the Soviet period in Latvia. II. Rural Culture Houses Between 1975 and 1990

After 1975, construction of people’s houses continued in Latvia, yet the public opinion changed and it had a direct effect on the visual image of people’s houses, their typology, and on their architecture in general. Increasingly more attention was paid to the environment as a whole, what to a certain extent changed the proportion between the use of standard and individual designs in construction of people’s houses. The architecture of people’s houses continued to display features and shapes of modern movement deriving from the 1930s. The architecture of Kauguri culture house (1989) and the culture house “Enerģētiķis” of Salaspils district (1980)

Architecture and Urban Planning Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš. A Culture House – a Nucleus of a Collective Farm of Soviet Latvia

Fig. 15. The club, office and village council in Nīgrande, Saldus region. A model. 1984–1986. [12]

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Fig. 16. The office of the collective farm in Renda, Kuldīga district. 1983–1987. [12]

has rather expressive massing of cubic shapes, corresponding tectonics and strongly emphasised entrances (Figures 8 and 9). A number of designs for the important public buildings of that time were developed at the State Rural Construction Design Institute “Laukuprojekts” of the Ministry of Construction of the Latvian SSR (it was also commonly referred to as “Latgiproseļstroj” using its abbreviation in the Russian language). The design institute “Laukuprojekts” employed some of the renowned architects of Latvia such as Dzintars Driba, Oļģerts Buka and Ēriks Laimonis Tīkmanis (Figure 10). Already in 1968, immediately after graduating, the architect Tīkmanis began to develop a standard design for a culture house. Initially, the design was intended for a culture house in the collective farm “Lenin” in Kocēni, Valmiera district (Figure 11). The bureaucratic system of the USSR and Soviet Latvia prevented this project from being implemented. Only almost ten years later, after some minor changes were made to the design, the culture house was finally constructed in the collective farm “Zelta druva” in Dobele district under the guidance of the architect Aivars Pētersons. The architect noted that it had been a very painful experience for him since the implementation of the project involved so many difficulties [7]. The architecture of the culture house reflects traditions of modern movement. The standard design was adjusted respecting the specific relief of the area. The massing consists of cubic elements creating a dynamic composition. The completion of the culture house of the collective farm “Zelta druva” was an important turning point in the architect’s career. It strongly influenced his further creative achievements. The design for a model village in Mālpils is one of the most interesting designs for public centres developed by the architect Tīkmanis. This project was implemented under his guidance from 1974 till 1985, when the building of the office of the collective farm, the building of the village council and Mālpils culture house with 600 seats were constructed (Figures 12–14). The architecture of the building displays features of the international modern movement. The massing consists of cubic elements with rounded corners. Huge planes of glass alternate with rendered wall planes. The building has a harmonious and appealing image and a distinct centre of spatial composition. This manner drawing

Fig. 17. The office of the collective farm in Renda, Kuldīga district. 1983–1987. [12]

on functionalism characterised the initial period of architect’s creative career. Later his creative manner changed acquiring a different stylistic expression. In the 1970s, the architect developed several designs for club buildings e.g. for the club in Skujene, Cēsis district (1977– 1978), the club and office building in Bērzgale, Rēzekne district (1981–1986), the club and office building in Laubere, Ogre district (1983–1987) and the club with an auditorium for 500 spectators in Rundāni, Ludza district (1982–1987). These designs show the architect’s inclination to vernacular building traditions and principles of massing and composition. The club and office building in Bērzgale, Rezekne district is considered to be the last culture house designed by the architect in the vein of modern movement. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, new tendencies coming from the West brought new trends to the architecture. It had also become more urgent than ever to review the designing principles of rural villages. Architect Ģirts Ādminis pointed out that “the real beauty of the countryside is not a surrogate of the beauty of the city but a unique phenomenon wide in its essence” [8]. Architect Modrīte Lūse emphasized that rural settlements unlike the city are perceived “viewing them from the outside as a whole” [9]. It became very important to review the designing criteria of a culture house as a depository of national

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Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš. A Culture House – a Nucleus of a Collective Farm of Soviet Latvia

Fig. 18. The office of the collective farm in Renda, Kuldīga district. Sketches. 1983–1987. [12]

Fig. 19. The people’s house in Pušmucova parish. 1989.

values and a landmark of the rural area. An attempt to reproduce the living environment of the city in collective farms was severely criticised [10]. The architecture of the building of the club, the office and the village council (1984–1986) designed by architect Tīkmanis in Nīgrande, Saldus district shows such an innovative understanding of the values. The office of the collective farm is located next to the school of Nīgrande with its central entrance facing the picturesque valley of the River Venta. It was designed as a hallmark and a contrast to the inappropriate high-rise residential buildings constructed in the village. The layout of the club displays the principle often used in postmodernism, namely, one of the volumes is placed at a 45-degree angle to the others (Figure 15). Tīkmanis applied the vocabulary of postmodernism also in the conversion project transforming the former watermill in Pampāļi for administrative and cultural needs (1982–1987). On the ruins of the watermill destroyed during World War II, retaining the existing stone walls, the rooms were created for larger social gatherings, i.e. two fireplace halls with an area of 170 m2 each, 25 hotel rooms, a hairdresser’s saloon and a sauna with a swimming pool. The halls had doors leading to the terrace overlooking the water reservoir at the mill and the park [11]. The “hat”, which was added to the mill, seems to be inspired by the carnival. A slight carelessness wins over bleak seriousness. An audacious prank overrides traditional stagnation. Postmodernism is intensively imaginative, exotic and irreal. In the mid-1980s, unity and stability in architects’ works were targets of irony. The main keywords of postmodern architecture

could be – fortuity, game, allegory, and self-reflection. Amid the atmosphere saturated in irony in the world architecture as a whole, in the mid-1980s, one of the most successful examples of postmodernism was created in the architecture of Latvia, namely, the office of the collective farm and the culture house in Renda, Kuldīga district (1983–1987), which was designed by Tīkmanis [12]. The tree-lined building sits on the bank of the River Īvande, on the side of the road Riga–Kuldīga, where once the outhouse of the former rectory stood. The architect tried to respect the location and scale of the existing buildings in the village. The building comprised an office of the collective farm, an assembly room with 180 seats, halls for social gatherings with a fireplace room and hotel rooms for 10 guests (Figures 16–18). The building has accentuated red tile roof planes, while the red brick cladding of the walls displays elaborate patterns. The lintels above window openings are used as decorative elements. The main entrance boasts certain clichés of postmodernism, which highlight and harmoniously complete the artistic composition. The culture house in Mālpils, the office and pre-school educational establishment in Renda and other buildings designed by Tīkmanis have added new features to the rural landscape of Latvia. In the 1980s, Tīkmanis spoke about the development problems of rural villages: “each central village presents “an open-air museum” or a design catalogue of all standard post-war building designs” [13]. According to the architect, their further reproduction would lead nowhere. The number of population decreased in rural areas, yet the planning disregarded possibilities for long-term rural development. Today, many rural territories are already degraded. The landscape is distorted by ghastly silhouettes of unfinished buildings that are staring at passers-by with blind windows. New trends in postmodernism inspired architects not only in Latvia, but all over the world. Postmodernism is often defined as an opposition to the dictate of Soviet ideology. However, postmodernism appeared as a logical consequence after the ideological crisis of modern movement. In the mid-1980s, the searches for postmodern expressions were also reflected in designs developed by several other architects e.g. for the people’s house in Pušmucova parish (1989), the culture house of the collective farm “Jaunais komunārs” in Kalni, Nīgrande parish (architect A. Īvane, 1987) [14] and the culture house of the collective farm “Stučka” in Aizkraukle parish (architect A. Bernharde, 1988). These buildings have characteristic clichés of postmodernism, i.e. low-pitched arches and triangular motifs, rounded corners of the buildings etc. (Figures 19 and 20). The vocabulary of details, the rhythm and the scale appropriate to the milieu of the architecture of these buildings enhance the expressiveness of the surrounding rural scenery. Their architecture presents an open denial of the previously promulgated principles of modesty. [15]. Viesīte culture house (architect L. Skuja, 1983–1992) was built as the administrative centre of the agricultural company “Daugava” (Figure 21). It includes a concert hall, cinema hall, assembly hall, dance hall, town council and library, regional television studio, house management office, police station and other groups of rooms. This building is a true masterpiece of postmodernism. Its architecture, being on the verge of becoming

Architecture and Urban Planning Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš. A Culture House – a Nucleus of a Collective Farm of Soviet Latvia

kitsch, employs a theme of a medieval castle. The entrance resembles a huge medieval gate while the corners of the building boast large fortification towers. Already in the late 1980s, exaggerated imagery and interpretation of forms implied the decline of postmodern architecture. The culture house in Viesīte is a quintessential product of its time. Perhaps, one of the theories of postmodernism can be used for its assessment: “plagiarism does not annoy but rather enriches the postmodern work” [16, 433]. Accentuated use of historical forms very often contradicts the architectural and spatial logic. Postmodernism is sometimes compared to a great feast which has left a feeling of hangover to a certain part of society. Evidently an impartial evaluation of postmodernism is a task for the future. In fine arts the main feature of postmodernism was fragmentarism. Cinema was created that relied heavily upon editing, works of art and posters were made as collages, in music mixing of audio tracks became popular. In architecture, mixing of forms also took place, combining, for example, a circle with a triangle and a cube, a cylinder with angular shapes, curves with straight lines, etc. Yet in architecture as in a monumental art all these attempts were rather formal and artificial. The philosophy of the 1980s emphasized practical experience. Postmodernism was used as a means for expression of Latvian experience in architecture. The sources of influence can be found in ethnographic archetypes of Latvian architecture, traditions and language. The study of traditions plays an important role in architecture. Historically, the commensurability of farmsteads and the surrounding rural countryside has strongly influenced Latvian scenery. Solitary roofs on the background of sown fields are more characteristic of Latvian identity than straight street lines in the villages of collective farms.

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Fig. 20. The culture house in Aizkraukle parish. Architect A. Bernharde. 1988.

Fig. 21. The culture house in Viesīte. Architect L. Skuja. 1983–1992.

heritage protection specialists” [15] based on interpretation of historical forms. At the same time, a pronounced historical aversion to standard architecture had developed. As stated by the architect V. Neilands, “stylistic restrictions lead to standardisation which contradicts the essence of architecture” [15]. Yet the numerous implemented standard designs form an important cultural and historical value. Philosopher M. Kūle argued that ideas of postmodernism could thrive only in an open society [16]. And Western democracies are one of such societies. The totalitarian system of the Soviet Union prevented the expression of the different views in political, spiritual and social life, and in architecture. The fluctuation of the regime in the 1980s allowed strong artistic impulses to be expressed, since their further development could not be stopped. Sometimes in the 1980s the works created in Latvian architecture were too stereotyped, while the movement of postmodernism as such is regarded as a positive thing. The major problem of postmodern architecture is the dull interpretation of forms. Overall, the architecture of culture houses in the territory of Latvia has developed successively. Although so far historical and ideological prejudices have made it difficult to evaluate the architecture of the buildings constructed during the Soviet period, the culture houses of that period have a considerable potential of cultural heritage. Today, we should focus on preservation of national identity and avoid reducing the importance of its function. The culture house needs to preserve the sense of unity, togetherness and camaraderie of the nation.

Conclusions

The buildings of culture houses constructed between 1955 and 1975 did not have a unique image responsive to the genius loci. The emotional atmosphere created by architecture over the previous years disappeared. External shapes of community centers became bulky and pretentious. The culture houses built by the end of the 1950s were designed in the style of “socialist realism”. Most of standard community centers built in the 1960s and 1970s do not blend harmoniously within the environment. However, some buildings are distinctive examples of architecture of the particular period. From 1975 till 1990 public opinion changed and a search for national identity renewed. The number of individual designs considerably increased. Standard designs for culture houses reflect searches for new stylistic and functional solutions. The architecture of culture houses relies on peculiar features characteristic of regional architecture. Society opposed imposition of certain ideology, including politicisation of architecture. The notion “national” was badly degraded. The retrospective perception coincided with the level of development of public opinion. It allowed architects to engage in various improvisations of history, to reinvent eclectic methods using them in an industrialised manner in the architecture of people’s houses. Today, postmodernism – a style that prevailed in the architecture of the 1970s and 1980s – is often described as “views of cultural

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Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš. A Culture House – a Nucleus of a Collective Farm of Soviet Latvia

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16.

Agate Eniņa. Qualification of architect (2008), Master of Science in Architecture (2009), Doctoral studies in History of Architecture at the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning of Riga Technical University (since 2010). Main research line refers to the architecture of buildings of cultural and educational institutions in Latvia. ARCHITECT at an architect bureau RR.ES Ltd. (since February 2007). Since 2008 the author has been participating in a number of scientific and research projects in the field of preservation of cultural heritage. In 2010 the author has joined the DOCOMOMO (International Working Party for Documentation and Conservation of Buildings, Sites and Neighbourhoods of the Modern Movement) Latvian National Working Group. Published articles: • Eniņa, A. Campus of the Riga Polytechnic Institute in Ķīpsala. In: Living and Dying in the Urban Modernity. Denmark. Estonia. Finland. Iceland. Latvia. Lithuania. Norway. Sweden. Nord-Baltic Experiences. Docomomo. Published by the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture in cooperation with Chalmers University of Technology, 2010, p. 101–103. • Eniņa, A., Krastiņš, J. Arhitektes D. Dannenbergas daiļrade Padomju mantojuma saglabāšanas un attīstības jautājumu kontekstā. Rīgas Tehniskās universitātes zinātniskie raksti: 10. sērija: Arhitektūra un pilsētplānošana, 2010, 4. sējums, 36.–43., 128.–130. lpp. (Creative Work of the Architect Daina Dannenberga in the Context of Architectural Heritage of the Soviet Period; in English; summary in Latvian). • Eniņa, A. Ventspils latviešu biedrības nams. Latvijas Arhitektūra, 2011, Nr. 93 (februāris/marts), 26–31. lpp. (Ventspils’ Hobby House; in Latvian; summary in English).

Švābe, A. Latvju enciklopēdija. Stokholma: Trīs zvaigznes, 1951. 1042.–1046. lpp. Krastiņš, J., Strautmanis, I., Dripe, J. Latvijas arhitektūra no senatnes līdz mūsdienām. Rīga: Baltika, 1998. 312 lpp. Lejnieks, J. Rīgas arhitektūra. Rīga: Avots, 1989. 255. lpp. Preiļu novada kultūras centrs [tiešsaiste]. Preiļu novads [skatīts 27.07.2012]. http://www.preili.lv/page.php?id=639 Lejnieks, J. Rīgas arhitektūra. Rīga: Avots, 1989. 255. lpp. Driba, Dz., Zakemnnijs, O. Kultūras nami, klubi un kinoteātri. Laikmetīgā arhitektūra Padomju Latvijā. Rīga : Liesma, 1966, 37.–41. lpp. Mukāns, A., Hiršs, J. No būdas līdz pilij. Zvaigzne, 1988, Nr. 19, 21. lpp. Ādminis, Ģ. Kā mērīt lauku skaistumu? Arhitektūra un dizains. Rīga: Avots, 1985, 24.–28. lpp. Lūse, M. Kritērijus meklējot. Arhitektūra un dizains. Rīga: Avots, 1985, 29.–36. lpp. Ikoņņikovs, A. Kādiem jākļūst laukiem. ACD (Lauku ciemati). Rīga: Avots, 1986, 15.–17. lpp. Radošais portrets : Arhitekts L. Tīkmanis. Latvijas arhitektūra, 1989, 74.–76. lpp. Latvijas Arhitektūras muzeja krājuma materiāli. L. Tīkmaņa fonds. Mukāns, A., Hiršs, J. No būdas līdz pilij. Zvaigzne, 1988, Nr. 19, 21. lpp. Страутмрнис, И., Бука, О., Крастиньш, Я., Acapис, Г. Архитектура Советской Латвии. Москва: Стройиздат, 1987, 208. cтp. Lejnieks, J. Starpbrīdis turpinās. Postmodernisms Latvijā. 2 [tiešsaiste]. Būvniecības portāls abc.lv [skatīts 27.07.2012]. http://www.abc. lv/?article=postmodernisms_2 Kūle, M., Kūlis, R. Filosofija. Rīga: Zvaigzne ABC, 656 lpp.

Contact Data

Agate Eniņa Mgr.arch., architect SIA „RR.ES” Address: Tērbatas iela 32–5, Riga, LV-1011, Latvia Phone: +371 28380477; E-mail: agate.enina@inbox.lv www.rres.lv Jānis Krastiņš Professor, Dr.habil.arch. Riga Technical University, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning Address: Āzenes iela 16, Riga, LV-1048, Latvia Phone: +371 67089256, +371 67089115 Fax: +371 67089130 E-mail: janis.krastins_1@rtu.lv

This work has been supported by the European Social Fund within the project «Support for the implementation of doctoral studies at Riga Technical University».

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Conservation and Development Guidelines of the Historic Green Structure of Duke Jacob’s Canal Aija Ziemeļniece, Latvia University of Agriculture

the green network of the urban space has also changed. One of the “blue-green” structure elements was Duke Jacob’s Canal, which was built in 1605. Its bed connected the Svēte River with the Driksa River and provided the town with a safe drinking water [7]. In the summer, it was a favourite esplanade for the townsfolk. The canal was filled up in the 30s of the 20th century. One of the most important landscape spaces of the town was Jacob’s Canal, which started at the Ģintermuiža Park in the western part and its length to the town rampart was around 1500 m. At this section, there were meadows and pastures, but at the town rampart on its banks there were dense residential wooden buildings with gardens. The mouth of the canal was outlined by the picturesque flood-land meadows of the Svēte River, which were especially impressive in the spring when the yellow willows, marsh marigolds and bird-cherries were in bloom. The historic and cultural landscape has survived to this day as in the spring flood waters of the river fill the entire flood-land, which prevents appearance of new buildings.

Abstract. The western and northern parts of the historic center of Jelgava forms a landscape in which there is preserved evidence of cultural and historical objects representing different centuries. The identification, restoration and preservation make it possible for the town to recover identity of its landscape space. The research includes analysis of the former Duke Jacob’s canal with the prewar and current structure of the buildings and the green planting zones, partially restoring the historical bed of the watercourse. The rows of trees along the canal, the green slopes of the banks and the pedestrian bridges until the 30s of the 20th century brought in the town’s dense building an aesthetically high-quality green space for recreation. Keywords: cultural-historic landscape, nature base, sightlines, urban landscape space.

The urban structure has been created over several centuries and shaped by different societies. It is built not only to meet the practical needs but also the social and aesthetic requirements [1]. The aesthetic quality of the environment is evaluated based on two key elements: • the formal properties, which focus on the physical characteristics and how they contribute to the aesthetic response (scale, shape, contrast, etc.); • symbolic or associative properties view factors that through the experience create connotations (identity, laconism, etc.) [1]. The urban constructional space is formed by the western and northern parts of the historic centre of Jelgava town with the survived testimony of both the human plans to transform nature and objects in the historical and cultural context describing different centuries. Maintenance of the urban identity, primarily, is associated with identification, restoration and conservation of objects in the cultural and landscape context, as well as a thorough care and protection of the landscape space characteristic of this site. Preservation and development of the cultural and historical heritage of Jelgava town is included in the spatial planning documents of the town, where one of the key aspects is to recover the urban green veins, which were vividly expressed in the prewar years. The purpose of the article is related to evaluation of the proposal of the green plantation renewal and a more detailed study of the urban housing in the western and the northern parts. The town’s historic centre as a monument of the urban construction protection contains areas of a number of old housing blocks, where only a few buildings survived as the town burned down during the war. Losing huge building areas, each of the old buildings that has escaped from falling to pieces, today is of a particular importance. The same is true for the green zones as in the post-war years with a change in the structure of the buildings

Fig. 1. The historical building along Duke Jacob’s Canal (the 30s of the 20th century).

Fig. 2. Greenery of the canal embankment with a walking area and road (the 30s of the 20th century).

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Aija Ziemeļniece. Conservation and Development Guidelines of the Historic Green Structure of Duke Jacob’s Canal

Fig. 3.The restored residential house at Dambja iela 17.

Fig. 5. The old canal starting at the park of Ģintermuiža (2012, author’s photo).

zone does not split the watercourse from the park’s landscapes. In the 60s–70s of the 20th century, constructing Dambja iela, the old trees were cut on the banks of the canal. If they were planed again, it would continue the historic pedestrian promenade up to the flood-land of the Svēte River. By recovering the manor landscape space with the canal, the western area of the urban environment would be supplemented by a new green wedge-type area. In the northern part, the area of Ģintermuiža is separated by the town’s ring road, which in the 500 m section connects the residential high-rise area of the housing estate with the mansion area and the shopping centre (the northern-southern axis). In turn, the bed of the former canal (on the western-eastern axis) with the present tree lane would form the so-called green backbone, which connects to the side streets with lines of trees, gardens, etc. It is possible to develop the continuation of the manor park area on the opposite side of the ring road, which is now a vast meadow, and designing it as Mežaparks, thus, extending the green wedge towards the centre of the town, which more convincingly would emphasise expressiveness of the cultural and historical landscape. Currently, the ring road cuts the historical green space and stops its seamless arrival into the urban environment. It is possible to build the ring road as a green ring, designing the roadlines of tree plantations and separate groups. It is based on the aspect that the ring road is placed very close to the town centre. In the perspective, the road transport load or intensity will increase several times as the arch branches with roads of an international significance leading to Lithuania, Riga, Liepaja. It is, therefore, necessary to reflect on the green planting line and the area, where one of the town’s elements of the landscape space is the historic canal area. In the direction of the town centre from the ring road to the town’s rampart (800 m), the former canal bed (currently Dambja iela) is surrounded by the post-war mansion buildings with gardens and tree plantation lines. One of the historical houses of the canal embankment at Dambja iela 17 is restored (the 90s of the 19th century), which vividly highlights the nature of buildings of the time gone by – as a filled framework building with wooden bearing walls and clay brick fill but the roof with clay tile covering.

Fig. 4. The filled up canal place with a dense line of trees in Dambja iela (2012, author’s photo).

Next to the flood-land there is the park of Old Ģintermuiža with buildings. The park’s area is occupied by a landscape area, which is 400 m long, the north-western part of which along the canal banks today is gone. In the 80s of the 20th century, at this location about 200 m in length there was forming a new individual building area connecting the low-density housing estate of the 90s of the 19th century. Thus, a continuous one-piece landscape has been obtained that continues or extends the historical area. In the park of Ģintermuiža, there are separate groups of old trees that are adjacent to the right bank of the former canal to form against the longitudinal axis of the canal perpendicular green view spaces. They feature the separately placed historical 2-storey wooden buildings (the 10s, 20s of the 20th century). The manor area is enclosed by a stone fence, which is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the canal and rests 80 m from it. Clearing the view lines from the former canal location (shrub trimming, removal of tree seedlings, etc.), it is possible to recover a high-quality historical space, the expressiveness of which would also compliment restoration of the adjacent wooden buildings. In the view points from the canal location, the stone fence and the building of the old manor would be viewed. When restoring the canal bed in the area of the manor park, the carriageway of Dambja iela (street) should be built on the left bank of the canal so that the transport

Architecture and Urban Planning Aija Ziemeļniece. Conservation and Development Guidelines of the Historic Green Structure of Duke Jacob’s Canal

Fig. 6. The former canal place near the garden in Kr. Barona iela (2012, author’s photo).

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Fig. 7. The bed of the former canal with tree lines near the former Kramer’s factory (2012, author’s photo).

The old buildings and their scale along the canal can be seen in the small side-streets leading to the waterfront (Kungu iela 10, Kungu iela 12, etc.), where there were wooden strut framework buildings with gabled ridged roofs. The old historic downtown buildings were constructed in a low density configuration with beautiful apple-tree orchards around, which together with the canal plantations, formed a unified green landscape space. It was particularly scenic in the spring when the fruit trees and birdcherries were in bloom. The buildings’ height changed in the 30s of the 20th century with the construction of four 3-storey buildings by the canal for the needs of the Latvian army infantry regiment (300 m before the rampart place). In turn, in the 70s of the 20th century near here 5-storey and 3-storey buildings were constructed. The height disproportion of the existing buildings is successfully masked by a solid linden line. On the opposite side of the canal, wooden buildings of the beginning of the 20th century are preserved. In this place, the running of the canal reached the former place of the canal and formed an extension or the so-called pond, where traders from boats unloaded goods needed for the townsfolk. The pond size was sufficient for boats to dock and turn around. In this place, historically, the urban space created a number of small street splits: J. Asara – M. Dambja – Vecpilsētas – Dobeles – Lielā – Kr. Barona iela, along which there were warehouses and small traders’ shops. It forms the so-called western gate of the town. After World War I, the canal was gradually filled up in stages, starting from the Svēte River side as in hot summer it dried out, its bed forming water drift decomposition. Currently, instead of the pond there are crossroads of streets and a square, which marks another important green landscape space alongside the high-rise residential buildings. The square’s place is a point, at which the longitudinal axis of Lielā iela forms a rotation angle and there the distant lines can be viewed, where the street tree planting lines dominate, creating a green transport corridor of both the eastern and the western direction. Thanks to the street planting density (in the eastern part), there are architecturally expressionless forms of the post-war years (the 50s of the 20th century). Next to the square – the longitudinal axis of Lielā iela and the traffic flow are divided by the green planting area, which even more clearly marks the former pond and the town’s rampart place. As a vertical accent

Fig. 8. The greenery of the former canal embankment in the view lines to St. Ann’ Church (2012, author’s photo).

in this view point there is the spire of St. Ann’s Church next to it. The western part of the church garden or the left embankment of the former canal connects the downtown streets with the historic wooden buildings (the 90s of the 19th century) – wooden framework buildings, where each building’s plot of the backyard ends up with woodsheds. The street is not characterized by tree plantations but by wrought granite cobblestones. The second parallel street that connects to the left promenade side of the former canal is Jāņa Asara iela with wooden buildings and with a line of tree plantations of the post-war years. The buildings mark the line of the old rampart. Here a 400-yearold willow is also preserved with a thick canopy of leaves the branches of which suffer from the wind gusts every year. The height of the tree crown along J. Asara iela is now too wide, it hides the historical wooden buildings when entering the town from Dobele. In turn, the small lawn area (60 m wide) next to it should be used as a foreground marking the historical urban space. It is recommended that the separating tree plantations are placed in the area of the gasoline filling station, thus masking in the main view points the overwhelming vehicle area. The landscape space of the former canal is also complemented by the narrow M. Dambja iela, which overlooks the romantic view of the spire of St. Anna’s Church.

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Aija Ziemeļniece. Conservation and Development Guidelines of the Historic Green Structure of Duke Jacob’s Canal

From the former place of the town rampart, in the direction of the historic centre – the canal becomes a walking place or a promenade typical for the town recreation (the present Kr. Barona iela). Although, the town’s rampart was considered the town’s suburban area, however, there lived well-off people, who built there luxurious wooden architecture houses. Some of them have survived in Vecpilsētas iela No. 8, 10, 12 as witnesses of the late baroque period buildings. At the former rampart of the town, there was the garden of St. Ann’s Church, the greenery of which visually merged with greenery of the canal embankment. In this section, the watercourse was not filled during World War I. Besides, the photos show that the embankment of the canal was a popular walking area from the Latvian St. Ann’s Church to the German Trinity Church. The promenade of the canal embankment was decorated with linden tree plantations, small wooden bridges and the green slope of the embankment together with the buildings created a romantic urban space. Currently, the church garden and the linden plantations of the former canal remain. The canal created a distinctive urban “green-blue backbone”. Currently, the old riverbed site connects to the perpendicular street tree plantation lines (Jaunatnes iela, Pasta iela, Mātera iela) and the high-rise residential backyard tree plantation groups. Looking at the historic canal bed in its full length and including it in the urban area development concept, the canal landscape space has to be broken down into a number of green areas: • the mouth area of the former canal near the flood-land meadows of the Svēte River; • the cultural landscape space (Ģintermuiža parkland); • the section of the former watercourse near the present town’s ring road – the meadow landscape with long landscape lines to the historical Ģintermuiža Park; • the landscape space of the south-western part of the canal consisting of the side-street connections with gardens (Kungu iela, Egas iela, Skolotāju iela, J. Asara iela); • the tree lane of the canal promenade (Kr. Barona iela) and the garden context of St. Ann’s Church in the structure of the rural buildings; • the greenery area of the canal embankment along the industrial heritage and the green area of the backyards of the high-rise residential blocks of houses (from Jaunatnes iela to Pasta iela); • the greenery areas of the square of the House of Culture and the central square (from Pasta iela up to Uzvaras iela). Inclusion of the above-mentioned green landscape space in the rural environment is also important if in the coming decade the canal bed is not renewed. Prof. Ivars Strautmanis has defined the fundamental architectural and environmental coexistence options: • integration – a particular landscape is not destroyed but rather transformed so that interaction with the new spatial structures achieves a higher degree of the harmonic unity; • subordination – when the given landscape components are formally subject to the new buildings’ structural peculiarities; • integration – integrating all the major factors of the rural buildings [2].

The expressiveness of the canal is also emphasized by the Old Market Square with perimeter buildings. The canal ended with a pool in the square, which visually supplemented the compositional expressiveness of the urban space. The tree plantations in the square were located only at the Town Hall, so laying emphasis on the town’s main line of the buildings in the square. The transformation process of the urban environment is affected by the disappearance of the historical area of buildings during the war years, and in its place in the 60s of the 20th century about 60 trees were planted. They have already reached the scale of the branches, and therefore a disproportion is created with the adjacent buildings. In particular, this applies to the groups of birch-trees. The historic square has also changed the vertical mark of the height obtained by levelling the building ruins in 1945. The green square in the town centre still retains a temporary nature. Reconstruction of the centre was not possible up to the 90s of the 20th century. In turn, now there are organized idea contests of the young architects, searching for a synthesis between the historical building space scale including the existing square greenery. Some of the architects’ ideas include the restoration idea of the historic canal and basin in the square. The reconstruction projects also consider the existing tree plantation groups between the historic square and the canal intake in the Driksa River. At present, there are garages, the removal of which would give an opportunity to develop the green recreational space, which would connect to the Driksa Promenade. The tree plantation lines of Duke Jacob’s Canal and river embankment as a kind of the “green-blue fingers” brought veins to the town which, together with the buildings, created a picturesque street landscape silhouette view lines from the bridge and the garden of the palace [3]. At present, the reconstruction project of the Driksa Promenade is carried out by replacing the old trees with a new greenery and by strengthening the left bank slope and creating a number of recreation areas. In turn, for the renewal of the bed of Duke Jacob’s Canal and the tree plantations, a number of sketch designs have been developed, which are included in the further development of the urban space. Breaking down the town rampart at the beginning of the 19th century, on the left side of Duke Jacob’s Canal, a new functional zone – the industrial area – was created (the Kramer’s metal factory and leather processing unit) [4]. Geographically, this place was located in the western part of the town, from which the trade route lead to the ice-free port of Liepaja. The construction volume was sufficiently distanced from St. Ann’s Church and they did not compete spatially with the church. In contrast, in the post-war years (the 70s of the 20th century), in developing the production, the factory got a huge building height, which disrupted scale and proportion of the historical space. The tree plantations along St. Ann’s Church (Kr. Barona iela) were unable to mask massiveness of the 150-m-long building volume. In turn, the old church garden trees in the southern side of the church with the huge canopy of leaves screened the facades of the church at the side of Lielā iela. The planted trees around 1970 in Jaunatnes iela have reached a great height at present, in its pedestrian zone the view lines on the factory building volume hide behind the green foliage.

Architecture and Urban Planning Aija Ziemeļniece. Conservation and Development Guidelines of the Historic Green Structure of Duke Jacob’s Canal

The other craft centre of the industrial heritage (approx. 100 m from Jacob’s Canal) – built in the 90s of the 19th – has saved the compositional expressiveness of the 2-storey brick architecture and as a cultural heritage fits well into the urban environment. The area, historically, did not have tree plantations as it stood just outside the city walls in the pasture meadows. Currently, there are less dense buildings without specific lines of street tree plantings. With the development of production areas along the canal bed, small workers’ residential developments also arose. Mostly, they were 1-2-storey wooden buildings along Ausekļa, Kazarmes, M. Dambja, J. Asara, Kārļa and Lapskalna streets [5]. The streets were narrow as only two horse carts could exchange. None of the streets had tree plantations. In turn, in the backyards of the houses, there were household buildings with a small garden. Factory workers’ houses concentrated in the northern part of the town, which relatively, according to the height marks, was a lower and wetter place, and flood waters stayed there the longest time [6]. In the post-war years, with the changes in the street network of the central part of the town and creation for it new tree plantations in the 50s, 60s of the 20th century, the main town landscape designer Jānis Liepiņš successfully masked the impersonal standard building architecture in Lielā iela, Rīgas iela, Pasta iela, etc. Comparing the town’s main transport motorways – Dobeles iela and Lithuanian Highway – with Dambja iela (the former bed place of the canal), it can be concluded that the historical canal greenery street is the most expressive and picturesque. City Council of Jelgava, organizing workshops and competitions, has managed to come to a number of conclusions about Duke Jacob’s Canal reconstruction proposals, offering to expose the canal bed fragmentary in separate stages: • in three or four locations along the bed of Dambja iela, creating walking zones and pedestrian bridges; • near the garden of St. Ann’s Church opposite Vecpilsētas iela, so enriching the town’s part not only with street cafes, lounge terraces, street trading area and the restored wooden buildings but also bringing the canal charm with the embankment slopes, aquatic plants and small architectural forms; • in the zone of the former market square, where the town’s cultural events are held and wider gatherings for celebrations of the town; • the intake of the canal into the Driksa River, using the water-level difference and creating a waterfall that in the Driksa Promenade area could enrich the urban space.

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changes when arriving from one part to another. Each element has information about its local context and the whole. The urban environment becomes a noticeable and recognizable place if it is designed clearly and understandably for the users so that they can give it their own meaning and connection to the surrounding. In order to create integrity of an inhabited area, the aesthetical quality of spatial form is dependent on the scale of this shape. It also applies to the successful networks of the green structure in the urban environment (street plantings, squares, parks, mansion gardens, wedge-shaped forest park areas, etc.). References 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Liepa-Zemeša, M. Pilsētas vizuālās viengabalainības veidošanas nosacījumi. Arhitektūra un Pilsētplānošana (RTU Zinātniskie raksti : 10. sērija). Rīga: RTU, 2010, 4. sējums, 137.–140. lpp. Strautmanis, I. Dialogs ar telpu. Rīga: Liesma, 1977. 136 lpp. Grosmane, E. Jelgava; arhitektūras un mākslas virtuālā rekonstrukcija [CD]. Latvijas Mākslas akadēmijas Mākslas vēstures institūts, 2008. Tomašūns, A. Jelgavas novada vēstures ainas. Jelgava: Izglītība, 1993. 122 lpp. Jansons, G. Kurzemes pilsētu senās koka ēkas. Rīga: Zinātne, 1982. 162. lpp. Schlau, K. O. Mitau im 19. Jahrhundert : Leben und Wirken des Bürgermeisters Franz von Zuccalmaglio (1800–1873). Wedemark-Elze: Hirschheydt, 1995. S. 101–109. Grosmane, E. Jelgavas pilsētbūvnieciskā struktūra: pacēlumi un kritumi. Senā Jelgava (sastādītāja Elita Grosmane). Rīga: Neputns, 2010. 33.–38. lpp.

Aija Ziemeļniece (born in 1955). Bachelor degree in architecture (1979). Master degree in science in pedagogy (1996). PhD degree in architectural science (1999), “Transformation Processes of Zemgale Rural Culture Landscape”. ARCHITECT, project office “Komunālprojekts” (since 1980, 3 Zemgales Avenue, Jelgava). ASSOCIATED PROFESSOR at the study programme “Landscape Architecture” of Latvia University of Agriculture (LLU, since 2000). Publications: Lecture conspectus of the course “Landscape Development Problems” (LLU, 1998). “The Visually Esthetical Quality of Landscape in Zemgale Plain” (RTU, 2009). “Transformation Processes in the Landscape of Cultural Heritage” (Saint-Petersburg, 2010). Participation in architectural project competitions of state significance and winning the rights to elaborate technical projects: New building of Special Boarding School in Pelči (2001); Reconstruction of Dobele City High School (1997) and renovation of the primary school (2001); Sports hall in Grobiņa (2005); Reconstruction of the hospital “Gintermuiža” in Jelgava; Jelgava School No. 4; Reconstruction proposals of Čakstes Boulevard in Jelgava; Design proposals of St. Trinity church in Jelgava; Building of kindergarten in Jelgava. Member of Latvian Society of Architects and Latvian Society of Landscape Architects.

Conclusions

Any inhabited locality has its own physical structure and symbolic identity. Most often the urban space forms the town’s uniqueness; therefore, great importance is given to the creation of aesthetical quality of the urban environment. The town is a seamless and complex form, which, at the same time, is changing and chaotic. A ready system, structured in levels, is not characteristic of it. All the elements are arranged in a complex structure, which may be understood as individual local systems that are interrelated to some extent. Each part of the town has its own formal and symbolic properties and their perception

Contact Data

Aija Ziemeļniece Latvia University of Agriculture Address: Akadēmijas iela 19, Jelgava, LV-3001, Latvia Phone: +371 29156945 E-mail: aija@k-projekts.lv

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Architecture and Urban Planning

Āgenskalna priedes

2012 / 6

Jānis Krastiņš, Rīgas Tehniskā universitāte Atslēgas vārdi: pilsētplānošana.

dzīvojamie

rajoni,

modernā

Tipveida projekti nebija lietojami, ceļot vēsturiskā vidē starp jau esošām ēkām, tāpēc būvniecība galvenokārt tika izvērsta brīvās, neapbūvētās teritorijās. Tādu Rīgas nomalēs netrūka, taču izvēle vietai, kurā īstenot pirmo plašāko mājokļu būves kompleksu, krita uz Āgenskalna priedēm – ar retu priežu mežu apaugušu, paugurainu teritoriju Pārdaugavā, starp Kristapa, Dreiliņu, Āgenskalna un Alises ielu. Šo vietu šķērsoja Melnsila iela, kas meta loku ap tā saukto Lielo kalnu – vairāk nekā 15 metrus augstu kāpu, kas pacēlās teritorijas centrālajā daļā. Melnsila ielas pretējā pusē bija zemāka kāpa – „Mazais kalns”. Ieplakā aiz tā bija dabisks dīķītis. Āgenskalna priedes jau kopš 19. gadsimta nogales bija rīdzinieku iecienīta atpūtas vieta, it īpaši – sniegotās ziemās, kad pa „Lielā kalna” nogāzēm cilvēki vizinājās ar kamaniņām un slēpēm. Tur pat bija iekārtota kamaniņu trase, kuru 20. gadsimta sākumā apsaimniekoja „Āgenskalna strēlnieku biedrība” (Der Hagensberger Schützergesellschaft) [3]. Tā no apmeklētājiem iekasēja arī samaksu par ziemas prieku baudīšanu. Starpkaru periodā visa Āgenskalna priežu teritorija bija brīvi pieejama publiska vieta un tāda tā saglabājās arī pēc Otrā pasaules kara. To labi atceras arī šo rindu autors, agrā bērnībā nereti dodoties turp, lai pavadītu pāris stundu uz slēpēm, bet vēlāk ik dienu cauri Āgenskalna priedēm mērojot ceļu uz toreizējo Rīgas 5. vidusskolu (tagad Rīgas Valsts vācu ģimnāziju), kuru viņš absolvēja 1961. gadā. Tāpēc arī nācās savām acīm tuvplānā redzēt un izjust visas pārvērtības, kas šo vietu skāra piecdesmito un sešdesmito gadu mijā. Tagadējā Rīgas Valsts vācu ģimnāzijas ēka, kas atrodas Āgenskalna ielā 21a, bija uzcelta pēc arhitekta Indriķa Blankenburga projekta 1931. gadā kā Rīgas Valsts II ģimnāzija. Šī sarkano ķieģeļu ēka ir lielisks modernās kustības reģionālas interpretācijas piemērs (1. attēls). Āgenskalna priežu pretējā, dienvidaustrumu pusē paceļas cita iespaidīga celtne – Āgenskalna ūdenstornis, kas celts 1910. gadā (arhitekts Vilhelms Bokslafs) un paaugstināts par 7.5 m 1939. gadā (inženieris Pāvils Pāvulāns; 2. attēls). 20. gadsimta piecdesmito gadu nogalē tika nolemts Āgenskalna priedes attīstīt kā sporta un rekreācijas zonu. Teritorijas ziemeļaustrumu daļā, „Lielā kalna” piekājē, kur bija mazāk koku, 1958. gada pavasarī sāka veidot stadionu ar pilna izmēra futbola laukumu un 400 m skrejceļu ap to. Netālu izraka būvbedri sporta halles celtniecībai. Stadiona skrejceļa izdedžu seguma ieklāšana gan palika nepabeigta, un skola fizkultūras stundu laikā to izmantoja vieglatlētikas krosa skrējieniem. Sporta būves drīz tika pamestas, toties ar plašu vērienu tika izvērsta dzīvojamo ēku celtniecība. Sāka ar „Lielā kalna” norakšanu. Agrāk, ejot no Kalnciema ielas Āgenskalna ielas virzienā uz skolu, skatu perspektīvi gleznaini noslēdza šī augstā kāpa (2. un 3. attēls). Tai tieši pa vidu tika izrakta tranšeja un tajā izveidota jauna, taisna Melnsila ielas trase. Veco ielas virzienu Melnsila un Āgenskalna ielas stūrī vēl tagad iezīmē trīs bērzu līnija (5. attēls).

kustība,

Āgenskalna priedes ir pirmais lielmēroga dzīvojamais rajons Rīgā. Tas celts divās kārtās no 1958. līdz 1962. gadam. Tas bija laiks, kad iezīmējās radikālas izmaiņas arhitektūras stilistikā, masveida būvniecības tehnoloģijā un pilsētplānošanā: komunistiskajā padomju areālā valdošais „sociālistiskais reālisms” tika nomainīts ar racionāli vienkāršu, zināmā mērā ar moderno kustību salīdzināmu celtņu radīšanu, būvniecībā tradicionālo metožu vietā tika ieviesta iepriekš izgatavotu lielizmēra būvelementu montāža un pilsētvidē tika izvērsta plašāku teritoriju kompleksa apbūvēšana ar tipveida ēkām. Tādējādi šis rajons ievadīja veselu jaunu laikmetu arhitektūrā un pilsētbūvniecībā. Pēc Otrā pasaules kara visā pasaulē bija jaušamas klasisko formu valodā sakņotā pirmskara neoeklektisma pakāpeniski izgaistošas atskaņas. Padomju Savienībā un visās tās okupētajās zemēs šī retrospektīvā ievirze tika uzturēta ar stingriem ideoloģiskiem diktātiem. Saskaņā ar oficiālajiem saukļiem mākslai, tostarp arhitektūrai, vajadzēja būt „sociālistiskai pēc satura un nacionālai pēc formas”. Šis, tā sauktais sociālistiskā reālisma stils „radošajā metodē vadījās pēc partejiskuma, idejiskuma un tautiskuma principiem un turpināja pagātnes reālistiskās mākslas tradīcijas” [1]. Mākslai piedēvējamā sūtība bija iedvesmot darbaļaužu masas uz jaunām darba uzvarām. Ēku arhitektoniskajā apdarē interpretēja klasiskos izteiksmes līdzekļus, šur tur, piemēram, kolonnu kapiteļos iepinot kādu komunisma ideoloģisko simbolu – piecstaru zvaigzni vai sirpi un āmuru. „Sociālistisko reālismu” arhitektūrā, ko dažkārt dēvē arī par Staļina baroku, tomēr pasludināja par „pārmērībām”, kuras jālikvidē, sadomāto un dārgo dekoratīvo rotājumu vietā liekot celtņu formas, kas organiski saistītas ar to funkcionālo nozīmi. Šai sakarā 1955. gadā Padomju valdība pieņēma lēmumu „Par pasākumiem celtniecības tālākai industrializācijai, kvalitātes uzlabošanai un būvizmaksu samazināšanai”. Savukārt speciālā sanāksmē, kurā vajadzēja sapulcēties visiem Padomju Savienības arhitektiem, tika pasludināts, ka turpmāk galvenā uzmanība arhitektūrā būšot jāvelta „svarīgāko sociālo, tehnisko un ideoloģisko uzdevumu risināšanai, balstoties uz masveida celtniecības industriālo metožu vispusīgu attīstīšanu” [2]. Daudzām piecdesmito gadu vidū celtajām ēkām palika nepabeigta arhitektoniskā apdare, piemēram, kolonnas bez kapiteļiem, bet jaunceltnes būvēt pēc tā sauktajiem individuālajiem projektiem drīkstēja tikai īpašos gadījumos, pie kādiem pieskaitāmi arī komunistiskās partijas nomenklatūras darbinieku mājokļi. Parasto dzīvojamo ēku celtniecībā vajadzēja izmantot tipveida projektus. Visizplatītākais bija no Maskavas iesūtītais sērijas „316” ķieģeļu konstrukcijās veidotas piecstāvu sekciju tipa ēkas projekts. Šīs ēkas, kā likums, cēla no baltiem silikātķieģeļiem, ar sarkaniem ķieģeļiem izveidojot logailu sānus vai aizpildot vairākas ailstarpas.

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Jānis Krastiņš. Āgenskalna priedes

1959. gada vasarā jaunās Melnsila ielas abās pusēs vēl pacēlās stāvas smilšu sienas. Kalna paliekas aiz tām pamazām noraka, smiltis aizveda uz silikātķieģeļu rūpnīcu, un „Lielais kalns” palika tikai atmiņās. Nolīdzināja arī „Mazo kalnu”, kas atradās teritorijas dienvidrietumu daļā. Tajā sāka celt Āgenskalna priežu rajona apbūves pirmās kārtas ēkas. Plānojuma projektu bija izstrādājis arhitekts Nikolajs Rendelis 1958. gadā (6. attēls). Lielākā daļa ēku brīvi izvietota gar kvartāla perimetru ielīpi pret ielu asīm. Tolaik šis paņēmiens tika bieži atkārtots, un acīmredzot tam vajadzēja demonstrēt ēku izsauļotības un citas sanitāri higiēniskās priekšrocības salīdzinājumā ar tradicionālo ciešo perimetrālo apbūvi. Āgenskalna priedēs šis paņēmiens deva arī iespēju gandrīz visas ēkas orientēt meridionāli. Šāda orientācija savukārt nodrošina izsauļotību arī tiem dzīvokļiem, kuriem logi ir pavērsti tikai uz vienu pusi. Pirmajā apbūves kārtā, kuru pabeidza 1961. gadā, izmantoja 316. sērijas tipveida projektus. To piesaistīšanu Āgenskalna priedēm veica arhitekti Artūrs Reinfelds, Lidija Plakane, Lidija Ose, Regīna Jaunušāne, Ivars Bumbieris, Imants Jākobsons un Modris Ģelzis. Pie četrām ēkām, kuras sarindotas gar Melnsila ielu, piebloķēti arī veikalu un citu publisko pakalpojumu iestāžu apjomi. Dzīvojamajās ēkās lielākā daļa dzīvokļu ir vienistabas vai divistabu. Savietoto sanitāro mezglu platība tikai nedaudz pārsniedz 2 m2. Lielākas nav arī dzīvokļu priekštelpas, jo bija jāpanāk augsta ekonomiskā efektivitāte. To mērīja ar sadomātu koeficientu k2, kas nozīmēja dzīvojamo istabu kvadratūras attiecību pret dzīvokļa kopējo platību. Vajadzēja censties panākt šo koeficientu iespējami tuvu vienam. Tas arī izskaidro neveiklo virtuves risinājumu šajos dzīvokļos, jo telpa virtuves durvju priekšā tika iekļauta dzīvojamās istabas platībā (7. attēls). Gar Kristapa ielu ir sarindotas gaiteņa tipa četrstāvu ēkas, taču to arhitektonisko tēlu nevar atšķirt no 316. sērijas ēkām. Pirmās apbūves kārtas kvartāla vidusdaļā uzcēla arī garāku, slaidā lokā izvērstu ēku, kas sastāv no četrām sabloķētām divu sekciju 316. sērijas piecstāvu ēkām. Virs divām vidējām izveidoja mākslinieku darbnīcas, kas piešķir zināmā mērā individuālus vaibstus kopumā monotonajai arhitektoniskajai videi (8., 9. un 11. attēls). Vēlāk šo risinājumu atkārtoja arī dažās citās vietās Rīgā. Lielajā pagalmā uz rietumiem no ēkām ar mākslinieku darbnīcām saglabājusies arī viena priede (10. attēls). 2011. gada rudenī, kad Rīgā notika DOCOMOMO Nordic-Baltic reģionālās grupas pārstāvju sanāksme, tās dalībnieki šeit atrada vienu no pēdējiem čiekuriem.. Pārējās priedes šajā pagalmā iznīkušas. To vietā izveidojies stihiski saaugušu lapu koku biezoknis. Vēl dažas priedes saglabājušās kvartāla dienvidu kaktā, iepretim Kristapa un Dreiliņu ielas stūrim. Tur izveidota arī jaunu priedīšu audze (12. attēls). Vide neizceļas ar izkoptu labiekārtojumu. Viens no interesantākajiem bija diezgan plašs dekoratīvais baseins pie jaunuzceltās kafejnīcas Āgenskalna ielā (13. attēls). To izveidoja vietā, kur kādreiz atradās dabisks dīķītis. Tomēr šis veidojums izrādījās bīstams, jo nejauši nokļūstot ūdenī, no stāvām betona sienām iekļautā baseina tikt laukā saviem spēkiem, it īpaši bērniem, bija faktiski neiespējami. Tāpēc baseinu nācās likvidēt. Tā vietā ierīkots rotaļu laukums (14. attēls). Ir arī dažas citas vienkārši aprīkotas bērnu rotaļu vietas.

1961. gada nogalē novāca pēdējās „Lielā kalna” paliekas, kas vēl bija saglabājušās uz ziemeļaustrumiem no Melnsila ielas. Tūlīt pat tur sāka būvēt Āgenskalna priežu otro kārtu. Tās plānojums veidots pēc tāda pat principa kā pirmajai kārtai, vienīgi dažas ēkas gar Melnsila un Āgenskalna ielu novietotas paralēli ielu asīm. Melnsila ielas posma vidū uzcēla brīvstāvošu restorāna un veikalu ēku. Vēlāk tā vairākas reizes pārbūvēta. Otrās kārtas kvartālu apbūvēja ar 464. sērijas rūpnieciski izgatavotām lielpaneļu dzīvojamajām ēkām. Pirms tam dažādās Rīgas vietās bija uzcelti daži šo ēku eksperimentālie paraugi, bet Āgenskalna priedēs industriālās celtniecības metodes masveida mērogā tika lietotas pirmo reizi. Visu ēku montāža tika pabeigta 1962. gadā. 464. sērijas ēkās dzīvokļu palīgtelpas bija nedaudz ērtākas nekā vēlāk par Hruščovkām iesauktajās 316. sērijas ēkās, taču dažu dzīvojamo istabu platums sienu asīs bija tikai 2,8 m (15. attēls). Tajās cilvēks varēja ne vairāk kā izspraukties starp mēbelēm. Arī saliekamo būvelementu izgatavošanas kvalitāte Āgenskalna priežu ēkās bija visai zema. Paneļu savienojuma šuves bija neprecīzas un tika aizpildītas ar primitīviem materiāliem. Fasādes bija jākrāso, bet krāsas uz lielo paneļu betona virsmām ilgi neturējās. Nākamajos Rīgas lielmēroga apbūves rajonos, kurus cēla pēc Āgenskalna priedēm, šīs sērijas ēkām bija uzlabots plānojums, bet ārsienu virsmu apdare tika izveidota jau rūpnīcā. Otrās kārtas apbūves labiekārtojuma līmenis neatšķiras no pirmās kārtas. Iekšējā pagalmā ir dažas bērnu rotaļām domātas detaļiekārtas. Iekškvartāla ceļi ir tik šauri, ka vieglie automobiļi tajos viens otram var tikt garām, vienīgi pārbraucot ceļu apmalēm. Tiesa, tā laika ideoloģiskais diktāts noteica, ka ar privātīpašumu, tostarp personīgo automobili, nebūs iespējams nokļūt apsolītajā komunisma rītdienā. Tomēr pārmērīgi sakāpinātās ekonomiskuma prasības faktiski pārvērtās elementāru dzīvojamās vides kvalitātes rādītāju devalvēšanā. Tagad joslas ap iekšējiem ceļiem un dažviet arī zālāji ir automobiļu izbraukāti. Vides arhitektoniskais ietvars ir vienveidīgs un monotons (16.–19. attēls). Faktiski vienīgais apzaļumojums ir lielākoties stihiski saaugušie lapu koki. Valdošās ideoloģijas kultivētā sajūsma par saulainu un veselīgu dzīvi jaunajos mājokļu rajonos pamazām noplaka. Vēl 1981. gadā publicētajā fotogrāfiju albūmā „Rīga” [7] no apmēram 270 attēliem trīsdesmit piecos (!) redzami jaunie lielmēroga dzīvojamie „masīvi”. Padomju laikā visi izdevumi tika stingri cenzēti, un arī šāda izdevumu saturam, protams, vajadzēja atspoguļot rītdienu, kurā visi dzīvos jaunās un labiekārtotās mājās. Taču sabiedriskā doma un estētiskie ideāli attīstās neatkarīgi no politiskā diktāta, un līdzīgā izdevumā [8], kas publicēts līdz ar padomju varas sabrukumu, atrodami vien divi attēli, kuros nojaušama lielmēroga dzīvojamo rajonu vide. Šodien Āgenskalna priedes ir esoša pilsētvides realitāte. Ja norobežojas no nostaļģijas pret kādreiz tur bijušo unikālo un cilvēku tik iecienīto dabas elementu esamību samērā blīvas apbūves ielenkumā, šī konkrētā realitāte jāvērtē salīdzinājumā ar nākamajiem, daudz lielāka mēroga apbūves kompleksiem. Šādā skatījumā Āgenskalna priedes ir viens no labākajiem vides infrastruktūras īstenojuma piemēriem, jo lielākā daļa padomju laika lielmēroga mājokļu rajoni hroniski sirgst ar publiskās

Architecture and Urban Planning Jānis Krastiņš. Āgenskalna priedes

apkalpes iestāžu neesamību. Mūsdienās Melnsila ielas posms starp Kristapa un Āgenskalna ielu ir samērā dzīva publiska ārtelpa ar ērtu sabiedrisko transportu, veikaliem un citām pietiekami labi funkcionējošām publiskām telpām. Jebkurā gadījumā Āgenskalna priedes ir sava veida kultūrvēstures piemineklis. Attēli

1. att. Rīgas Valsts II ģimnāzija. 1931. I. Blankenburgs. 2. att. Āgenskalna ūdenstornis. 1910. V. Bokslafs. Paaugstināts 1939. P. Pāvulāns. 3. att. Āgenskalna priedes. 20. gs. trīsdesmito gadu aerofoto. Centrā – „Lielais kalns” ar kamaniņu trasi. 4. att. Āgenskalna priedes Rīgas 1939. gada plānā. [4] 5. att. Melnsila iela pie Āgenskalna ielas stūra. Pa labi – bērzu rinda, kas iezīmē veco ielas virzienu. 6. att. Āgenskalna priedes. Plānojuma shēma. 1958. N. Rendelis. 7. att. 316. sērijas dzīvojamās ēkas sekciju plānojums un divistabu dzīvoklis. 8. att. Āgenskalna priedes. 316. sērijas ēkas ar mākslinieku darbnīcām. Skats no dienvidrietumiem. 1961. gadā. [5] 9. un 10. att. Āgenskalna priedes. 316. sērijas ēkas ar mākslinieku darbnīcām. 2012. gada foto. 11. att. Āgenskalna priedes. 316. sērijas ēkas ar mākslinieku darbnīcām. Skats no austrumiem. 2012. gada foto. 12. att. Āgenskalna priedes. Gaiteņa tipa ēkas un priežu grupa pie Kristapa ielas. 13. att. Baseins pie kafejnīcas Āgenskalna ielā. 1964. gada foto. [6] 14. att. Spēļu laukums bijušā baseina vietā 2012. gadā. 15. att. Trīsistabu dzīvoklis 464-A. sērijas dzīvojamajā ēkā. 16. un 17. att. Āgenskalna priedes. Apbūves otrā kārta. 464. sērijas dzīvojamās ēkas Alīses ielā. 18. un 19. att. Āgenskalna priedes. Apbūves otrā kārta. 464. sērijas dzīvojamās ēkas Kristapa ielā un lokā ap iekšējo pagalmu.

Izmantotie avoti 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

2012 / 6

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Kultūras nams padomju Latvijas kolhoza centrā Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš, Rīgas Tehniskā universitāte

Atslēgas vārdi: arhitektūra, kultūras mantojums, padomju mantojums, vēsture.

metode. Veikta kultūras un izglītības iestāžu ēku apzināšana un apsekošana, fotofiksēšana un vizuāli salīdzinošā analīze.

Kultūras nami jau vairāk nekā simt piecdesmit gadu ieņēmuši nozīmīgu vietu Latvijas pilsētu apbūvē un lauku kultūrainavā. Tie ir ne tikai kultūrvēsturiskā mantojuma nozīmīga daļa, bet arī latviešu tautas un latvisko tradīciju, kā arī gara un vērtību eksistences atslēga. Latvijas kultūras mantojuma šīs daļas neviennozīmīgā izpratne motivējusi kultūras namu padziļinātu izpēti. Padomju režīms izmainīja cilvēku dzīves veidu gan pilsētās, gan laukos. Tas pārvērta tradicionālo lauku kultūrainavu, mēģinot likvidēt gadsimtu gaitā veidojušos viensētu apbūves principu un radīt kolhozu ciematus. Uzspiestās pārmaiņas tomēr nespēja mainīt tautas apziņā iesakņoto vēlmi turpināt un veidot senču iedibinātās tradīcijas. Padomju Latvijas jaunizveidoto kolhozu centrus veidoja vairākas kultūras būves – skolas, kultūras nami, brīvdabas estrādes u.c. Pētījuma mērķis ir apzināt un izvērtēt lauku kultūras namu estētisko kvalitāti un noteikt to vietu Latvijas arhitektūras mantojumā. Mērķa sasniegšanai izvirzīti divi uzdevumi: 1. apkopot un analizēt kultūras namu tipus un noskaidrot to stilistiski estētisko principu evolūciju; 2. salīdzināt un izvērtēt kultūras namu vispārējo attīstību un noteikt iespējamos ietekmes avotus un analoģijas. Lauku kultūrvides attīstībā un kultūras namu celtniecībā analizēti divi krasi atšķirīgi periodi. Pirmais bija no 1955. līdz 1975. gadam, kad tika lietoti tipveida projekti. Otrais periods – no 1975. līdz 1990. gadam – iezīmēja sabiedriskās domas maiņu un atgriešanos pie tautiskuma meklējumiem. Mūsdienās Latvijas kultūras namu sakarā izdalāmas vairākas aktuālas problēmas: 1. Strauji samazinoties iedzīvotāju skaitam, kā arī veicot administratīvās reformas, Latvijas teritorijā likvidēti administratīvie centri, kuros darbojās kultūras nami. Ievērojami samazināts finansējums to uzturēšanai; 2. Nevienmērīgā attīstība un atšķirīgie finansējuma mehānismi rada kultūras mantojuma noplicināšanas un iznīcināšanas draudus. Notiek mājokļu būvniecība, neveicot kultūras iestāžu izvietojuma analīzi. Nav definētas pamatnostādnes, kā esošās kultūras iestādes iekļausies jaunizveidoto administratīvo rajonu tīklā; 3. Līdzekļu trūkuma, sabiedrības neinformētības un ēku nekvalitatīvas atjaunošanas un remontdarbu rezultātā aiziet zudībā augstvērtīgi ēku plānojuma, fasāžu apdares un interjeru paraugi. Tas kopumā noplicina kultūras mantojumu. Pētījuma metodoloģiskie principi balstīti uz kultūras namu arhitektūras analīzi, kā arī uz kultūras un izglītības iestāžu ēku arhitektūras vēstures atributējumu apkopošanu, sistematizāciju un klasifikāciju. Apzināta virkne nepublicētu avotu un arhīvu materiālu un izmantota monogrāfiskā un vēsturiskās pieejas

I. Lauku kultūras nami laika posmā no 1955. līdz 1975. gadam

Tūlīt pēc Latvijas okupācijas un piespiedu pievienošanas Padomju Savienībai 1940. gadā tika sākta zemes reforma. Tās rezultātā Latvijas laukos likvidēja zemnieku saimniecības, kuru privātīpašumā bija vairāk nekā 30 ha zemes. Sākotnēji atņemtos zemes īpašumus sadalīja mazajām zemnieku saimniecībām un bezzemniekiem. Desmit gadu laikā visiem Latvijas zemniekiem bija jāiestājas kolhozos (saīsinājumā no krievu valodas vārdiem – колективное хозяйство – kolektīva saimniecība, kopsaimniecība [1). Kolhozu izveide un īpašuma kolektivizācija nozīmēja zemes apsaimniekošanas un tautas izkopto tradīciju maiņu. taču jau piecdesmito gadu vidū, novēršot kara postījumu sekas, cēla pirmos kultūras namus Latvijas mazpilsētās un kolhozu ciematos. Pēc viena tipveida projekta 1954. gadā uzcelts Balvu kultūras nams Brīvības ielā 61 (1. attēls), 1958. gadā Preiļu kultūras nams Raiņa bulvārī 28 (3. attēls) un 1959. gadā Kārsavas kultūras nams Vienības ielā 49C (2. attēls). Tajos ir plašas telpas ar 1700 kvadrātmetru kopējo platību. Ap lielo sarīkojumu zāli, kura paredzēta 450 vietām, izvietotas pārvaldes un palīgtelpas. Šajos namos ir arī mazā zāle ar 70 vietām un telpas pašdarbību kolektīviem. Galvenajā fasādē dominē lielā ordera portiks. Ailojums neatkarīgi no iekštelpu lieluma veidots vienmērīgā ritmā. Izmantotas smagnējas arhitektoniskās apdares detaļas, kā arī masīvas dzegas vai starpdzegas. Šo arhitektūras stilu sauc par „sociālistisko reālismu” [2] vai retrospektīvismu [3]. Piecdesmitajos gados celto kultūras namu formas pārsvarā ir robustas un pašmērķīgas. Šo ēku arhitektūrā faktiski turpināja attīstīties pēdējos pirmskara gados aizsāktā neoeklektisma ievirze, kurā tika iekodēta „vadoņa kulta” ideja. Šī retrospektīvā ievirze atspoguļojas arī Baložu kultūras nama Skolas ielā 4 (celts 1961) un Krustpils kultūras nama Jēkabpilī, Rīgas ielā 210/212 (celts 1954–1959) arhitektūrā. Krustpils kultūras nama galvenā fasāde atgādina grandiozu portālu. To vaiņago smalka dzegas līnija, kas apvij arī sānu spārnus (4. attēls). Monumentālais dekoratīvisms turpināts greznos interjeru rotājumos. Tajos izvērsta orderu elementu brīva improvizācija, kas raksturīga šī laika posma tieksmei pēc ārišķīgas greznības, kurai bija jāpauž režīma pareizība. Iezīmējās pretruna starp pagātnes formu lietojumu ēku noformējumā un laikmetīgumu to telpiskajā uzbūvē, kā arī konstrukcijās un tehniskajā aprīkojumā. Piecdesmito gadu beigās, aizsākoties lielmēroga prefabricētu ēku dzīvojamo rajonu celtniecībai Latvijas pilsētās [2], tika nosprausts ceļš uz tādu pat industrializācijas pakāpi sabiedrisko ēku arhitektūrā. Tika izstrādāti vairāki jauni kultūras namu tipveida projekti. Tos izmantoja gan lielākajās Latvijas pilsētas, gan nelielo kolhozu centros. 1962. gadā atklāja Zvejnieku kolhoza „Banga” kultūras namu Rojā, Zvejnieku ielā 5.

Architecture and Urban Planning Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš. Kultūras nams padomju Latvijas kolhoza centrā

Tā arhitektūra iezīmēja robežšķirtni starp viena tipa projekta atsevišķu un masveidīgu izmantošanu kultūras namu celtniecībā. Viens no pirmajiem tipveida projektiem, kuru Padomju Latvijā izmantoja masveidā, bija kultūras nams 400 vai 600 vietām (arhitekti P. Švābe un E. Leitāne, 1959) [6]. Tādi uzcelti Dagdā, Zilupē, Ventspilī, Ludzā un citur. Tajos brīvi un asimetriski kārtoti zāles un foajē apjomi, galveno ieeju izvietojot blakus zāles gala sienai. Dagdā, Zilupē un Ludzā ēkas novietotas pietiekami plašā teritorijā, veidojot atkāpes no ielu sarkanajām līnijām (5. un 6. attēli). Savukārt Ventspilī mēģināts kultūras namu iespiest blīvā perimetrālās apbūves kvartālā. Kultūras namam ir videi nepiemērots mērogs, un tas atstāj smagnēju iespaidu. Skaidri jūtama atteikšanās no jebkādiem dekoratīviem elementiem gan fasādēs, gan interjeros. Zudusi saikne ar pirmskara periodā mazpilsētās celto asimetrisko un brīvstāvošo tautas namu arhitektūras tradīcijām – gan apjomu kompozīcijas un mēroga izpratnes, gan telpisko kvalitāšu ziņā. Bieži vien nelielos kolhozos kultūras nams 400 skatītāju vietām izrādījās pārāk plašs. Tāpēc tika izstrādāts jauns tipveida projekts kultūras namiem ar kopējo platību ap 1000 kvadrātmetru. Šo ēku divstāvu taisnstūra būvķermenim ir četrslīpju jumts. Fasādēs ritmiski izkārtotas logu ailas. Šie nami vairāk izskatās pēc dzīvojamajām ēkām un neatstāj reprezentablu iespaidu. Pēc šī projekta uzbūvēti nami Alsviķos, Aglonā, Bikstos, Mērsragā u.c. Latvijas laukos un mazpilsētās plaši izmantots tipveida projekts kultūras namam ar kluba zāli 450 vietām un kino zāli 245 vietām (arhitekte A. Tītmane, 1959). Abu zāļu būvapjomus savieno galerija, virs kuras augšējos stāvos izvietotas pašdarbības pulciņu telpas (7. attēls). Tips lietots, piemēram, ceļot Ilūkstes novada, Siguldas, Smiltenes u.c. kultūras centrus. Izmantots arī ēkas plānojuma spoguļattēls, piemēram, ceļot Skrundas kultūras namu. Nelielas variācijas fasāžu apdarē panāktas, mainot apdares paņēmienus, piemēram, Daugavpils Forštadtes kultūras centrā Vidzemes ielā 41 – izšuvotas, neapmestas ķieģeļu ārsienas, bet Gulbenes kultūras centrā fasāžu apdarē izmantots krāsots apmetums. Kultūras namu masveidīga būvniecība, kā arī valdošā ideoloģija izslēdza iespēju ēku arhitektūrā lietot izkoptākus arhitektoniski mākslinieciskās izteiksmes paņēmienus. Laika posmā no 1955. līdz 1975. gadam celto tautas namu vizuālajam tēlam ir jūtama estētiskā nepietiekamība. Saasināta uzmanība būtu jāpievērš tautas namu tiešā tuvumā esošās ārtelpas kvalitātes problēmām. Nepieciešams skaidrot arī monumentāli dekoratīvo mākslu idejisko lomu, dekoratīvās tēlniecības funkciju nozīmi ārtelpas un iekštelpas organizēšanā un ārtelpas detaļiekārtu nepieciešamību. Bieži vien tieši mūsdienu pārbūvju rezultātā tiek pazaudēti tēlotājas mākslas darbi. Piemēram, Dagdas novada tautas namā pēc fasāžu siltināšanas zudis monumentāls tautu meitas cilnis virs galvenās ieejas. Pastiprināti jādomā par Padomju Latvijas laika tautas namu arhitektūras reģenerācijas problēmām.

2012 / 6

Tautas namu arhitektūrā turpināja attīstīties modernās kustības formveides paņēmieni, kas aizgūti no 20. gs. trīsdesmito gadu pieredzes. Kauguru kultūras nama (1989) un Salaspils novada kultūras nama „Enerģētiķis” (1980) arhitektūru raksturo samērā izteiksmīgi, kubiski apjomu kārtojumi, atbilstoša tektonika un uzsvērti ieejas mezglu risinājumi (7. un 9. attēli). Virkne nozīmīgu sava laika lauku sabiedrisko ēku projektu izstrādāta Latvijas PSR Celtniecības ministrijas Valsts Lauku celtniecības projektēšanas institūtā „Laukuprojekts” (lietoja arī šīs iestādes nosaukuma saīsinājumu no krievu valodas – „Latgiproseļstroj”). „Laukuprojektā” strādāja vairāki Latvijā atzīti arhitekti, piemēram, Dzintars Driba, Oļģerts Buka un Ēriks Laimonis Tīkmanis (10. attēls). Jau 1968. gadā, tūlīt pēc Arhitekta kvalifikācijas iegūšanas, arhitekts L. Tīkmanis sāka izstrādāt tipveida kultūras nama projektu. Sākumā projektu bija paredzēts īstenot Valmieras rajona „Ļeņina” kolhozā Kocēnos (11. attēls). Padomju Savienības un Latvijas Republikas birokrātiskā sistēma nedeva iespēju to novest līdz celtniecības stadijai šajā vietā. Tikai teju pēc desmit gadiem arhitekta Aivara Pētersona vadībā un ar nelielām izmaiņām kultūras namu uzcēla Dobeles rajona kolhozā „Zelta druva”. Arhitekts atzīmēja, ka objekta realizācijas problēmas pārdzīvojis ļoti sāpīgi [7]. Kultūras nama arhitektūrā izmantotas modernās kustības tradīcijas. Tipveida projekts piesaistīts, izmantojot vietas reljefa īpatnības. Mijkārtoti kubiski apjomi, veidojot dinamisku kompozīciju. Kolhoza „Zelta druva” kultūras nama uzcelšana bija nozīmīgs pagrieziena punkts arhitekta praktiskajā darbā. Tas atstāja spēcīgu iespaidu uz visu viņa turpmāko radošo veikumu. Viens no spilgtākajiem arhitekta L. Tīkmaņa izstrādātajiem sabiedriskajiem centriem bija Mālpils paraugciemata projekts. Tā realizācija viņa vadībā ilga no 1974. līdz 1985. gadam. Uzcēla Mālpils saimniecības kantora un ciema padomes ēku, kā arī Mālpils kultūras namu 600 vietām (12., 13. un 14. attēli). Ēkas arhitektūrā jūtama internacionālās modernās kustības elpa. Kubiskajiem būvapjomiem ir noapaļotas stūru šķautnes . Milzīgi iestiklojumi mijkārtoti ar apmestām sienu plaknēm. Ēkai ir harmonisks veidols un skaidrs telpiskās kompozīcijas centrs. Šādi funkcionālismam raksturīgie paņēmieni raksturīgi tikai arhitekta daiļrades sākumposmam. Tālāk viņa radošais rokraksts ievirzījās citā stilistiskajā gultnē. 20. gs. septiņdesmitajos gados arhitekts izstrādājis virkni klubu ēku projektu, piemēram, klubam Skujenē, Cēsu novadā (1977–1978), klubam un saimniecības kantorim Bērzgalē, Rēzeknes novadā (1981–1986), klubam un saimniecības kantorim Lauberē, Ogres novadā (1983–1987) un klubam ar skatītāju zāli 500 vietām Rundānos, Ludzas novadā (1982– 1987). Tajos jūtama arhitekta pievēršanās vietējās būvmākslas tradīcijās iedibinātajiem apjomu kompozīcijas paņēmieniem. Klubs un saimniecības kantoris Bērzgalē, Rēzeknes novadā uzskatāms par arhitekta pēdējo modernās kustības garā celto kultūras namu. 20. gs. septiņdesmito un astoņdesmito gadu mijā no rietumiem nākušo atziņu iespaidā arhitektūrā iespīdēja jauna gaisma. Nobrieda arī pārliecība par lauku ciematu projektēšanas principu pārskatīšanas nepieciešmību. Arhitekts Ģirts Ādminis norādīja, ka lauku patiesais skaistums nav „pilsētas skaistuma” surogāts, bet gan savdabīga, savā būtībā plaša parādība” [8].

II. Lauku kultūras nami laika posmā no 1975. līdz 1990. gadam

Pēc 1975. gada turpinājās tautas namu celtniecības attīstība Latvijā, taču mainījās sabiedriskā doma, kas tiešā veidā ietekmēja gan tautas namu vizuālo tēlu un tipoloģiskos risinājumus, gan arhitektūru kopumā. Aizvien vairāk uzmanības pievērsa videi kopumā, kas zināmā mērā mainīja attiecības starp tipveida un individuālo tautas namu projektu izmantošanu būvniecībā.

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš. Kultūras nams padomju Latvijas kolhoza centrā

Arhitekte Modrīte Lūse uzsvēra, ka atšķirībā no pilsētas lauku apdzīvotās vietas uztver, „skatot no ārpuses, kā vienotu veselumu” [9]. Kultūras nama kā tautas vērtību krātuves un izteiksmīgas lauku ainavas dominantes projektēšanas kritēriju pārskatīšana kļuva sevišķi būtiska. Aktīvi tika kritizēta pilsētas dzīves vides atdarināšana kolhozos [10]. Šāda inovatīva vērtību izpratne iestrādāta arhitekta L. Tīkmaņa projektētajā kluba, saimniecības kantora un ciema padomes ēkas Nīgrandē, Saldus rajonā (1984–1986) arhitektūrā. Saimniecības kantoris atrodas tiešā Nīgrandes skolas tuvumā ar centrālo ieeju uz Ventas senlejas pusi. Tas tika projektēts kā akcents un kontrasts nepamatotajai ciemata daudzstāvu dzīvojamajai apbūvei. Kluba plānojumā lietots postmodernismā izplatītais paņēmiens kādu no apjomiem izvietot 45 grādu leņķī attiecībā pret pārējiem (15. attēls). Postmodernisma valodu L. Tīkmanis izmantojis arī Pampāļu bijušo dzirnavu pārbūves projektā, celtni pārveidojot administratīvām un kultūras vajadzībām (1982–1987). Uz Otrā Pasaules kara laikā nopostīto ūdensdzirnavu drupām, saglabājot esošos akmens mūrus, radītas telpu grupas plašākiem sabiedriskiem pasākumiem – divas kamīnzāles ar platību 170 m2 katrai, viesnīcu 25 vietām, frizētavu, kā arī pirti ar baseinu. No zālēm veidotas izejas uz terasi. No kuras paveras skats uz dzirnavu ūdenskrātuvi un parku [11]. Dzirnavu ēkai uzsēdinātajai „cepurei” ir nedaudz karnevālisks iespaids. Viegla neuzmanība uzvar smagnējo nopietnību. Spoža nerātnība izjauc tradicionālo sastingumu. Postmodernisms ir sakāpināti tēlains, eksotisks un ireāls. Astoņdesmito gadu vidū par vienotību un stabilitāti arhitektu darbos tika runāts ar ironiju. Galvenie atslēgvārdi postmodernisma arhitektūrai varētu būt – nejaušība, spēle, alegorija, pašrefleksija. Atbilstoši ironiski piesātinātajai situācijai pasaules arhitektūrā kopumā, astoņdesmito gadu vidū tapis viens no veiksmīgākajiem postmodernisma piemēriem Latvijas arhitektūrā – L. Tīkmaņa projektētais saimniecības kantoris un kultūras nams Rendā, Kuldīgas novadā (1983–1987) [12]. Koku ieskautā ēka atrodas Īvandes upītes krastā, Rīgas–Kuldīgas ceļa malā bijušās mācītājmuižas saimniecības ēkas vietā. Arhitekts mēģinājis ievērot ciemata esošo ēku izvietojumu un mērogu. Ēkā atradās saimniecības kantoris, sanāksmju un tradīciju zāle 180 vietām, viesību telpas ar kamīnzāli un viesnīcas telpām 10 viesiem (16., 17., un 18. attēls). Akcentētas ēkas sarkano dakstiņu jumtu plaknes, bet sarkano ķieģeļu sienu mūrējumā iestrādāti niansēti raksti. Logu ailu pārsedzes izspēlētas kā dekoratīvi elementi. Postmoderniskas formu klišejas galvenajā ieejas mezglā paspilgtina un harmoniski nobeidz māksliniecisko kompozīciju. Mālpils sabiedriskais centrs, Rendas kantoris un pirmsskolas izglītības iestāde un citas L. Tīkmaņa radītās celtnes ienesušas jaunus vaibstus Latvijas lauku kultūrainavā. L. Tīkmanis astoņdesmitajos gados runāja par lauku ciematu attīstības problemātiku: „katrā centrālajā ciematā ir visu pēckara gadu tipveida projektu „brīvdabas muzejs” vai projektu katalogs” [13]. Tālākā to tiražēšanā arhitekts saskatīja strupceļu. Laukos samazinājās iedzīvotāju skaits, bet plānošanas jomā netika apsvērtas lauku teritoriju ilgtermiņa attīstības iespējas. Mūsdienās daudzas lauku teritorijas jau ir degradētas. Ainavu izkropļo nepabeigto būvju spocīgie skeleti, kas uzlūko garāmbraucējus ar aklām logailām.

Jaunās postmodernisma tendences aizrāva arhitektus ne tikai Latvijā, bet visā pasaulē. Bieži postmodernisms tiek definēts kā pretestība padomju ideoloģijas diktātam. Taču postmodernisms bija likumsakarīgas sekas modernās kustības ideoloģiskajai krīzei. Astoņdesmito gadu vidū postmodernistiski meklējumi atspoguļojās arī vairāku citu arhitektu darbos, piemēram, Pušmucovas pagasta tautas namā (1989), Nīgrandes pagasta Kalnu kolhoza „Jaunais komunārs” kultūras namā (arhitekte A. Īvane, 1987) [14] un Aizkraukles pagasta kolhoza „Stučka” kultūras namā (arhitekte A. Bernharde, 1988). Šīm celtnē raksturīgs tipisks postmodernisma klišeju – lēzenu arku un trijstūra motīvu, noapaļotu ēkas stūru u.c. – lietojums (19. un 20. attēli). Detaļu valoda, ritms un videi atbilstošs mērogs šo ēku arhitektūrā veicina apkārtējās lauku ainavas izteiksmību. To arhitektūra tiešā veidā liecina par iepriekš popularizēto atturības principu noliegšanu. [15]. Viesītes kultūras nams (arhitekts L. Skuja, 1983–1992) celts kā agrofirmas „Daugava” administratīvais centrs (21. attēls). Tajā ir koncertzāle, kino zāle, tradīciju zāle, deju zāle, pilsētas dome un bibliotēka, novada televīzijas studija, namu pārvalde, policijas iecirknis un citu telpu grupas. Šī celtne ir īsts postmodernisma šedevrs. Arhitektūrā, balansējot uz kiča robežas, simbolizēta viduslaiku pils tēma. Tā izspēlēta ar milzīgu vārtu motīvu ieejas portālā un nocietinājuma torņiem apjoma stūros. Jau astoņdesmito gadu beigās dažkārt pārspīlēta tēlainība un formu interpretācijas postmodernisma arhitektūru tuvināja stila norietam. Viesītes kultūras nams ir pilnīgi precīzs sava laika produkts. Iespējams, ka tā vērtējumam der arī viena no postmodernisma teorētiskajām atziņām:„Plaģiātisms nevis kaitina, bet bagātina postmoderno darbu” [16, 433]. Uzsvērta vēsturisko formu atveide bieži vien nesaskan ar arhitektoniski telpisko loģiku. Postmodernismu dažkārt salīdzina ar lielām dzīrēm, kas sabiedrības zināmai daļai atstājis tādu kā paģiru sajūtu. Postmodernisma objektīvs izvērtējums acīmredzot ir tuvākās nākotnes uzdevums. Tēlotājās mākslās postmodernisma galvenā īpašība bija fragmentārisms. Kino tika veidotas montāžas, mākslas darbus un plakātus noformēja kā kolāžas, radīja performances, mūzikā aizrāvās ar skaņdarbu miksēšanu. Arī arhitektūrā notika formu miksēšana, savienojot, piemēram, apli ar trijstūri un kubu, cilindru ar šķautņainiem būvķermeņiem, liektas formas ar taisnām līnijām u.tml. Arhitektūrā kā monumentālās mākslas veidā šie mēģinājumi bieži bija visai formāli un mākslīgi. Astoņdesmito gadu filozofija uzsvēra konkrētu pieredzi. Postmodernismā tika meklētas latviskās pieredzes spēja izpausties arhitektūrā. Ietekmes avoti meklējami latviešu arhitektūras etnogrāfiskajos arhetipos, tradīcijās un valodā. Arhitektūrā ievērojama loma piešķirama tradīciju izpētei. Latvisko ainavu vēsturiskā skatījumā spēcīgi ietekmējusi viensētu un apkārtējo lauku samērojamība. Latviskajai identitātei raksturīga ir atsevišķu jumtu saspēle apsētu tīrumu fonā, nevis noteiktas ielu līnijas kolhozu ciematos. Nobeigums

No 1955. līdz 1975. gadam celto kultūras namu ēkām nebija unikāla, vietas kontekstam atbilstoša tēla. Izzuda iepriekšējos gados paustā arhitektūras emocionālā noskaņa. Kultūras

Architecture and Urban Planning Agate Eniņa, Jānis Krastiņš. Kultūras nams padomju Latvijas kolhoza centrā

namu ārējās formas kļuva izteikti smagnējas, pašmērķīgas. Līdz piecdesmito gadu beigām celtie kultūras nami atspoguļo „sociālistiskā reālisma” stilistiku. Arī liela daļa sešdesmitajos un septiņdesmitajos gados celto tipveida kultūras namu neatbilst vides raksturam. Taču atsevišķas celtnes ir nozīmīgi sava laika arhitektūras liecinieki. No 1975. līdz 1990. gadam notika sabiedriskās domas maiņa un atgriešanās pie tautiskuma meklējumiem. Tika lietots arvien vairāk individuālu projektu. Kultūras namu tipveida projektos tika meklēti jauni stilistiskie un funkcionālie risinājumi. Kultūras namu arhitektūrā vērojama reģionālās arhitektūras specifikas apguve. Sabiedrībā valdīja nepatika pret noteiktas ideoloģijas uzspiešanu, arī arhitektūras politizāciju. Jēdziens „nacionāls” bija stipri degradēts. Retrospektīvais skatījums sakrita ar sabiedriskās domas attīstības līmeni. Tas ļāva arhitektiem iesaistīties dažādās vēstures improvizācijās, atjaunot eklektiskās darba metodes, tās industrializētā veidā izmantojot tautas namu arhitektūrā. Mūsdienās postmodernismu – stilu, kas dominēja septiņdesmito un astoņdesmito gadu arhitektūrā –, bieži tiek vērtēts kā „kultūras mantojuma aizsardzības speciālistu priekšstati” [15] par vēsturisko formu interpretāciju. Tajā pat laikā izteikta vēsturiska nepatika bija attīstījusies pret tipveida arhitektūru. Kā norādījis arhitekts V. Neilands, „stilistiska ierobežotība ved uz standartizāciju, kura ir pretrunā ar arhitektūras būtību” [15]. Tomēr lielā skaitā īstenotie tipa projekti arī ir nozīmīga kultūrvēsturiska vērtība. Filozofe M. Kūle apgalvojusi, ka postmodernisma idejas var attīstīties tikai atvērta tipa sabiedrībā [16]. Pie tādām var pieskaitīt rietumu demokrātijas. Totalitārā Padomju Savienības iekārta liedza izpausties atšķirīgajam gan politiskajā, garīgajā un sabiedriskajā dzīvē, gan arhitektūrā. Režīma ļodzīšanās astoņdesmitajos gados ļāva izpausties spēcīgiem mākslinieciskiem impulsiem, kuru turpmāka attīstība vairs nebija apturama. Dažkārt 20. gs. astoņdesmitajos gados Latvijas arhitektūrā radīti pārāk klišejiski darbi, taču postmodernisma kustība kopumā vērtējama pozitīvi. Lielākā postmodernās arhitektūras problēma saskatāma formu vienveidīgajā interpretācijā. Kultūras namu arhitektūra Latvijas teritorijā kopumā attīstījusies pēctecīgi. Lai gan padomju perioda celtņu arhitektūras novērtējumu pagaidām stipri apgrūtina vēsturiskie un ideoloģiskie aizspriedumi, tā laika kultūras būvēm ir ievērojams kultūrvēsturiskais potenciāls. Mūsdienās jādomā par tautiskuma nezaudēšanu un funkcijas nenonivilēšanu. Kultūras namam nepieciešams saglabāt tautas vienotības, kopības un biedriskuma ideju.

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11. att. Tipveida kultūras nams „Ļeņina” kolhozā Kocēnos, Valmieras rajonā un Dobeles rajona kolhozā „Zelta druva”. Makets. Arhitekts L. Tīkmanis. 1968– 1976. [12] 12. un 13. att. Mālpils kultūras nams 600 vietām. 1975–1988. [12] 14. att. Mālpils kultūras nams 600 vietām. Priekšplāna arhitekts Ē. L. Tīkmanis. Ap 1988. [12] 15. att. Klubs, saimniecības kantoris un ciema padome Nīgrandē, Saldus rajonā. Makets. 1984–1986. [12] 16. un 17. att. Saimniecības kantoris Rendā, Kuldīgas novadā. 1983–1987. [12] 18. att. Saimniecības kantoris Rendā, Kuldīgas novadā. Skices. 1983–1987. [12] 19. att. Pušmucovas pagasta tautas nams. 1989. 20. att. Aizkraukles pagasta kultūras nams. Arhitekte A. Bernharde. 1988. 21. att. Viesītes kultūras pils. Arhitekts L. Skuja. 1983–1992.

Izmantotie avoti 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16.

Švābe, A. Latvju enciklopēdija. Stokholma: Trīs zvaigznes, 1951. 1042.– 1046. lpp. Krastiņš, J., Strautmanis, I., Dripe, J. Latvijas arhitektūra no senatnes līdz mūsdienām. Rīga: Baltika, 1998. 312 lpp. Lejnieks, J. Rīgas arhitektūra. Rīga: Avots, 1989. 255. lpp. Preiļu novada kultūras centrs [tiešsaiste]. Preiļu novads [skatīts 27.07.2012]. http://www.preili.lv/page.php?id=639 Lejnieks, J. Rīgas arhitektūra. Rīga: Avots, 1989. 255. lpp. Driba, Dz., Zakemnnijs, O. Kultūras nami, klubi un kinoteātri. Laikmetīgā arhitektūra Padomju Latvijā. Rīga : Liesma, 1966, 37.–41. lpp. Mukāns, A., Hiršs, J. No būdas līdz pilij. Zvaigzne, 1988, Nr. 19, 21. lpp. Ādminis, Ģ. Kā mērīt lauku skaistumu? Arhitektūra un dizains. Rīga: Avots, 1985, 24.–28. lpp. Lūse, M. Kritērijus meklējot. Arhitektūra un dizains. Rīga: Avots, 1985, 29.–36. lpp. Ikoņņikovs, A. Kādiem jākļūst laukiem. ACD (Lauku ciemati). Rīga: Avots, 1986, 15.–17. lpp. Radošais portrets : Arhitekts L. Tīkmanis. Latvijas arhitektūra, 1989, 74.– 76. lpp. Latvijas Arhitektūras muzeja krājuma materiāli. L. Tīkmaņa fonds. Mukāns, A., Hiršs, J. No būdas līdz pilij. Zvaigzne, 1988, Nr. 19, 21. lpp. Страутмрнис, И., Бука, О., Крастиньш, Я., Acapис, Г. Архитектура Советской Латвии. Москва: Стройиздат, 1987, 208. cтp. Lejnieks, J. Starpbrīdis turpinās. Postmodernisms Latvijā. 2 [tiešsaiste]. Būvniecības portāls abc.lv [skatīts 27.07.2012]. http://www.abc. lv/?article=postmodernisms_2 Kūle, M., Kūlis, R. Filosofija. Rīga: Zvaigzne ABC, 656 lpp.

Šis darbs izstrādāts ar Eiropas Sociālā fonda atbalstu projektā «Atbalsts RTU doktora studiju īstenošanai».

Attēli

1. att. Balvu kultūras nams Brīvības iela 61. 1954. 2. att. Kārsavas kultūras nams Vienības ielā 49C. 1959. 3. att. Preiļu kultūras nams Raiņa bulvārī 28. 1958. [4] 4. att. Krustpils kultūras nams Jēkabpilī, Rīgas ielā 210/212. 1954-1959. [5] 5. att. Tipveida plāns kultūras namam ar 400 un 600 vietām. Arhitekti P. Švābe un E. Leitāne. 1959. A. Eniņas zīmējums. 6. att. Dagdas kultūras nams. Arhitekti P. Švābe un E. Leitāne. 1959. 7. att. Tipveida plāns kultūras namam ar kluba zāli 450 vietām un kino zāli 245 vietām. Arhitekte A. Tītmane. 1959. A. Eniņas zīmējums. 8. att. Kauguru kultūras nams. 1989. 9. att. Salaspils novada kultūras nams „Enerģētiķis”. 1980. 10. att. Arhitekts L. Tīkmanis pie sava diplomdarba „Tūristu bāze pie Kaķīšu ezera”. Pa kreisi – kursa biedrs Uldis Pabērzs. 1968. [12]

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Hercoga Jēkaba kanāla vēsturiskās zaļās struktūras saglabāšanas un attīstības nostādnes Aija Ziemeļniece, Latvijas Lauksaimniecības universitāte

Atslēgas vārdi: dabas pamatne, kultūrvēsturiskā ainava, pilsētainaviskā telpa, skatu līnijas un punkti.

19. gs. deviņdesmitajos gados, ir restaurēts. Šī pildrežģa ēka ar nesošo koka karkasu un māla ķieģeļu aizpildījumu, kā arī māla kārniņiem jumta iesegumā atspoguļo tā laika apbūves raksturu. Vecā apbūve un tās mērogs gar kanālu ir redzams arī mazajās šķērsieliņās, kas veda uz ūdensmalu (ēkas Kungu ielā 10, 12 u.c.). Tur atradās koka statņu stāvbūves ar divslīpju jumtiem. Visus namus ietvēra ābeļdārzi, kas kopā ar kanālmalas stādījumiem veidoja vienotu zaļo ainavtelpu. Īpaši gleznaini šeit bija pavasarī, kad ziedēja augļu koki un ievas. Pie bijušā vaļņa kanāls veidoja paplašinājumu jeb t.s. dīķa vietu, kur no laivām tika izkrautas preces pilsētnieku vajadzībām. Dīķa lielums bija pietiekošs, lai laivas varētu gan piestāt, gan apgriezties. Šajā vietā pilsēttelpā ir vēsturiski izveidojies vairāku mazo ieliņu – J. Asara, M. Dambja, Vecpilsētas, Dobeles, Lielās un Krišjāņa Barona ielas sazarojums. Gar šīm ielām atradās preču noliktavas un nelielas sīktirgotavas. Te veidojās t.s. pilsētas rietumu vārti. Pēc pirmā pasaules kara kanāls, sākot no Svētes upes puses, tika pamazām pa aizbērts, jo karstās vasarās tam izžūstot, gultnē notika ūdens sanesumu pūšana. No bijušo pilsētas vaļņu vietas vēsturiskā centra virzienā kanālam bija rekreācijai raksturīgā pastaigas zonas jeb promenādes loma. Lai gan pilsētas vaļņi skaitījās pilsētas mala, tomēr te dzīvoja situēti ļaudis, izbūvējot greznus koka namus. Daži no tiem ir saglabājušies. Tie ir vēlīnā baroka būvniecības laika liecinieki Vecpilsētas ielā 8, 10 un 12. Aiz bijušā pilsētas vaļņa atradās Annas baznīcas dārzs, kura stādījumi vizuāli saplūda ar kanālmalas stādījumiem. Ūdenstece šajā posmā vēl Pirmā pasaules kara laikā nebija aizbērta, un fotomateriāli liecina par kanālmalu kā populāru pastaigu zonu no latviskās Annas baznīcas līdz vāciskajai Trīsvienības baznīcai. Kanālmalas promenādi līdz ar stādījumiem greznoja koka tiltiņi un zaļā krasta nogāze. Kopā ar apbūvi tā veidoja romantisku pilsēttelpu. Patlaban šajā vietā ir saglabājies baznīcas dārzs. Atjaunoti arī bijušās kanālmalas liepu stādījumi. Pilsētas teritorijas attīstības koncepcijā, ievērtējot vēsturisko kanāla vietu visā tās garumā, ainavtelpai var noteikt vairākas zaļās zonas: • bijušo kanāla izteces kultūrainavas telpu (Ģintermuižas parka teritoriju); • bijušo ūdensteces posmu pie Atmodas ielas, kas veido pļavu ainavu ar garām skatu līnijam uz kultūrvēsturisko Ģintermuižas parku; • kanāla dienvidrietumu daļas ainavtelpu, ko veido sānieliņas ar dārziem tajās (Kungu iela, Egas iela, Skolotāju iela un J. Asara iela); • kanāla promenādes aleju (Krišjāņa Barona iela) un Annas baznīcas dārzu; • kanālmalas stādījumus gar bijušo rūpniecības uzņēmumu un daudzstāvu dzīvojamo kvartālu iekšpagalmiem (no Jaunatnes ielas līdz Pasta ielai);

Pilsētas struktūra ir radīta vairāku gadsimtu garumā, un to veidojušas dažādas sabiedrības. Tā ir būvēta ne tikai lai apmierinātu praktiskās vajadzības, bet arī sabiedriskās un estētiskās prasības [1]. Vides estētiskā kvalitāte tiek novērtēta, balstoties uz diviem pamatelementiem: • formālās īpašības, kas fokusējas uz objekta fiziskajām pazīmēm, un kā tās veicina estētisko reakciju (mērogs, forma, kontrastainums utt.); • simboliskās jeb asociatīvās īpašības apskata faktorus, kas caur pieredzi veido blakus nozīmes (identitāte, lakonisms utt.) [1]. Jelgavas vēsturiskā centra rietumu un ziemeļu daļu veido pilsētbūvnieciskā telpa, kurā saglabājušās liecības gan par cilvēka iecerēm pārveidot dabu, gan dažādus gadsimtus raksturojoši kultūrvēsturiskie objekti. Pilsētas identitātes uzturēšana, galvenokārt, saistās ar kultūrainavisko objektu apzināšanu, atjaunošanu un saglabāšanu, kā arī šai vietai raksturīgās ainavtelpas rūpīgu kopšanu un aizsardzību. Jelgavas pilsētas kultūrvēsturiskā mantojuma saglabāšana un attīstība ir ievērtēta pilsētas teritorijas plānojuma dokumentos, kur viens no galvenajiem aspektiem ir atgūt pilsētas zaļo dzīslojumu, kas bija spilgti izteikts pirmskara gados. Raksta mērķis ir saistīts ar zaļo stādījumu atjaunošanas priekšlikumu izvērtējumu un detalizētāku izpēti pilsētas apbūves rietumu un ziemeļu daļā. Pilsētas vēsturiskais centrs kā pilsētbūvniecības aizsardzības piemineklis ietver vairāku veco apbūves kvartālu teritorijas, kurās ir saglabājušās tikai atsevišķas ēkas, jo pilsēta kara gados ir nodedzināta. Zaudējot milzīgas apbūves teritorijas, katrai no vecajām ēkām, kas paglābusies no posta, šodien ir īpaša nozīme. Tas pats ir attiecināms uz zaļajām zonām, jo pēckara gados mainoties apbūves struktūrai, ir izmainījies arī pilsēttelpas zaļais tīklojums. Viens no „ zili zaļās” struktūras elementiem bija Hercoga Jēkaba kanāls, kas bija izbūvēts 1605. gadā. Tā gultne savienoja Svētes upi ar Driksas upi, un nodrošināja pilsētu ar tīru dzeramo ūdeni Tas dod pilsētvidei ainaviski telpisko un vizuāli estētisko kvalitāti, un reizē piešķirot tai savu unikalitāti [7]. Vasarās tā bija pilsētnieku iemīļota promenādes vieta. Kanāls aizbērts 20. gs. trīsdesmitajos gados. Jēkaba kanāls aizsākās pie Gintermuižas parka rietumu malas un tā garums līdz pilsētas valnim bija aptuveni 1500 m. Šajā posmā visapkārt kanālam atradās pļavas un ganības, bet tuvāk pilsētas valnim tā krastos izvietojās blīva dzīvojamā apbūve ar dārziem. Līdz pilsētas valnim gar kanālu bija arī koku stādījumi. Galvenokārt tie bija vītoli, bērzi un liepas. Viens no vēsturiskajiem kanālmalas namiem Dambja ielā 17, kas celts

Architecture and Urban Planning Aija Ziemeļniece. Hercoga Jēkaba kanāla vēsturiskās zaļās struktūras saglabāšanas un attīstības nostādnes

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Attīstoties ražošanas teritorijām gar kanāla gultni, radās arī nelieli strādnieku dzīvojamie kvartāli. Galvenokārt tā bija viena vai divu stāvu koka apbūve gar Ausekļa, Kazarmes, M. Dambja, J. Asara, Kārļa un Lapskalna ielām [5]. Ieliņas bija šauras. Tajās varēja izmainīties tikai divi zirgu pajūgi. Nevienā no ieliņām nav bijuši koku stādījumi. Ēku iekšpagalmos atradās saimniecības ēkas un nelieli dārzi. Fabrikas strādnieku mājas koncentrējās pilsētas ziemeļu daļā. Tā bija zemāka un mitrāka vieta, un palu ūdeņi tur turējās ilgāk [6]. Jelgavas pilsētas pašvaldībai, organizējot plenērus un konkursus, ir izdevies iegūt vairākus Hercoga Jēkaba kanāla rekonstrukcijas priekšlikumus: • kanālu atsegt pa Dambja ielas garenasi, saglabājot transporta kustību un izbūvējot pastaigu un riteņbraucēju celiņus ar atpūtas zonām, bērnu laukumiem un gājēju tiltiņiem; • atjaunot kanāla gultni pie Annas baznīcas dārza iepretim Vecpilsētas ielai, tur izvietojot nelielu atpūtas laukumu ar strūklaku, kas simbolizē vēsturisko ielu sazarojuma vietu un kanāla paplašinājumu; • atsegt kanālu bijušajā Tirgus laukuma zonā, kā arī pie ieteces Driksas upē.

• kultūras nama skvēru un centrālā laukuma apstādījumus (no Pasta ielas līdz Uzvaras ielai); • kanāla ieteces Driksas upē vietu (daudzstāvu dzīvojamā kvartāla zaļā teritorija). Zaļo ainavtelpu ievērtējums pilsētvidē ir svarīgs arī gadījumā, ja tuvākajos desmit gados netiks veikta kanāla gultnes atjaunošana. Profesors Ivars Strautmanis ir definējis principiālus arhitektūras un apkārtējās vides koeksistences variantus: • integrācija: konkrēta ainava netiek iznīcināta, bet gan pārveidota tā, lai mijiedarbībā ar jauno telpisko struktūru sasniegtu augstākas pakāpes harmonisko vienību; • subordinācija: attiecīgās ainavas sastāvdaļas formāli tiek pakļautas jaunās apbūves struktūras īpatnībām; • integrācija: telpā tiek integrēti visi būtiski svarīgākie pilsētbūvnieciskie faktori [2]. Kanāla izteiksmīgumu akcentēja arī vecais Tirgus laukums. Kara laikā zaudētās laukuma apbūves vietā 20. gs. sešdesmitajos gados ir iestādīti aptuveni 60 koki. Tie ir sasnieguši izmērus, kas veido disproporciju ar apkārtējo apbūvi. Īpaši tas ir attiecināms uz bērzu grupām. Pilsētas vēsturiskā centra daļa bija plašs, ar akmens bruģi iesegts laukums, kurā vienīgi liepu rinda gar laukuma austrumu malu rotāja Rātsnama ēku. Hercoga Jēkaba kanālmalas pastaigu zona bija līdzīga netālajai Driksas upes krasta promenādei, kas veidoja nedaudz savādāku pilsētbūvnieciskās telpas mērogu. Abas promenādes satikās pie Tirgus laukuma. Kanālmalas un upes krasta koku stādījumu rindas kā savdabīgi „zaļi-zilie pirksti” ienesa pilsētai dzīslojumu, kas kopā ar apbūvi veidoja gleznainu pilsētainavas siluetu skatu līnijās no tilta [3]. Patlaban tiek realizēts Driksas promenādes atjaunošanas projekts, vecos kokus nomainot ar jauniem stādījumiem, kā arī nostiprinot kreisā krasta nogāzi un izveidojot vairākas rekreācijas zonas. Savukārt Hercoga Jēkaba kanāla gultnes un koku stādījumu atjaunošanā ir izstrādāti vairāki skiču projekti, kas tiek ievērtēti tālākā pilsēttelpas attīstībā. 19. gs. sākumā, nojaucot pilsētas vaļņus, hercoga Jēkaba kanāla kreisajā pusē attīstījās jauna funkcionālā zona – rūpniecības teritorija (Krāmera metāla fabrika un ādu pārstrādes ražotne) [4]. Šī vieta atradās pilsētas rietumu daļā, no kuras veda tirdzniecības ceļš uz neaizsalstošo Liepājas ostu. Ēkas bija pietiekoši tālu no Annas baznīcas un telpiski nekonkurēja ar dievnamu. 20. gs. septiņdesmitajos gados uzcēla milzīga augstuma ražošanas ēku. Tā izjauca konkrētās vēsturiskās telpas mērogu un proporcijas. Koku stādījumi gar Annas baznīcu (Kr. Barona ielā) nespēja slāpēt ap 150 m garā būvapjoma masivitāti. Savukārt vecie baznīcas dārza koki dienvidu pusē ar milzīgajiem vainagiem aizsedz dievnama fasādi Lielās ielas pusē. Ap 1970. gadu stādītie koki Jaunatnes ielā patlaban ir sasnieguši lielu augstumu un skatu līnijās no gājēju zonas paslēpj aiz zaļajām lapotnēm vizuāli smagnējos rūpnīcas būvapjomus. Izvērtējot koku blīvumu un augstumu šajā ielas posmā, ir jāpārdomā baznīcas dārza un ielas stādījumu proporcijas. Otrs industriālā mantojuma objekts ir bijušās ādu fabrika divstāvu ēkas, kas būvētas 19. gs. deviņdesmitajos gados un atrodas 100 m attālumā no Jēkaba kanāla kreisā krasta vietas. Tās saglabājušas ķieģeļu arhitektūras kompozicionālo izteiksmi un vizuāli labi iederas pilsētvidē. Teritorijā nav bijuši koku stādījumi, jo tā atradās pļavās aiz pilsētas vaļņiem. Arī patlaban te ir retāka apbūve bez noteiktiem ielas apstādījumiem.

Secinājumi

Apdzīvotai vietai piemīt sava fiziskā struktūra un simboliskā identitāte. Pilsētvidei to īpaši spilgti dod zaļie stādījumi, kuriem ir svarīga loma apdzīvotas vietas arhitektoniski kompozicionālās struktūras attīstībā. Tas dod pilsētvidei ainaviski telpisko un vizuāli estētisko kvalitāti, un reizē piešķirot tai savu unikalitāti. Pilsēta ir viengabalaina un komplicēta forma, tajā pašā laikā mainīga un haotiska. Tai nav raksturīga visos līmeņos sakārtota struktūra. Pilsēttelpas elementi ir sakārtoti sarežģītā struktūrā, kuru veido atsevišķas lokālas sistēmas, kas kompozicionāli ir savstarpēji saistītas. Pilsētvides kompozicionālās izteiksmes mainīgumu dod kokaugu un krūmu grupu dendroloģiskās īpašības (krāsa, forma, augstums, uzziedēšanas laiks, smarža utt.). Katrai pilsētas daļai piemīt savas arhitektoniski kompozicionālās īpašības, kuru uztvere mainās, nonākot no vienas pilsētas daļas otrā. Pilsēttelpa kļūst par pamanāmu un atpazīstamu vietu, ja tā ir funkcionāli skaidri un harmoniski viegli uztverama tās lietotājiem, lai tie varētu piešķirt tai savu nozīmi un saikni ar apkārtni. Lai tiktu radīta pilsētas zaļās veides harmoniska viengabalainība, telpiskās formas estētiskā kvalitāte ir atkarīga no noteiktas pilsētas vietas mēroga. Attēli

1. att. Vēsturiskā apbūve gar Hercoga Jēkaba kanālu (20. gs. trīsdesmito gadu foto). 2. att. Kanālmalas apstādījumi ar pastaigu zonu un brauktuvi (20. gs. trīsdesmito gadu foto). 3. att. Restaurētā dzīvojamā ēka Dambja ielā 17. 4. att. Aizbērtā kanāla vieta ar blīvu koku apauguma līniju Dambja ielā (2012, autora foto). 5. att. Vecā kanāla aizsākums pie Ģintermuižas parka (2012, autora foto). 6. att. Bijusī kanāla vieta pie baznīcas dārza Kr. Barona ielā (2012, autora foto). 7. att. Bijusī kanāla gultne ar koku rindām pie bij. Krāmera rūpnīcas (2012, autora foto). 8. att. Bijušie kanālmalas stādījumi skatu līnijās uz Annas baznīcu (2012, autora foto).

Architecture and Urban Planning 2012 / 6

Aija Ziemeļniece. Hercoga Jēkaba kanāla vēsturiskās zaļās struktūras saglabāšanas un attīstības nostādnes

Izmantotie avoti 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

ISSN 1691-4333

9 771691 433002 ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING ARHITEKTŪRA UN PILSĒTPLĀNOŠANA 2012 / 6 Parakstīts iespiešanai 2011.21.09. Reģ. apl. Nr. 2-0282. Formāts 60x84/8. Ofsets. 21,00 iesp.l., 7,66 uzsk-izd.l. Metiens 300 eks. Pasūt. Nr. 84. Iespiests RTU tipogrāfijā Kaļķu ielā 1, Rīgā, LV-1658