Aquaculture Magazine February / March 2015 Volume 41 Number 1 by Aquaculture Magazine

INDEX Aquaculture Magazine Volume 41 Number 1 February - March 2015

Editorial.....................................................................................................................................................................4

on the

30 cover

Taming the Wild Tuna

report The NAA Conducts Dietician / Nutritionist Study.

report Lobster Aquaculture… From the Past to the Future.

NOTE Otohime® for Larval Fish: Kodawari for Aquaculture.

NOTE NOAA Sea Grant awards $2.6 million for new aquaculture projects. Volume 41 Number 1 February - March 2015

report Microsporidians: Significance in aquaculture.

NOTE BIOMIN announces new aquaculture research center in Vietnam.

Editor in Chief Greg Lutz editorinchief@dpinternationalinc.com

feature article MOVING FORWARD WITH Aquaculture without Frontiers.

REPORT

NEWS ARTICLE

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Editor and Publisher Salvador Meza info@dpinternationalinc.com

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Ice Ice Baby! Cryopreservation for Aquatic Species. Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems Inc. acquired PR Aqua Supplies Ltd.

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SEAFOOD PROCESSING REPORT

Stanford-led study says Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aquaculture sector can tip the balance in world fish supplies.

ASIAN report

Broodstock Management in Aquaculture: Long term effort required for regional capacity building.

Report shows poor benefit from commercial aquaculture.

PRODUCTS TO WATCH

XperCount2 Optimize your operations by eliminating hand counts and improving production traceability.

columns salmonids Marine Finfish Aquaculture AQUAFEED Health Highlights the shellfish corner nutrition Genetics and Breeding

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advertisers Index job listiNG Upcoming events

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Editor´s

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By C. Greg Lutz

t’s the little things that count. Really. While most of the examples I could come up with pertaining to aquaculture are a bit more direct than the “butterfly effect,” many times our industry, and our operations, are impacted by things we tend to take for granted. Who could have predicted that a bacterial disease as prevalent and costly as columnaris could be controlled under certain conditions just by adding a little clay to the water? Or that tiny microbes could significantly increase the protein content and digestibility of soybean meal for use in fish feeds? Or that putting more emphasis on commercialization rather than household food security produces much greater benefit for small aquaculture producers receiving financial and technical support through development agencies? Or that a developing nation could have more pristine shellfish growing sites because most of the population lacks flush toilets? And who would have guessed that stocking isopods into systems for rearing lobster pl’s could reduce maintenance time by half, while

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providing a constant supply of live food? Or that something as simple as a petri dish with a screened window could solve the problem of how to attain suitably sized juvenile lobsters for release in stock enhancement programs? An example of the “little things” principle that I found particularly interesting, if not disturbing, involves the role microsporidians can play in the culture of several species. Although not lethal, these sporeforming unicellular parasites greatly retard the growth of shrimp. Their impacts can be masked by other more virulent diseases, complicating management and control practices related to both microsporidians and Early Mortality Syndrome. If you raise fish or other aquatic animals commercially or for research, the principle of paying attention to the little things is of supreme importance in terms of management practices. Keeping track of a breeding program can mean the difference between continuous improvement and continuous genetic decline, especially for small producers. And the simple exercise of developing

an early detection system for disease within an aquaculture operation can mean the difference between minor corrective actions and complete crop loss. Small changes in behavior or performance can be easily overlooked, unless they are being measured and evaluated on a regular schedule. Anything that is not measured is difficult to manage â&#x20AC;&#x201C; be it biological, mechanical, chemical or financial in nature. And speaking of little thingsâ&#x20AC;Ś nutrition and inventory management in larval culture are important aspects for many aquatic species. We address both these topics in this issue from research and commercial perspectives. We are always interested in your story ideas, questions and comments. Really. Write to us anytime here at Aquaculture Magazine, at editorinchief@dpinternationalinc. com Dr. C. Greg Lutz has a B.A. in Biology and Spanish by the Earlham College at Richmond, Indiana, a M.S. in Fisheries and a Ph.D. in Wildlife and Fisheries Science by the Louisiana State University. His interests include recirculating system technology and population dynamics, quantitative genetics and multivariate analyses and the use of web based technology for result-demonstration methods.

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The NAA

Conducts Dietician/ Nutritionist Study By Paul Zajicek. NAA

overnment decision makers, gate keepers at the retail and foodservice level, wholesalers, dieticians, nutritionists, healthcare professionals, seafood consumers, the media, environmental groups, and the general public all need to hear upbeat, positive messages about U.S. aquaculture. Seafood is confusing commodity at best. Advice is often contradictory and, in some cases, agenda driven. We constantly hear about environmental and health risk/benefit statements for farm-raised seafood. How often do educators, government de6 Âť

The National Aquaculture Association (NAA) works with a wide range of audiences to help them better understand the environmental, sustainability, and quality of life benefits that a growing U.S. aquaculture industry can bring.

cision makers and the public hear similar statements for other meat proteins? To grow the U.S. aquaculture industry, we need to reshape the message. The National Aquaculture Association recently conducted a

survey of dieticians and nutritionists to determine how best to approach the problem with that audience. When asked about the best seafood choice, the majority (48%) of the dieticians and nutritionists

responding to the survey selected domestic wild caught. There was a definite preference for domestic over imported for both wild (48%) and farmed products (36%). Respondents expressed more concern about imported wild caught (2%) over imported farm-raised (12%). Thirty percent based their choice on sustainability/environmental concerns. Twenty-seven percent felt that product quality was an issue. These responses highlight the need to educate and inform people especially educators who influence large audiences We need to deliver a strong message that U.S. aquaculture production is environmentally-sound, sustainable, and safe. When asked the reasons why they personally didn’t eat more seafood, 36% felt that high price was a barrier, 28% cited availability of quality product, 24% environmental issues, 24% prior bad experience, 12% felt that they were not knowledgeable about purchasing, and 4% felt that they weren’t comfortable preparing seafood. Availability of quality product and previous bad experience are similar problems. Retail education is an important component of the NAA program, since retailers are the final link to the consumer. Media (TV and Radio) was the number one source of negative information about U.S. farm-raised

seafood (24%) with environmental groups (22%), and the Internet (19%) following closely. The heavy dependence on the Internet can be problematic since there are so many poorly informed bloggers and agenda-driven websites. The good news here is that many environmental groups are now rethinking their stance on aquaculture and view it as a more environmentally friendly production method if done correctly. The next question dealt with the level of comfort that each professional felt when discussing seafood. Twelve percent felt very comfortable, 44% felt somewhat comfortable, 36% neutral, and 8% uncomfortable. To help provide an extensive education and promotion program for the U.S. aquaculture industry, the NAA regularly exhibits at trade shows, provides presentations at conferences and meetings, works with the media, conducts webinars, and develops informational materials. The NAA has an exciting and expanded program ready to launch in 2015. The program will make better use of our outreach databases, expand Internet-based opportunities such as live-chats and webinars, as well as media outreach using both traditional and social media opportunities.

Seafood is confusing commodity at best. Advice is often contradictory and, in some cases, agenda driven.

What can you do to help grow U.S. aquaculture? Join the National Aquaculture Association. Tell a positive story about aquaculture to anyone who will listen. Work with other groups such as educators, government agencies, and state aquaculture associations to frame a positive message. Please visit our website at www.thenaa.net to learn how we can work together to grow the U.S. industry. The next question dealt with the level of comfort that each professional felt when discussing seafood. The question was phrased in a way to lessen any stigma attached to lack of comfort. “Seafood can be a very confusing commodity with almost 1,000 species available in the U.S. market. How comfortable do you feel discussing seafood with your clients?” Twelve percent felt very comfortable, 44% felt somewhat comfortable, 36% neutral, and 8% uncomfortable. Paul Zajicek was formerly the Environmental Administrator in the Division of Aquaculture at the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. He is currently the new Development Director for the National Aquaculture Association. He can be reached at: PO Box 12759 Tallahassee, Florida 32308-2759; Telephone: (850) 216-2400.

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Lobster Aquaculture…

From the Past to the Future Just like crabs, or crayfish… the term “lobster” can refer to any of a number of species, each with its own peculiarities when it comes to being farmed. There are clawed lobsters, spiny lobsters, slipper lobsters, By C. Greg Lutz

n general, however, all the true lobsters are marine species. And, although lobster aquaculture remains an elusive dream, there has been over a century of trial and error on which modernday researchers and entrepreneurs hope to capitalize.

Clawed Lobsters The typical image most Americans, Europeans, and many others have when they think of a lobster is a clawed lobster. This group of decapods is primarily represented by the American lobster, Homarus americanus, which is found in the Western North Atlantic and the European lobster, Homarus gammarus. Both are easily recognizable by their two distinct claws, one for crushing and the other for cutting and ripping. And both are found in relatively cold waters, historically ranging from Labrador to North Carolina (H. americanus) and Norway to Morocco (H. gammarus). These species are closely related, and can produce hybrids. Each has a pre-larval stage, three distinct larval stages, and a postlarval form which resembles the adult. 8 »

and other species here and there.

Interest in culturing these species is nothing new. There are accounts of laboratory hatching and larval rearing of American lobsters going back to approximately 1850. Overfishing of lobsters was rampant on both sides of the Atlantic from the 1600’s onward to the 1800’s, and there are even reports of lobsters being used as fish bait and fertilizer during this time. The first hatcheries for clawed lobsters were established in Scandinavian countries (in particular Norway) more than 130 years ago, and shortly thereafter lobster hatcheries began operating on the Atlantic coast of Canada. At the same time, many fishermen in North America began to illegally take berried females and “clean” them before selling them. By the early 1900’s, lobster stocks were in serious decline and hatcheries were established on both sides of the Atlantic, with the technology having spread to the USA, France, and the UK. In those days, the primary goal of lobster hatcheries was stock enhancement, so little effort went into larval culture. Of the few attempts that did take place, none were considered very successful. Interest in the Homarus larval cycle was renewed in 1949 with the establishment of the Massachusetts State Lobster Hatchery and Research

The typical image most Americans, Europeans, and many others have when they think of a lobster is a clawed lobster.

Lobster eggs. Photo courtesy NOAA Northeast Fishery Science Center.

Station. While the ultimate goal was still stock enhancement to bolster over-fished populations, this facility focused on trying to produce postlarvae. Once again, interest waned until the mid-1970’s when the perceived potential for intensive growout of lobsters under controlled conditions fueled new R&D efforts. U.S. and Canadian governments helped fund grow-out research, but hype and promotion out-paced the actual technical progress, once again causing investors and funding agencies to view the concept with skepticism.

In recent years, the focus for most clawed lobster R&D has returned to stock enhancement, and methods to produce older, larger animals for stocking into the wild. Accordingly, much effort has gone into how to promote early growth while still meeting the requirement to keep juveniles housed individually to avoid cannibalism. Researchers at a stock enhancement hatchery in Germany found that locally-sourced crab processing waste was a suitable diet for juvenile lobsters, but the debris produced clogged the semi-closed system in which lobsters were held »

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individually. They came up with a novel solution-stocking isopods (Idotea emarginata) along with the lobster juveniles. The isopods served as both cleaning organisms, reducing the daily debris associated with the crab diet by more than 50%, and as a constantly available live feed for the lobsters. Maintenance time was reduced by 50% with no loss in lobster growth rates.

Aquahive tray. Courtesy www.aquahive.co.uk

Orkney Lobster Hatchery. Courtesy www.aquahive.co.uk

Hatchery Norway. Courtesy www.aquahive.co.uk

Juvenile Lobsters. Photo courtesy NOAA Northeast Fishery Science Center.

Innovations continue to emerge in terms of how to hold large numbers of lobster juveniles for early growth while keeping them separated. The Orkney Lobster Hatchery, long recognized as one of Europe’s most successful, has devoted considerable R&D efforts to improve lobster hatchery technology. After a series of trials for upwelling devices, and with the support of the Seafish organization, a novel culture system known as the Aquahive was developed, which provided significant increases in larval development and survival. Aquahive trays provide individual enclosed spaces for larvae, complete with corners to “hide” in,

while allowing for free flow of water. The trays in the Aquahive structure have also been successfully utilized as a cost-effective seabed-deployment device. More information on this system is available at aquahive. co.uk. One researcher at the University of Maine, Dr. Brian Beal, has focused his efforts on finding a way to let nature take care of the lobster juveniles until they are large enough to release. He has worked on both sides of the Atlantic to develop artificial shelter containers to house juveniles on natural water bottoms, allowing them to grow on natural food sources while keeping them

Innovations continue to emerge in terms of how to hold large numbers of lobster juveniles for early growth while keeping them separated. Larvae Lobster. Courtesy www.aquahive.co.uk

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Berried lobster. Photo courtesy NOAA fishwatch.

safe from predators, including each other. One of his best designs to date is a large petri-dish type container, with a single large hole covered with mesh to let natural food in without letting the lobster out. Stock enhancement of juvenile clawed lobsters seems to work, at least in some instances. Between 1990 and 1994 over 128,000 juveniles were released around the Kvitsoy Islands in Norway, and from 1997 to 2001 these animals were making up 50-60% of the landings in the immediate area. Apart from genetic considerations, in which care must be taken to avoid genetic pollution or swamping through hatchery releases, other lobster brood stock management factors were shown to be important in Norwegian studies. Researchers documented significant differences in early survival between offspring of wild and cultured females, with cultured females’ offspring displaying a relative fitness of only 60%. Within both groups, large differences in larval survival were observed among families. Hatchery diets are still an important aspect of lobster culture. Re-

searchers in the UK recently reported that the inclusion of dietary Bacillus spp. and mannan oligosaccharides in larval diets improved weight gain, specific growth rate, food conversion and post-larval condition. And at the New England Aquarium, researchers have been focusing on developing diets for larval lobsters utilizing a combination of live Artemia nauplii or frozen n-3 enriched adult Artemia with three commercial larval shrimp diets. Results are summarized at the Aquarium’s web site: http://www.neaq.org/conservation_and_research/index.php In summary, soon the only constraint to commercial aquaculture of market-sized clawed lobsters will be a lack of economical grow-out systems. But in the meantime, hatchery technology and stock enhancement will continue to advance, so that the species will still be around if that constraint is eventually overcome.

* Greg Lutz has a PhD in Aquaculture and Quantitative Genetics by the Louisiana State University. He’s Aquaculture Magazine’s Editor in Chief.

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Otohime ® for Larval Fish: Kodawari for Aquaculture

During our recent visit to Japan we gained a deep appreciation for the traditional, unrelenting attention to detail that even today remains a foundation of Japanese culture.

By Lyn Reed*

t is conspicuous in all aspects of Japanese culture in traditional dress, temples and shrines, gardens, and many social customs, especially in the presentation of food. The Japanese have a word for this devotion to quality in even the smallest details: kodawari. Kodawari has been roughly translated to mean “a sincere, unwavering focus on what you are doing; an uncompromising and relentless devotion to pursuing something; giving special attention to a particular subject matter.” For the Japanese, kodawari is a way of life.

A tradition of food from the sea We also learned a lot about Japan’s affinity for foods from the sea, which

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has led to a long history of aquaculture. To assure a reliable source of aquatic foods, fish farming came into practice in the ponds of palaces as early as 100 B.C., by some accounts. Aqua-farming technology developed and improved over the centuries to encompass more and more of the varied species of seafood that were, and still are, a regular part of the daily Japanese diet. In the 1930s Japan became the first country to carry out intensive farming of marine fish in enclosures – Japanese amberjack, mackerel and sea bream. The 1950s brought the development of cage culture, which led to major gains in productivity and brought aquaculture to the level we see today, with culture of several

dozen species of fish throughout all 47 prefectures. Hatcheries and nurseries close the loop, reducing the impact on wild populations while allowing the people of Japan to maintain their culinary traditions.

Kodawari in action The highlight of our visit to Japan was a tour of the Marubeni Nisshin Feed Company (MNF) Chita Feed Mill, the site of much of their fish feed production for both domestic and international markets. The Chita Feed Mill began operation in 1968. When Marubeni Feeds and Nisshin Feeds joined forces in 2003, MNF dedicated the Chita facility solely to the production of pre-mixes and fish feeds, separating fish feed pro-

Group shot in front of the Chita Feed Mill. Caption – In front of the Chita Feed Mill, Japan. Left to right: Yusuke Haruyama, Pacific Trading Company, Japan; Kenji Chaki, Marubeni Nisshin Feed Co (MNF), Japan; Lyn Reed and Tim Reed, Reed Mariculture, USA; Shinichi Kawatoko, MNF; and Naohiro Yoneda, MNF.

duction from all land animal-based feeds. The increasing reliance on aquaculture makes maintaining and increasing the availability of premium-quality aquatic animal feeds a major focus for MNF. It goes without saying that all feeds must meet the highest stan-

In the Americas, Otohime is being used successfully in the development of aquaculture protocols for a number of high value marine species including Cobia, Sablefish, Seriola, Amberjack and Red Drum.

dards to be acceptable into the Japanese market. Touring the Chita Feed Mill and witnessing the principle of kodawari in action throughout the facility gave us a deep appreciation for how MNF came to develop such an effective feed as Otohime. Their approach is straightforward: Choose ingredients that are as close to natural as possible, use only the best ingredients from trusted suppliers, combine them in the right proportions, and you cannot go wrong. Thanks to their long history and world - wide reach, MNF has developed close relationships with suppliers around the globe to assure that the ingredients they receive always meet or exceed their quality standards. All ingredients and finished products undergo rigorous Quality Assurance analysis to assure that their internal processes and the final products remain consistent. In

alignment with their mission statement to operate “the feed business focused on: Supporting the safe/ secure human food life as a part of the food supply chain” MNF gained ISO 9001 Certification in 2007, and upgraded to ISO 22000 (human food production standards) in 2013. Moreover, they keep abreast of the latest scientific understanding of the many domestic varieties of fish through their research and development facility located in the Aichi prefecture.

Aquaculture feed solutions to meet the growing needs of a burgeoning market We wanted to know: What solutions have been found to the challenges of feeding the larvae of “difficult” fish? Can these solutions be applied successfully to the many new species of food fish being researched » 13

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In the Americas, fish and seafood in general do not have the “primary food” status that they enjoy in Japan.

and successfully developed outside of Japan? In the wild, the larvae of high value species have similar nutritional requirements, and meet them in one of two ways: either they have an egg and yolk of sufficient size to feed them until they are able to eat fairly large size foods (pellets, in the case of aquaculture), or they need immediate access to microplankton within hours after hatching. For those larvae that start life eating zooplankton, the transition to food that does not swim – pellet foods – can be difficult. Weaning feeds must contain substances that mimic foods found in nature in order to assure acceptance by larvae. MNF has taken this into consideration, and the base ingredients for all granule Otohime feeds (pellet sizes 75 µm–1800 µm) are the highest quality krill meal, fish meal (super prime) and squid meal. These three ingredients comprise > 80% of the biomass of the smallest granule sizes, and > 90% of the larger sizes. In Japan, Otohime is the diet of choice for a wide variety of aquacultured marine species requiring a weaning stage: Breams, Groupers, Japanese Flounder, Tiger Puffer, Amberjack (Seriola), Horse Mackerel, Spanish Mackerel, Rockfish, Sole, Cod , and Swimming Crab.

Otohime in the New World In the Americas, Otohime is being used successfully in the develop-

ment of aquaculture protocols for a number of high value marine species including Cobia, Sablefish, Seriola, Amberjack and Red Drum. Otohime is also being used to close the loop with many challenging ornamental species, opening the door for captive breeding of ornamentals that can allow that industry to move away from practices that are often destructive to the environments where these fishes are currently collected. In the Americas, fish and seafood in general do not have the “primary food” status that they enjoy in Japan. Although the US is blessed with the resources of vast oceans on both east and west coasts, it still has a much smaller relative percentage of marine coastline than Japan, with much of the population far from either ocean. Aquacultured marine fish, in particular, have had a difficult time gaining traction as a desirable food for the masses. Consequently, coastal communities have tended to enjoy local, wild-caught marine species while the rest of the country tends toward consuming freshwater species or none at all. Aquaculture is most widely employed in the US for easily-produced freshwater species such as salmon, trout and catfish, and in stocking programs for popular gamefish. With expansion of Otohime into the US market it has become the preferred larval feed for many of the more challenging freshwater fish such as Walleye,

Northern Pike, Largemouth Bass, Paddlefish, and Alligator Gar. There is growing agreement world - wide that aquaculture done well is our most cost effective and sustainable source of high quality protein to feed the growing population in the coming decades. Advances in our understanding of fish nutrition and the availability of high quality feeds are acting as gamechangers. Researchers across the globe are developing techniques and protocols to meet the increasing demand for aquacultured marine and freshwater fish, and many are coming to rely on Otohime.

Kodawari for Aquaculture Kodawari is the quality that makes the difference between short - lived and lasting success. Kodawari is what drives development – in this example, aquaculture developments. Kodawari is the quality required to supply “the safe/secure human food life as a part of the food supply chain.” And when it comes to feed for larval fish, kodawari is Otohime.

*Lyn Reed is Chief Officer of Operations, Reed Mariculture, Inc (www.reed-mariculture.com)

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NOAA Sea Grant awards $2.6 million for new aquaculture projects

Today NOAA Sea Grant is announcing new grants totaling $2.6 million for 15 projects to support the development of environmentally and economically sustainable ocean, coastal, or Great Lakes aquaculture.

Staff NOAA*

hrough university, state and other partnerships, Sea Grant Programs will supplement the federal funding with an additional $1.4 million in non-federal matching funds, bringing the total investment to about $4 million for new national

projects in 2014. These new research projects are in addition to multi-year extension and technology transfer projects selected in FY13. The U.S. imports over 90 percent of the seafood we consume,

over half of that is farm-raised or aquaculture. Current estimates of U.S. aquaculture production, both freshwater and marine, are valued at $1.2 billion in the most recent annual report. This represents 6 percent of our domestic seafood landings by

Maine marine extension associates Sarah Redmond and Dana Morse tend an experimental kelp farm in Frenchman Bay, Maine. They are sharing techniques with fishermen and prospective sea farmers as part of the Sea Grant-funded “Aquaculture in Shared Waters” project. (Catherine Schmitt).

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weight and 20 percent of domestic landings by value. “Domestic aquaculture creates jobs and helps meet the nation’s demand for finfish and shellfish,” said Gene Kim, Ph.D., Program Director for Aquaculture for NOAA Sea Grant. “These grants support research that will produce tangible results to ensure a safe and sustainable supply of farmed seafood now and for future generations.” Sea Grant has been involved in research to support sustainable aquaculture since its inception in 1966. This year’s National Strategic Investment competition focused on aquaculture research projects that will have immediate beneficial impacts by: informing regulatory decisions; increasing production technology, or understanding the socio-economic issues that limit aquaculture development. Sea Grant supports NOAA aquaculture partners in NOAA Fisheries and NOAA Ocean Service with its academic and industry research partners. Sea Grant’s built-in network of extension agents and specialists along the coasts will provide this research directly to the local communities and small businesses that need it most.

Examples of the grants include: • California Sea Grant is supporting research that will provide education, training, siting maps and other

A fish farmer holds up tiny oysters produced at a hatchery in Grand Isle, Louisiana. (NOAA Sea Grant).

information to assist communities with current regulatory decisions regarding commercial-scale aquaculture operations in the Southern California Bight. • Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant is funding technology development to raise copepods, which are microscopic food for marine fish raised in hatcheries. Raising copepods on a commercial hatchery scale can lead to reliable and cost-effective production of juvenile finfish, which has limited marine aquaculture. • Rhode Island Sea Grant is funding a socio-economic study to assess how consumers respond to news about food-borne disease outbreaks in oysters, both in-state and out –of-state, and how they respond to information about product safety. This information will help the oyster aquaculture industry better market its produce and respond to foodborne disease outbreaks. Sea Grant is a federal-private partnership of 33 programs based at top research universities in every coastal and Great Lakes state as

well as Puerto Rico and Guam. Sea Grant leverages federal, academic, and industry partners to support the demand for increased efficiency and increased yield in the aquaculture industry. Sea Grant continues to invest in high-priority aquaculture research and engage communities through its integrated outreach program, bringing together the collective expertise of on – the-ground extension agents, educators and communicators to support the development and integrations of new aquaculture technologies.

For more information, please contact Monica Allen, director of public affairs for NOAA Research, at 301734-1123 or by email at monica.allen@noaa.gov http://research.noaa.gov/News/NewsArchive/LatestNews/TabId/684/ArtMID/1768/ArticleID/10916/NOAASea-Grant-awards-26-million-for-new-aquacultureprojects.aspx

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Microsporidians: Significance in aquaculture

Like all other production systems, aquaculture is also susceptible to contagious diseases. Several viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, worms By Salim Sultan*

ral transmission, through food and water, is one of the important modes of pathogen movement. Presence of microsporidians in aquaculture systems has long been reported. However, when findings suggested that the shrimp disease EMS/APHND spreads through infected natural

Sporoblast of Fibrillanosema crangonycis Photo: Wiki.

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etc. thrive in water and infect aquatic organisms at an opportune time.

feed, the group (microsporidians) gained importance, as they are also found in organisms which are integral parts of crustacean/fish food chains. Hence, the recent studies with EMS, particularly regarding the mode of transmission, have further outlined their role in shrimp culture specifically and in aquaculture as a whole.

Microsporidians-general features Microsporidia constitute a phylum of spore-forming unicellular parasites. They were once thought to be protists, but are now recognised under fungi. About 1500 microsporidia have been identified and named scientifically so far. They are restricted to animal hosts, and almost all major groups of animals host microsporidia. Most infect insects, but they are also responsible for common diseases of crustaceans and fish. Microsporidia lack motile structures, such as flagella, and produce highly resistant spores capable of surviving outside their hosts for several years. Spore morphology is useful in distinguishing between different species. Spores of most species are oval or pear shaped but rod-shaped or spherical forms are also common. Polychaetes or bristle worms are annelid worms, generally marine. Each body segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called parapodia that bear many bristles, called chaetae, which are made of chitin. Polychaetes are extremely variable in both form and lifestyle, and include a few taxa that swim among the plankton or above the abyssal plain. The most generalized polychaetes are those that crawl along the bot-

tom, but others have adapted to different ecological niches, including burrowing, swimming, pelagic life, tube-dwelling or boring, commensalism and parasitism, requiring various modifications to their body structures. More than 10,000 species are described in this class. Common representatives include the lugworm (Arenicola marina) and the sandworm or clam worm Alitta. Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei (EHP) is a microsporidian parasite that was first characterised and named from the black tiger shrimp P. monodon from Thailand. It was discovered in slow growing shrimp but was not so emphatically studied in relation to growth performance. EHP is confined to the shrimp hepatopancreas (HP) and morphologically resembles an unnamed microsporidian previously reported in the hepatopancreas of P. japonicas from Australia. Later, it was found that EHP could also infect exotic P. vannamei imported for cultivation in Asia and that it could be transmitted directly from shrimp to shrimp by the oral route. This differed from the most common microsporidian previously reported from cotton shrimp, where transmission required an intermediate fish host, allowing disruption of transmission by exclusion of fish from the production system.

tion of population density. When they reach a quorum, the bacteria are activated. Action often results in increased pathogenicity. The detection of a minimal threshold stimulatory concentration of an auto inducer leads to an alteration in gene expression. Quorum quenching is the process of preventing quorum sensing by disrupting the signaling. This may be achieved by degrading the signalling molecule. Microbially matured water systems, similar to greenwater technology, have been developed to minimise the presence of pathogens that are able to grow fast and are consequently capable of quickly

Microsporidia constitute a phylum of spore-forming unicellular parasites.

Why is EHP important? Although EHP does not appear to cause mortality, information from shrimp farmers indicates that it is associated with severe growth retardation in P. vannamei. It is feared that lack of interest in EHP would lead to its build up in production systems and that its spread would be masked by EMS/AHPND because it kills shrimp before the negative effects of EHP on growth are apparent. Quorum sensing: It is a form of bacterial communication; bacteria produce and release chemical signal molecules called auto inducers that increase in concentration as a funcÂť 19

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Fig. 2 Microsporidian spores in hepatopancreatic cells. Photo: BMC Veterinary research.

invading ‘empty’ niches. Microbially matured water is characterised by a dominance of slow-growing bacteria with a limited nutrient supply per bacterium. They eliminate the niches for fast growing bacteria, which include many disease-causing Vibrio spp. Relevance to shrimp culture: Researchers found that EMS is caused by a bacterial agent, which is transmitted orally, colonises the shrimp’s gastrointestinal tract and produces a toxin that causes tissue destruction and dysfunction of the digestive organ known as the hepatopancreas. The pathogen V. parahaemolyticus naturally exists in seawater. Being a common inhabitant of coastal and estuarine environments all over the world, they are often found naturally associated with shrimp aquaculture systems. In culture ponds, the susceptible shrimp species are Penaeus monodon, P. vannamei and P. chinensis. The three possible routes are water, pond to pond and shrimp to shrimp. Some investigators have

opined that shrimp broodstock that have eaten marine polychaetes carrying the unique strain of V. parahaemolyticus bacteria in their gut that causes EMS may become carriers of the disease and further work is on to evaluate these carriers. Thus, it is recommended that the PCR and in situ hybridization methods developed herein be used to identify natural reservoir species so they can be eliminated from the shrimp rearing system.

Method of detection A nested PCR detection method and a LAMP method are available to check faeces of broodstock and to check whole PL for the presence of the microsporidean EHP. The pathogen can also be detected by light microscopy but due to smaller number of spores, the PCR detection method is a better option. Management of EHP The best approach to avoid EHP is not to use live animals (e.g. live poly-

Although EHP does not appear to cause mortality, information from shrimp farmers indicates that it is associated with severe growth retardation in P. vannamei.

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chaetes, clams, oysters etc.) as feeds for broodstock. The other precautions are to freeze such feeds before use since this kills both AHPND bacteria and EHP. Better still would be pasteurisation (heating at 70ºC for 10 minutes) since it would also kill major shrimp viruses. Another alternative would be to use gamma irradiation with frozen feeds. EHP and AHPND bacteria have both been reported from living polychaete samples used to feed broodstock shrimp. EHP can be suspected if postlarvae from any hatchery grow slower than would be expected. The best way is to clean the whole setup. All shrimp must be removed from the hatchery and it should be washed followed by cleaning using 2.5% sodium hydroxide solution (25g NaOH/L freshwater) with the solution left on and washed off after 3 hours contact time. This treatment should include all equipment, filters, reservoirs and pipes. After washing to remove the NaOH, the hatchery should be dried for 7 days. Then it should be rinsed down with acidified chlorine (200 ppm chlorine solution at pH < 4.5). There are usually two main management issues related to farms. The first issue is to insure that the PLs used to stock ponds are not infected with EHP. This can be done most easily by PCR testing. The second issue is preparation of ponds between cultivation cycles, especially when a cultivation pond has previously been affected by EHP. Application of CaO (quick lime, burnt lime, unslaked lime or hot lime) at a rate of 6 mt/ha is recommended to disinfect earthen ponds of EHP spores. Disc the CaO into the dry pond sediment (10-12 cm) and then moisten the sediment to activate the lime. Then leave for 1 week before drying or filling. After application of CaO, the soil pH should rise to 12 or more for a couple of days and then fall back

negative effect on white leg shrimp growth and production efficiency and this could be exacerbated by the possibility of horizontal transmission. Synergistic effect: An effect arising between two or more agents, entities, factors, or substances that produces an effect greater than the sum of their individual effects. It is the opposite of antagonism. Studies are further needed to investigate, from this angle, the impacts of microsporidians in aquaculture.

A case with Mexico Sritunyalucksana et al (2014) reported that ‘there are rumours that the outbreaks of AHPND in Mexico originated from contaminated broodstock of P. Vannamei illegally imported to Mexico from Asia for production of PLs to stock rearing ponds’. In view of the high prevalence of EHP in Asia, it is recommended that the quarantine authorities check their current and archived DNA samples used to monitor for AHPND bacteria by PCR to also check for the presence of EHP target DNA by PCR. These findings can bring out facts to clarify many prevailing uncertainties. Eventually, continued surveillance of pathogens and preventative measures can be adopted to check the entry and spread of these parasites.

A variety of marine worms. Courtesy of: Wiki.

to the normal range as it absorbs carbon dioxide and becomes CaCO3. Overall impact on aquaculture: EMS primarily affects two species of shrimp, P. monodon and P. vannamei. Clinical signs of the disease include lethargy, slow growth, an empty stomach and mid gut and a pale and atrophied hepatopancreas, often with black streaks. Disease spread would appear to be linked to proximity to already-infected farms or the movement of infected live shrimp, usu-

ally juveniles used to stock ponds. In view of similar symptoms at least in early days and several possible routes of pathogens, polychaetes may be one of the potential carriers and may affect disease outbreaks by quorum sensing mechanisms. The presence of E. hepatopenaei has been reported in P. vannamei and P. monodon and it is not causally associated with White Fecal Syndrome. However, the deceptive severity of infections would undoubtedly have a

Salim Sultan is Senior Technical Officer INFOFISH, Malaysia.

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Note

BIOMIN

announces new aquaculture research center in Vietnam Opening early 2015, the new BIOMIN aquaculture research center will drive research and development of innovative and effective solutions to pressing challenges in the industry. The facility, which will be located at Nong Lam University in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, further solidifies the dedication of BIOMIN to the aquaculture industry.

n line with its expansion plans in the aquaculture industry, BIOMIN will unveil its new 900m2 aquaculture research center at Nong Lam University in Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam in early 2015. The new facility signifies the continued collaborative efforts of BIOMIN in conducting innovative research to provide effective solutions to the industry with the focus on several key areas: nutrition and feed formulation; gut health; immune modulation; waste management and feed safety. Research and development will be centered on several of the most important species for the aquaculture industry in the region including marine and fresh water species such as catfish, tilapia, sea bass and shrimp. 22 Âť

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As part of the investment, BIOMIN will take over and expand the facilities of the aqua research center at Nong Lam University. Activities at the new research center will be jointly coordinated by the BIOMIN Research Center in Tulln, Austria, and the technical staff at the facility. The research facilities will be equipped with five different recirculating systems and two challenge rooms. A feed formulation lab for preparation of test diets, including a lab scale feed extruder that will allow testing of different ingredients and solutions under conditions similar to those found in the aquaculture industry, is also in place. In partnership with SANPHAR, a veterinary products and services company that is also under the ERBER GROUP umbrella, a state-of-the-art microbiological lab will be established to screen and investigate the status of infectious diseases in both livestock and aquaculture. BIOMIN will also collaborate closely with Nong Lam University to build the academic and research pipeline in Vietnam by creating undergraduate research opportunities and mentorship for local students. BIOMIN Holding GmbH +43 2782 803 0 +43 2782 803 11308 E-mail: office@biomin.net

Aquaculture Magazine

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FEATURE ARTICLE

MOVING FORWARD WITH

Aquaculture without Frontiers By Roy D Palmer*

Born and bred from the Aquaculture sector in order to create a voluntary organization to contribute to the alleviation of poverty through small-scale aquaculture, Aquaculture without Frontiers (AwF), recently celebrated its 10th birthday with an updated vision and strategy.

s most people know AwF was formed by Michael New OBE, having been encouraged by colleagues after delivering a keynote paper at the World Aquaculture Society (WAS) conference in Salvador, Brazil in 2003 (New 2003). Michael’s idea was stimulated by reading about the activities of Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF, also known as Doctors Without Borders) and two articles published in the Economist (Anonymous 2003a,b). He ventured the idea that people that had retired from a career in aquaculture might wish to volunteer their experience to help those less fortunate than themselves. In fact, Michael found that the idea of voluntary service in aquaculture appealed to a wide spectrum of individuals, from students to retirees. The board was a veritable who’s who of aquaculture and it ran then, as it does now, on the smell of an 24 »

oily rag. AwF is not an organisation built around creating a massive bank of donated funds, creating overheads and paying high salaries to staff but on actually working with the great goodwill of aquaculture people and doing things that create positive outcomes for the poor and hungry of the world. It is the real meaning of what a charity is all about – people give what they can, whether that is a few dollars or more importantly their time, knowledge and experience. It is a real gem in today’s world of professional NGO’s and it is a credit to its founder and all that have or are still serving its needs. Having said that, there was the need to modify some of the organisation and during these changes there can be no question that we lost some momentum. It felt like we were going backwards but sometimes in life these changes need to be made in order that you can take stock and move forward with greater and stronger

steps. Hopefully that is what we are doing! Firstly was the creation of a Strategy and a vision and mission, and clearly the people engaged at the time saw Aquaculture Learning Centres (ALC’s) as a major key in the future of AwF. That means we have eased back on chasing smaller projects and are trying to create a more sustainable model for where ever we tread. It means we are building capability and capacity in one area at a time so that when we leave essential networks of people are well established and can communicate internally and externally. Additionally we also have taken a broader brush to aquaculture. Education on nutrition (both human and animal) is essential – people need to know why seafood is important in their diet and how feeding their fish the right mixes helps deliver not only excellent fish health but also connects to human health. Entrepreneurial activities are also essential and encouraged as we need to encourage people to want to get out of the poverty trap. Clearly not everyone can run their own fish farm, there will always be people who are prepared to take the extra calculated risks and who are leaders. As long as they are building enterprises which are employing people and paying them a fair wage for a fair day’s work and are transparent in their activities then they are helping improve the world and need to be encouraged and supported. Our first ALC was agreed to be in Tancol, a suburb of Tampico in the State of Tamaulipas, Mexico in collaboration with Universidad Tecnológica del Mar de Tamaulipas Bicentenario (UTMarT). Whilst the main centre for UTMarT is at Soto La Marina La Pesca, about 4 hours’ drive north of Tampico, near to Laguna Morales, this new centre in Tancol will be used to educate students and industry on aquaculture and hospitality and will have connections to both the Mexi-

can Federal Government (SAGARPA) and the State Government. All of these ALC’s need strong passionate leaders and in the case of Tancol this has definitely been UTMarT’s Director de Vinculación, MC. Héctor Hugo Gójon Báez who has been supported by the Rector, Dr. Guadalupe Acosta Villarreal and Director Académico, MC. Tonatiuh Carrillo Lammens.

Entrepreneurial activities are also essential and encouraged as we need to encourage people to want to get out of the poverty trap.

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FEATURE ARTICLE

Fresh water is in abundance at the Tancol site and being an old water plant there are some excellent, albeit old but well-constructed, built in large tanks. Some of these are being used as is but others are being converted with sailing cloth roof covering to smaller areas which will be able to be used in research projects for the students. Funding from the Federal Government has enabled the building of a brand new education centre that will accommodate 200 students but unfortunately the funds did not stretch to finishing the important hatchery area. Efforts are being made now to find the extra funding to finish the hatchery area and importantly have it housed in a solidly constructed building. Through the great assistance of Kevin Fitzsimmons and the US AID ’Farmer to Farmer’ program AwF were able to invite Scott Lindell and Rick Karney to visit Tamaulipas and conduct a survey of facilities as well as have discussions at UTMarT with staff and students, meet industry people and offer some training about

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shellfish and microalgae aquaculture. This visit was followed up quickly by Daniel Herman and Imad Saoud who were looking at other aspects and challenges for the ALC. The opportunity became available at the end of 2014 for a meeting at La Pesca to consider what has been

achieved and what the next major steps are in the arrangement. A report is currently being prepared for further actions during 2015. The oyster aquaculture prospects to replace the fishing methods currently adopted in Laguna Morales are a key ingredient to potential success

of the plans. The early work done by AwF volunteers has paved the way for some excited fisher folk as they can see a future for their business with a more sustainable model than was originally the case. At the same time during the visit to Mexico AwF had the opportunity to visit another potential site for an ALC in Sonora. Discussions were had with business people of the area and education institutions and hopefully this will see AwF have opera-

tions on both sides of Mexico in the near future. AwF are also very excited about the prospects of two other important ALC centers. One is based in the United Kingdom and will be a major connection for our plans in the African continent. The other in Sarawak, Malaysia could be our first ALC in Asia. In Malaysia AwF has a Memorandum of Understanding with the Association of International Seafood Professionals and STEM States In-

corporated, both of which are not for profit associations and incorporated in Australia. The latter acts as a forum through which industry, associations, academia and government can come together to discuss Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education and innovation, and the role they play in the needs of industry, export, trade and development. The background to the ‘Global STEM States’ is as a grassroots move-

United Arab Emirates, China, India, Russia, Germany, South Africa, Tanzania and Brazil have also applied to become members at different levels and the potential for AwF through this association could lead to activities in all those countries. » 27

FEATURE ARTICLE

ment, with a medley of not for profit, academic, industry and government organisations entering into dialogue over the role STEM education plays in a State’s future human resource needs, and how this should be implemented. STEM States hosts conferences and events around the world every year, and each one plays a role in bringing the international community to the host city, and leaving tangible benefits to the host city. Upon launching in September 2013, 5 State’s took up full membership: • Western Australia (Led by Murdoch University and the Asia Pacific Society for Solar and Hybrid Technologies) • New York USA (Led by the Global Industry Development Network; AwF also is a member of this network) • Sarawak Malaysia (Led by STEM States Malaysia and the Department for Advanced Education) • Saskatchewan Canada (Led by Tourism Saskatoon, Innovation Saskatch28 »

ewan and the University of Saskatchewan) • Nova Scotia Canada (Led by the Department of Education and Halifax Convention Centre) United Arab Emirates, China, India, Russia, Germany, South Africa, Tanzania and Brazil have also applied to become members at different levels and the potential for AwF through this association could lead to activities in all those countries.

The Aquaculture Borneo connection sees AwF possibly involved in working collaboratively on the formation of an Aqua Learning Centre within Malaysia with the purpose of educating and upskilling locals, and people from around the region and the establishment or introduction of aqua training programs within technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and science, technology, engineering and mathemat-

ics education (STEM). Additionally a conference that will take place in Malaysia in 2015 that will have specific track dedicated to the development of the Aquaculture industry in Malaysia and AwF will be creating some guidance for that. In the UK a project called REFARM (Research & Education in Foods, Aqua-foods and Renewable Materials) has been started between the Global Biotechnology Transfer Foundation (GBTF), Seafox Management Consultants Ltd (SMCL) and AwF. GBTF is an international, not-forprofit organisation whose mission is

to promote awareness of the potential for biotechnology to support sustainable, long-term, socio-economic development. It aims to achieve its mission through three platforms: education, demonstration and implementation. SMCL is based in Grimsby working closely with the Grimsby & Humber regional seafood processing sector. The business is at the forefront of the seafood cluster and works closely with local groups such as Grimsby Fish Merchants association, Seafood Grimsby & Humber Cluster Group, Seafish Authority and private sector seafood businesses. It works interna-

tionally too with supply chain support and also represents the North Atlantic Seafood Conference in the UK. Additionally, the business has a particular skill-set towards accessing funding & grants for capital major projects. GBTF has acquired a brown-field site at Brookenby, Market Rasen, Lincolnshire which includes buildings and 4 hectares (10 acres) of open land which provides for significant expansion as well as access to a 130 hectare farm which will be used for crop trials and field demonstrations. There are many aspects to this partnership but in summary we want to link developed world infrastructure with developing world needs for education, training and technology transfer to develop grassroots entrepreneurs. At the same time the aim is to be producing a highly nutritious protein for the local market and by taking an open and transparent path this could open the door for UK to become food secure on seafood. The connection to biotech adds dimensions that are not currently happening in any major scale. Given the interactions between Europe and Africa regarding food production and technology transfer, our approach will hopefully be seen as a catalyst for collaboration on the future. If successful, this approach can be copied in other parts of the world using an eco-cluster model. This is far from the original ideas that our founder had all those years ago but hopefully is taking AwF into an exciting and sustainable era. Of course this will not be possible unless we continue to get support from as many people and organisations in the aquaculture industry so we continue to seek your support, your ideas and your contributions whether that be through donating funds or donating valuable time, experience and knowhow. Roy Palmer is the Executive Director of Aquaculture without Frontiers and a regular contributor to Aquaculture Magazine. Visit AwF’s website for more information: http://www.aquaculturewithoutfrontiers.org/

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Kushimoto bay, where the tuna is raised.

Taming

the Wild Tuna

ot long ago, full farming of tuna was considered impossible. Now the business is beginning to take off, as part of a broader revolution in aquaculture that is radically changing the world’s food supply. “We get so many orders these days that we have been catching them before we can give them enough time 30 »

Aquaculture Magazine

By Yuka Hayashi*

Japan Breeds Bluefin Tuna in Captivity, Following Path of Salmon, Shrimp.

to grow (at 130 pounds, or 58 kg),” said Tokihiko Okada, a researcher at Osaka’s Kinki University, who is also an entrepreneur. With a decade-long global consumption boom depleting natural fish populations of all kinds, demand is increasingly being met by farmgrown seafood. In 2012, farmed fish accounted for a record 42.2% of global output, compared with 13.4% in 1990 and 25.7% in 2000.

The moody tuna Until recently, the Pacific bluefin tuna defied any sort of domestication. The bluefin can weigh as much as 900 pounds (405 kg) and barrels through the seas at up to 30 miles/ hour (48 km/hour). The fish is also moody, easily disturbed by light, noise or subtle changes in the water temperature. It hurtles through the water in a straight line, making it prone to fatal collisions in captivity. However, the Japanese treasure the fish’s rich red meat. All this has put the wild Pacific bluefin tuna in a perilous state. Stocks today are less than one-fifth of their peak in the early 1960s. The wild population is now estimated at 44,848 tons, or roughly nine million fish, down nearly 50% in the past decade. The decline has been exacerbated by earlier efforts to cultivate tuna. Fishermen often catch juvenile fish in the wild that are then raised to adulthood in pens. The practice cuts short the breeding cycle by removing much of the next generation from the seas. Scientists at Kinki University decided to take a different approach. In 1969, they embarked on a quest to tame the bluefin. It sought to complete the reproduction cycle, with Pacific bluefin tuna eggs, babies, juveniles and adults all in the farming system. Two scientists from Kinki went out to sea with local fishermen, seeking to capture juvenile tuna for raising in captivity. It has proved to be more than a challenge. The moment the researchers

A member of Kinki University pulls in a farm-raised tuna.

grabbed a few juvenile fish out of a net, the skin started to disintegrate, killing them. It took four years just to perfect delicate fast-releasing hooks for capturing juveniles and moving them into pens. It took nearly 10 years for fish caught in the wild to lay eggs at Kinki’s research pens. Then, in 1983, they stopped laying, and for 11 years, researchers couldn’t figure out the problem. The Kinki scientists now attribute the hiatus to intraday drops in water temperature, a lesson learned only after successful breeding at a separate facility in southern Japan. In the summer of 1994, the fish finally produced eggs again. The researchers celebrated and put nearly 2,000 baby fish in an offshore pen. The next morning, most of them were dead with their neck bones broken. The cause was a mystery until a clue came weeks later. Some of the babies in the lab panicked when the lights came on after a temporary blackout and killed themselves. The researchers realized that sudden bright light from a car, fireworks or lightning caused the fish to panic and bump into each other or into the walls. The solution was to keep the lights on at all times.

At last, in 2002, the Kinki team became the first in the world to breed captive bluefin from parents that were themselves born in captivity. The circle was complete. But the survival rate remained low. Troubles didn’t end there. In 2011, Kinki lost more than 300 grown fish out of its stock of 2,600 after an earthquaketriggered tsunami hit a coastline 400 miles away. The tsunami triggered a quick shift in tide and clouded the water, causing the fish to panic and smash into nets. In 2013, a typhoon decimated its stock. Again in the summer of 2014, frequent typhoons kept the researchers on their toes as

In 2002, the Kinki team became the first in the world to breed captive bluefin from parents that were themselves born in captivity.

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they waited for the breeding season to start. It seemed doubtful for years that the tuna undertaking could be commercially viable.

Commercial partners Kinki University had funded its project with proceeds from the sale of more common fish raised at its

Membres of Kinki university staff with a recently slaughtered tuna.

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research facilities. That kept the tuna farming alive even after other academic and commercial organizations gave up. Now the university

Samples of tuna in early stages of their life cycle are preserved in bottles at the Kinki University Fish Nursery Center.

needed help from someone with deeper pockets, and by the latter half of the last decade the timing was right. The world’s voracious appetite for sushi and gourmet fish was eroding stocks of bluefin tuna and governments were beginning to clamp down on overfishing. The country most at risk of a tuna shortage was Japan, which consumes 80% of the world’s overall catch, or some 40,000 tons annually. One early supporter was an employee of Toyota Tsusho Corp., a trading company affiliated with the auto maker. Taizou Fukuta was working in the company’s finance department in Nagoya when he saw a documentary about the tuna project. He was inspired to propose a tuna farming business in a Toyota in-house venture contest and won. With USD$1 million in seed money, Fukuta vis-

The world’s voracious appetite for sushi and gourmet fish was eroding stocks of bluefin tuna and governments were beginning to clamp down on overfishing.

ited Okada, the university’s head of tuna research, many times until the academic agreed to team up with Toyota in 2009. Toyota footed the bill for larger facilities where baby fish hatched at the university’s labs could be raised in large numbers for about four months. At that point, the juvenile fish are stable enough to be sold to commercial tuna ranches, where they are fattened in round pens around 100 feet (30 m) in diameter and 30 feet (9 m) deep for

three to four years before being sold for slaughter. Fukuta moved to a small island off the southern island of Kyushu that offered a warm climate ideal for raising baby tuna. He persuaded local fishermen to lease his company the rights to set up dozens of fish pens. The first shipment of fry from Kinki came in a tank carried on a truck and ended with a 90% loss. The following shipments arrived by boat. More fish died when the winAquaculture Magazine

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Years old bluefin tuna.

ter’s chill arrived, sending the businessman to work with a feed company to develop artificial feed that kept the fish warm. Yet more fish were lost as they were prepared for shipment to buyers; they couldn’t be transferred into the hold of a boat for their journey without smashing into the body of the vessel. A giant funnel made of smooth material was invented to guide the fish into the ship. After shipping an average of 20,000 juvenile fish a year over the past three years, Toyota’s production is expected to rise to 40,000 by next year. That complements Kinki’s own capacity for about the same number of fish. Together, they could supply nearly 20% of the demand for juvenile fish at Japanese tuna farms, taking pressure off the wild stock. This year, the venture is likely to break even for the first time. Today around one or two in 100 of the baby tuna hatching from eggs 34 »

Aquaculture Magazine

Bluefin tuna require 15 pounds (6.75 kg) of feed fish to produce 1 pound (0.45 kg) of meat, prompting the Kinki team and others to look for artificial feed. Benefits of artificial feed include less pollution.

at Kinki survive to adulthood, up from one in several hundred a few years ago. By contrast, only about one in 30 million babies hatched from eggs in the wild survive to adulthood. Other companies are also expanding their tuna business. Using Kinki-bred juvenile fish, a Mitsubishi Corp. unit has opened a commercial tuna ranch in southern Japan. It hopes to ship 300 tons of farmbred tuna this year, up from 40 tons last year. Demand is rising for the farmed tuna from gourmet stores and sushi restaurants in Japan. The

university itself runs two restaurants in Tokyo’s Ginza district and Osaka. In Nagasaki prefecture, one of the main areas for domestic tuna farming, shipments of farmed bluefin rose to 3,000 tons in 2013, nearly five times the amount five years earlier.

Challenges Environmental concerns remain. Bluefin tuna require 15 pounds (6.75 kg) of feed fish to produce 1 pound (0.45 kg) of meat, prompting the Kinki team and others to look for artificial feed. Benefits of artificial

single genetic linage, descended from the successful breeding in 2002. They have experimented with bringing in wild-caught fish to mate with the captive-bred fish to diversify the gene pool, but without success so far. Although it still faces constant challenges, there’s no doubt that the future of bluefin tuna aquaculture looks bright. There is still a lot to research, but today tuna aquaculture is a reality. *Original article: Hayashi, Yuka. Taming the Wild Tuna: Why farmed fish are taking over our dinner plates. The Wall Street Journal. November 14th, 2014. To access this article, and many more addressing aquaculture topics, visit their website at http://online.wsj.com/home-page

At Kinki University’s restaurant in Tokyo’s Ginza district, the most popular lunchtime dish is a sashimi rice bowl. The slices of red meat on the left side are bluefin tuna raised in captivity at one of Kinki’s labs.

feed include less pollution. With real fish, a large part is left uneaten and sinks to the bottom of the ocean, polluting the water. Artificial pellets are easier to eat so there are fewer leftovers. The team has been able to replace up to 30% of the ingredients with vegetable protein but going further stunts the fish’s growth. There is also the question of whether farmed tuna taste as good as wild-caught. Some customers complained the early generation of Kinki’s tuna were too fatty even in a market where fatty tuna is treasured. The problem has been solved by changing the composition of feed. Besides, farm-grown fish currently fetch only about half the price of premium wild-caught tuna. Still, the biggest problem is the high attrition rate of juvenile farmed tuna. While captive-bred bluefin are visually indistinguishable from their wild counterparts, their behaviors are different. The farmed fish are delicate and moody, favoring one type of feed one day and another the next day. They are also less capable in avoiding sudden danger, making them more prone to fatal collisions. Researchers also worry about the possibility of an outbreak of abnormalities as the fish all come from a » 35

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Ice Ice Baby!

Cryopreservation for Aquatic Species Cryopreservation literally means “preservation by freezing”, more specifically with the purpose of bringing cells and tissue back to life after thawing. In aquaculture, this technique has mainly been applied to sperm.

By Ragnhild Bleken Rud and C.G. Lutz*

he idea of collecting sperm and using it later on for fertilization is not new. Folk tales from the Middle East speak of Arab horsemen stealing sperm from rival tribes’ horses in the middle of the night for use on their own mares. The present-day version of this tale is less shrouded in mystery, but rather a result of modern scientific advances. The 20th century version of sperm collection uses various supercooled gases such as dry ice (CO2) and liquid nitrogen (N2) to bring the sperm to a frozen, immobile state. Stored this way at extreme low temperatures, typically in liquid nitrogen (-196°C), sperm can be maintained indefinitely until needed for fertilization. Storing sperm in this way offers a versatile genetic backup option, since it can be used to re-create a population or stock at a later point in time. Since the 1950s, sperm from a range of wild and domesticated animal species (including humans) have been successfully cryopreserved this way, and today cryopreserved sperm is routinely used for fertilization all over the world. The most significant 36 »

Lumpsucker eyed eggs.

Cryogenetics nitrogen tanks.

use is for cattle insemination, where it today is the predominant method of reproduction. Cryopreservation of fish sperm was first successfully performed on herring in 1953. Since then methods have been developed for a range of aquatic species, including important aquaculture stocks such as salmonids, carps and other marine fish. However, the technology has never been implemented by the aquaculture industry on a scale comparable to that seen on land. The main reasons so far have seemed to be unreliable results (and thus lack of trust in the method), unsuitable containers for cryogenic storage (fish have a higher fecundity

and thus there is need to store larger numbers of sperm) and little knowledge about how cryopreservation can be incorporated in fish production and conservation programs. Nonetheless, this technology is being commercialized at an accelerating pace. Cryogenetics is one biotech company that specializes in cryopreservation of sperm from fish and other aquatic species. Through methods and devices developed in-house, Cryogenetics has achieved the techniques and logistics necessary to bring cryopreservation of fish sperm to an industrial scale. Through an improved quality-controlled milt cryopreservation process, the company has

achieved reliable, reproducible fertilization results that are comparable to those with fresh milt. In Atlantic salmon for example, fertilization with cryopreserved milt will result in an average fertilization rate of > 90%. The only way to achieve the reliable results mentioned above involves accurately measuring the raw materials in the first place; knowing where you start is always needed to decide where you will finish. One flask of milt may look very similar to another flask, and the naked eye will not be able to determine the potential reproductive performance of the milt. To address this problem, more sophisticated approaches are required.

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SDM6 with equipment.

Cryogenetics has developed the SDM6 Photometer for measuring the concentration of sperm cells in the milt and determining the dilution quantity that can be applied to realize the best fertilization potential from any partic-

ular male. The key advantage of this is that no matter the volume of milt produced by the male or the sperm cell concentration, measuring and controlled dilution gives a consistent reproduction value in terms of the

numbers of eggs that can be fertilized from 1ml of milt. This is very important in seasons of low milt volumes as well as when utilizing the milt from your “perfect” genetic specimens to the best advantage. Since fertility is so much higher in fish than in mammals, incorporating cryopreserved sperm can potentially be even more useful in fish breeding and multiplication. It allows out-of– season or early/late production when there is a lack of available milt, crossing of distinct year-classes, and easier export/import of genetic material.

Cryopreservation of fish sperm was first successfully performed on herring in 1953.

Ragnhild with trout.

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Pipetting for SDM6 measurement.

Like other animals, male and female fish have to be on the same page when it comes to reproduction and synchronization between their exact spawning periods. This happens in the wild and in aquaculture situations as well. If you are able to go to your cryo-bank, remove and thaw your selected milt at the proper time to give you the best fertilization results, then you will save greatly on the whole cost of the process as well as use time more effectively at a really busy period. Cryogenetics was founded as a holding company in 2007, as a result of a research effort to improve cryopreservation of Atlantic salmon sperm, and this is still the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s core product. The Norwegian cattle breeding association, Geno SA, is the largest stakeholder with 50 % ownership. The other owners are a governmental investment company (Investinor - 37.5%), and a local investor, Utstillingsplassen Eiendom, with 12.5%. Since its beginnings, Cryogenetics has served to illustrate how its core technology is becoming more commonplace in aquaculture. The company has shown rapid growth, from 1 full-time employee in 2010 to a Âť 39

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current staff of 18 across 5 countries. Cryogenetics’ head office is in Norway, with branches in the USA, Canada, Chile and the UK. Cryopreservation facilities are located in Woburn, MA (USA), Black Creek, B.C. (Canada), Puerto Montt (Chile) and Hamar and Trondheim (Norway). Clients from all over the world ship their milt for cryopreservation and secure storage of valuable genetic material. The facility in Woburn is specially designed for receiving live zebrafish and for cryopreserving their sperm. This small fish is a valuable model organism for medical and biological research. Not only does cryopreservation provide a source of sperm cells for reproducing a particular line of zebrafish, but it also provides a mark in time of the genetic makeup of the fish. Rather like a “restore point” on a computer, it’s a point to go back to and you will not have lost all of your preceding valuable work. Cryogenetics has developed products and services applicable to several fish species including Atlantic salmon, Pacific salmon species, trout, char and Zebrafish and has been involved with a great variety of others such as sablefish, sturgeon and halibut as well as cleaner fish (demand for which is steadily increasing). In addition, instruments for evaluating sperm quality such as the SDM6 Photometer and the AquaBoost™ range of products aim to improve the fertilization potential for several fish species. Product development and research is a continuous process, and most R&D comes out of requests from, or in cooperation, with customers. The most recent product launched by the firm is AquaBoost™ SpermCoat for extracting sperm from gonads. By utilizing milt extracted in this way it is possible to increase the male fertilization potential to 1 million eggs per male, which is in the region of double the best performance for a good Atlantic salmon 40 »

male. Combined with cryopreservation, a few males will be able to supply enough sperm for the entire spawning season, significantly reducing the need and cost to maintain male broodstock in cages and tank systems. Consistency of product is probably the most important parameter on which an aquaculture company is measured by its customers. The customer would like to have a product that looks good, tastes excellent and is of an optimal size and shape to pass through processing equipment with little or no change in machinery settings. In utilizing the genetically most-valuable males to produce more offspring, producers will be that much closer to delivering the consistency that their customers want.

Future Developments More and more aquaculture pro-

ducers, conservation biologists and researchers see the value of using cryopreservation-related products and services. As this method is increasingly adopted, related technologies will also advance. As they move forward, in addition to products for fertilization Cryogenetics intends to develop products that can aid in sperm and egg quality evaluation and to improve fertilization results.

For more information on Cryogenetics: Cryogenetics AS Storhamargata 44 N-2317 Hamar NORWAY Phone: +47 909 20 600 ragnhild.bleken.rud@cryogenetics.com For more information on the science of cryopreservation in aquatic species, see: Cryopreservation in Aquatic Species 2nd Edition. 2011. Edited by T. R. Tiersch and C. C. Green, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center. 1003 pp. https://www.was.org/Shopping/cryopreservation-inaquatic-species-2nd-edition

NEWS ARTICLE

Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems Inc. acquired PR Aqua Supplies Ltd.

R Aqua produces integrated water treatment and fish handling solutions for a variety of applications, including Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS). The company has developed a reputation as highly recognized aquaculture and water treatment specialists, focusing for over 25 years on Design, Engineering, and Manufacturing. Past projects include a wide variety of aquaculture applications in North America and around the world, from research facilities to hatcheries and grow out operations. They provide design and equipment solutions for influent control, culture treatment, and effluent management, in addition to complete culture systems. PR Aqua’s website includes links to a number of products and services including design & packaged solutions, fish culture products, and water treatment products. Specific topics include: • Culture Systems • Design Services • Effluent Management • Influent Treatment • Recirculation Technologies • Counting Fish • Grading Fish • Moving Fish • Biofiltration • Culture Tanks • Disinfection • Gas Balancing • Oxygenation • Solids Removal • Biomass Inventory Management • Specialized Equipment

Sanford, N.C. — Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems (Canada), Inc. announced on December 15 that it has acquired PR Aqua Supplies Ltd., a leading aquaculture design and equipment provider based in Nanaimo, BC, Canada.

“The addition of PR Aqua complements our ability to meet the increasing market demand for cutting edge technology, equipment and engineered solutions as a comprehensive single source provider,” said Karl Frykman, President of Pentair’s Aquatic Systems. Pentair Aquatic Systems provides equipment, accessories and water technology solutions to the swimming pool, aquaculture and environmental water monitoring industries. Aquatic Systems produces a broad line of products from pumps and filtration equipment to thermal products, automated controls, lights, automatic cleaners, water purification and treatment technology, UV sterilizers, electromagnetic flow meters, irrigation controls, and more. Applications

for Aquatic Systems products include maintenance, repair and renovation of existing in-field equipment and facilities, as well as planning and engineered solutions for new installations in North America, Europe, and emerging markets such as China, Latin America and other countries. Pentair plc (www.pentair.com) delivers products, services and solutions for its customers’ diverse needs in water and other fluids, thermal management and equipment protection. With 2013 revenues of $7.0 billion, Pentair employs approximately 30,000 people worldwide.

For more information, contact: Rebecca Osborn, Senior Manager- External Communications Direct: 763-656-5589 Email: rebecca.osborn@pentair.com

» 41

SEAFOOD PROCESSING REPORT

Stanford-led study says China’s aquaculture sector can tip the balance in world fish supplies

China’s booming aquaculture industry relies increasingly on fishmeal made from wild-caught fish. This practice depletes wild fish stocks and strains fragile ocean ecosystems, but a new Stanford-led study offers a more sustainable path.

By Laura Seaman*

n a new paper in Science a research team led by Stanford postdoctoral scholar Ling Cao and Professor Rosamond Naylor offers the clearest picture to date of China’s enormous impact on wild

fisheries. The study also presents a more sustainable alternative to the current practice of using wild-caught fish to feed farm-raised fish. China is the world’s leading producer, consumer and processor of

At a factory in Guangdong, China, piles of frozen assorted fish are used to produce low-quality fishmeal. Photo courtesy of Patrik Henriksson.

42 »

fish, contributing one-third of the global supply. China’s fish production has tripled in the past 20 years, and about three-quarters of its supply now comes from fish farms. Yet the industry still places huge pressure on wild fisheries through its demand for fishmeal and fish oil made from wild-caught species. How China develops its aquaculture and aquafeeds sector can thus tip the balance of global seafood availability. “There is a clear opportunity for positive change, but the economic and regulatory incentives for such change are not yet in place,” said Naylor, the William Wrigley Professor in the School of Earth Sciences and director of the Center on Food Security and the Environment at Stanford. Fishing in the coastal waters of China is poorly regulated and often indiscriminate. The result is large volumes of assorted “trash fish” –species that are unfit for human consumption– that end up in animal feeds, including in fishmeal that is

fed to farm-raised fish. Many of the species of wild fish used for feeds have been fully exploited or overexploited, and reducing the demand for them can help protect fragile ocean ecosystems. One promising solution is to recycle the waste by-products from seafood processing plants across China. This waste, which can be 30 to 70 percent of the incoming volume of fish, is often discarded or discharged into nearby waters. The team’s analysis shows that these processing wastes could satisfy between half and two-thirds of the current volume of fishmeal used by Chinese fish farmers, replacing much of the wild fish currently used in feeds. Quality and food safety are two potential barriers to replacing wild-

Quality and food safety are two potential barriers to replacing wild-caught fish with fish processing wastes.

Photo courtesy of: http://eugeniomateo.blogspot.mx/2012/11/ii-vietnam-en-etapas-bahia-de-ha-long.html

caught fish with fish processing wastes. The waste is lower in protein that wild-caught fish, but this can be overcome by adding plant-based protein sources to the fishmeal, like algae or ethanol yeast. The use of processing waste also raises concerns about contamination and disease transmission, which the researchers say can be addressed through better research on the safety risks and through tighter regulations. “It’s time to make serious decisions about managing and protecting ocean fisheries, and China will play a pivotal role in this process,” said Naylor. “Collecting good data from China is an important starting point. But we also need a clear path toward more sustainable fisheries and aquaculture management, and that’s what we present in this paper.”

“This is a critical juncture for China,” said lead author Ling Cao, a postdoctoral scholar at the Center on Food Security and the Environment. “If the country makes proactive reforms to its aquaculture sector, like using fish-processing wastes instead of wild fish, and generally reducing the amount of fishmeal in aquafeeds, it can greatly improve the sustainability of the industry. If not, the consequences for the entire global seafood supply chain are going to be really serious.” The team’s research was supported by funding from the Lenfest Ocean Program. Original article: January 2015. Laura Seaman, Center on Food Security and the Environment. For more information: (650) 723-4920, lseaman@stanford.edu

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ASIAN report

Broodstock Management in Aquaculture:

Long term effort required for regional capacity building

sia produces nearly 90% of world aquaculture output. However, growth of the industry is increasingly constrained by various factors, including poor broodstock quality and genetic deterioration of domesticated stock. This has arisen in part from a general lack of planning, knowledge and skills in broodstock management. Capacity building across the region is urgently required for hatchery operators at different scales through information exchange, experience sharing and training. The United Nations University Fisheries Training Programme (UNU-FTP), Network of Aquaculture Centre in Asia-Pacific (NACA) and Nha Trang University jointly initiated a project on â&#x20AC;&#x153;Development of a Regional Training Course for Capacity Building on: Finfish Broodstock Management in Aquacultureâ&#x20AC;? in collaboration with Deakin University and Fisheries Victoria (Australia) and Holar University (Iceland) in 2012. The objective was to develop and test a training course on principles and practices of broodstock management with hatchery managers and key in-service personnel associated with hatchery operations. To date, a set of training materials have been developed, covering most aspects of broodstock management including broodstock nutrition, genetic maintenance and improvement, disease and health management and hatchery operation. The training 44 Âť

Broodstock management is an important part of general aquaculture practice and interrelated to all other segments of aquaculture production cycle.

materials have been continuously evolving through consultation in various expert workshops and accumulation of practical knowledge. Two pilot training courses were conducted in 2013 and 2014 respectively in Nha Trang University, Vietnam, for some 80 professionals from 19 countries in Asia and Africa. The training courses took a learner-centered approach, encouraging active participation of trainees in learning process, emphasing practical experiences and problem solving skills of participants. Broodstock management is an important part of general aquaculture practice and interrelated to all other segments of aquaculture production cycle. It is however often considered to be difficult by some hatchery operators due to lack of know-how or simply overlooked by others. The issue is further complicated by lack of overall planning, little collaboration among seed producers, insufficient financial input for R&D, and lack of institutional support. Efforts to maintain and improve broodstock quality of any major cultured species requires long-term strategic plan-

ning at national and regional level and practical approaches involving public sectors, breeding centers, and private hatcheries at various operational scales. Capacity building for all stakeholders through training is therefore fundamentally important to raise awareness, update knowledge and enhance skills. Participants considered that the training courses were highly relevant and important in addressing the issue of deteriorating broodstock quality. They were satisfied with the course organization and logistic support and voiced their continuing effort to amplify the course impacts upon return to their work through application of knowledge and skills they acquired during the training. Development and successful implementation of the training course on broodstock management in aquaculture by UNU-FTP, NACA and Nha Trang University turned over a new leaf for regional capacity building in broodstock management in aquaculture. Admittedly this is just a start and there is still long way to go.

ASIAN report

Report shows

poor benefit from commercial aquaculture

new report from WorldFish shows that resourcepoor Bangladeshis can participate in commercial aquaculture, challenging conventional assumptions that this was not possible. The report also highlights that more of the very poor in Bangladesh are profiting from commercial aquaculture than was previously thought. Aquaculture, employment, poverty, food security and well-being in Bangladesh: A comparative study, finds that where a critical mass of aquaculture producers had formed in a particular region, the development of related infrastructure reduced costs and lowered barriers to entry for other producers. In those areas, the potential of aquaculture to generate significant returns was sufficiently attractive to make the risks of investing in it appear acceptable to resource-poor households. In the study, more small landowners and resource-poor farmers were shown to practice commercial aquaculture than semi-subsistence forms, for example from household ponds. The study found greater social and economic benefits in small and medium sized aquaculture enterprises as opposed to smaller scale or household operations. Commercially-oriented aquaculture producers, the report also found, derived nutritional benefit by consuming larger quantities of fish from their own farms than households operating backyard operations. Stephen Hall, Director General, WorldFish: “By identifying the modes of aquaculture that most benefits the poor we can best direct efforts to bol-

The study found greater social and economic benefits in small and medium sized aquaculture enterprises as opposed to smaller scale or household operations. ster this sector. While we have seen the detrimental effects of large scale aquaculture for communities it is now clearer that the benefits of smaller scale commercial operations are potentially great in increasing food security and employment.” Authored by WorldFish’s Ben Belton, Nasib Ahmed and Murshed-eJahan the study also found that employment generated by aquaculture is generally higher than for other forms of agriculture, particularly those that are more seasonal, such as rice production. Commercial smallholder operations were found to create the highest levels of direct employment and in a wide range of supporting occupations, for example pond diggers and providers of transport. The study was conducted via an integrated quantative/qualitative survey in six communities with contrasting patterns of aquaculture development. Aquaculture, employment, poverty, food security and well-being in Bangladesh: A comparative study is a product of the CGIAR Research Programs (CRP) on Aquatic Agricultural Systems in which WorldFish participates as well as an output of the EU funded Aquaculture for food security, poverty alleviation and nutrition project.

Fish pond in Dedaye Township, Ayeyarwaddy Delta Region, Myanmar. Photo by Zizawah. ( flickr.com/photos/theworldfishcenter/

Trainers physically instructing farmers on techniques, Egypt. Photo by Heba El Begawi. ( flickr.com/photos/theworldfishcenter/

For more information or to request an interview: Contact: Toby Johnson, Senior Media Relations Manager Mobile Tel: +60 (0) 175 124 606 Email:t.johnson@cgiar.org Web: worldfishcenter.org Photography: flickr.com/photos/theworldfishcenter/ About WorldFish WorldFish is an international, nonprofit research organization that harnesses the potential of fisheries and aquaculture to reduce hunger and poverty. Globally, more than one billion poor people obtain most of their animal protein from fish and 800 million depend on fisheries and aquaculture for their livelihoods. WorldFish is a member of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future. About CGIAR CGIAR is a global research partnership for a foodsecure future. Its science is carried out by the 15 research Centers that are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partners.

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PRODUCTS TO WATCH

Optimize your operations

by eliminating hand counts and improving production traceability The concept is simple: each measurement taken with the XperCount2™ is instantaneously attributed to a tank or population before being stored in a custom database.

A Unique Monitoring Tool

The XperCount2™ is a device used to count, size, and image all types of small aquatic organisms. Using its unique optical technology, the XperCount2™ can accurately count large numbers of specimens in a few seconds only. The measurements taken with the XperCount2™ are automatically organized and available to the user on an online software platform called DataXpert™.

A Proven Technology Concept

Currently, the first version of the XperCount™ is being used in over 20 countries by private and public organizations to count all stages of shrimp, fish, and shellfish as well as zooplankton and microalgae cultures. Several testimonials about the XperCount™ confirm its effectiveness at better managing inventories of small aquatic organisms in a wide variety of contexts. Despite the early achievements of the first version of the XperCount™, in many cases, using the product still required the user to hand count a small number of organisms to calibrate the device prior to operation. In order to better meet the needs of the users, XpertSea overcame this limitation by developing the XperCount2™.

Key features of the XperCount2TM

The XperCount2™ includes many new and improved features from the first version of the product such as: 1.No more manual counts. The addition of a vision system removes the need for manual counting and automates the calibration process. 46 »

Aquaculture Magazine

The XperCount2™ operates on a battery, includes a 7 inch touch screen and has an ergonomic design facilitating its handling.

2.Detailed pictures. Users can access high definition pictures of the organisms that were counted. The pictures have enough resolution to see organisms that are only a few microns in size. 3.Size information. The XperCount2™ provides accurate information about the average size and the size distribution of the organisms being counted. 4.Improved hardware functionalities. The XperCount2™ operates on a battery and includes a 7 inch touch screen. The XperCount2™ has an improved ergonomic design to facilitate transport and handling.

Data management

Another feature available on the XperCount2™ is the DataXpert™ software platform that allows users to easily organize, view, and analyse data collected

with the device. The concept is simple: each measurement taken with the XperCount2™ is instantaneously attributed to a tank or population before being stored in a custom database. Time series analysis such as population growth, survival, and feed consumption are now accessible in just a few clicks with the DataXpert™ platform. Improve the traceability of your production with our new, user friendly inventory management tool.

Pre-Launch Special Offer

The first XperCount2™ devices are expected to be delivered in April 2015. For a limited time, XpertSea is offering a pre-launch discount. Please contact us for a customized quote and for more information on the terms and conditions of this offer. For more information, please visit our website: www.xpertsea.com Phone: +1-418-915-8028 and Fax: +1-888-352-5868

Aquaculture Magazine

Âť 47

Salmonids

New Zealand Predominates

Farming of King salmon By Asbjørn Bergheim*

The significant producer at present is New Zealand representing 15 – 20 thousand tons per year.

imilar to other Pacific salmon species, Chinook salmon strains are native to rivers along the NW coast of America from California to Alaska and to Asian rivers from northern Japan to Kamchatka. This species is commonly named King salmon, not least because of its size; it is rapidly growing and adults range in size between 5 – 25 kg, but may even reach a weight of 40 – 50 kg! King salmon is the state fish of both Oregon and Alaska. According to a Canadian textbook, the commercial catch world record is 57 kg (www.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Chinook-salmon). A main reason for the extraordinary size is a rather long stay in the sea where some individuals may spend up to eight years before returning to their original river. The Yukon River strain actually has the longest freshwater migration of any salmon with over 3,000 km from the river mouth to the spawning grounds. No wonder these spawners need extra fat reserves and energy to ascend the huge river! 48 »

Until the late 1980’s, the harvested volume of King salmon was all wild catches. The farming then expanded rapidly and has dominated the global harvest over the last 20 years. This is partly due to a sad decrease of wild caught King salmon. Canada used to

be a major producer of King salmon before the year 2005 with a peak annual volume of around 20,000 tons in the early 1990’s. Today, the Canadian production is closed down and so is former farming of King salmon in Chile. The significant producer at present is New Zealand representing 15 – 20 thousand tons per year. Chinook smolt are transferred to sea at an age of around 6 months and grown to harvest size of 2 – 4 kg after some 18 months in the cages. Thus, the hatchery stage and the consecutive grow-out principally follow the farming routine of other salmonids. Salmon farming in New Zealand is a Southern Island activity where the dominating regions for cage farms are Marlborough Sounds and Stewart Island. There are also some on-growing farms in freshwater utilizing ponds/raceways and hydro canals (www.aquaculture.org.nz/industry/king-salmon). Only a handful of sites on the coast and in the sounds are considered suitable for salmon operations as a result of critical farm site selection. The site criteria strongly emphasize sufficient current velocity to ensure good water exchange in the cages and to minimize settling

of wastes on the seabed. According to the national aquaculture organization, the farmers and regional councils are decreed to monitor the environmental conditions frequently on the farming sites. The farming of salmon must be performed in a sustainable manner and ensure the fish’s welfare. Diseases known to cause big problems and losses particularly in Atlantic salmon farms in other parts of the world, such as infectious pancreatic disease, infectious salmon anaemia, etc. do not seem to affect New Zealand’s King salmon farms. The strict bio-security procedures

at the farms and absence of any native salmon species are considered to be the major reasons for production without the use of vaccines and antibiotics. According to Alan Duckworth, research scientist of Blue Ocean Institute, New Zealand’s fish farming “is better than it is in other countries” (www.starchefs.com/cook/features/ new-zealand-king-salmon-salmonfarming). The company New Zealand King Salmon represents two-thirds of the country’s produced volume. Neither disease nor sea lice have ever infected the company’s salmon stock, which means that there has been no

discharge of antibiotics to the marine environment from the cage farms. Another emphasized environmental benefit of the farming practice is that the fish are kept at low stocking density – “extremely low compared to international standards” says Katherine Bryar, senior consultant at this company. The Global Aquaculture Performance Index (GAPI, www.gapi.ca) is a tool developed to provide information about the environmental costs and benefits of farmed marine finfish. Including all significant species and aquaculture nations, the performance of King salmon culture in New Zealand demonstrated one of the very highest scores. Out of 20 different finfish species, King salmon actually obtained the highest GAPI score of them all.

Dr. AsbjØrn Bergheim is a senior researcher in the Dept. of Marine Environment at the International Research Institute of Stavanger. His fields of interest within aquaculture are primarily water quality vs. technology and management in tanks, cages and ponds, among others. asbjorn.bergheim@iris.no

» 49

Marine Finfish Aquaculture

Yellowtail and Bass Farming

Soon to be a Reality Off the Coast of California? Rose Canyon Fisheries (RCF) – a unique collaboration between a scientific research institute and a private investment group dedicated to pioneering environmentally sustainable, domestic, offshore aquaculture – has filed permit applications for a 5,000-metric-ton finfish farm By Mark Drawbridge *

ubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute (HSWRI), a San Diegobased nonprofit marine research institute, and Cuna del Mar (CdM), L.P., a private equity firm dedicated to developing sustainable aquaculture, formed RCF to entitle, construct and operate the farm. It will be the first commercial operation of its kind in the U.S. exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The applications to agencies ranging from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (anticipated lead agency) to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to the California Coastal Commission seek permits to grow yellowtail jack (Seriola lalandi), white seabass (Atractoscion nobilis) and striped bass (Morone saxatilis) in state-of-the-art cages located 4.5 miles west of Mission Beach. 50 »

several miles off the San Diego coast.

“About 91 percent of the seafood consumed in the U.S. – worth $14 billion annually – is imported,” said Don Kent, President & CEO of HSWRI, as well as CEO of RCF. “There is enormous need for new domestic supplies of safe, healthy, sustainable and locally sourced seafood.” “Globally, wild fisheries are reaching their limits,” he added. “Worldwide, fully half of all seafood is now produced by aquaculture, yet the U.S. grows only 2.5 percent of its own supply. With the U.S. seafood demand projected to increase by another two million metric tons within the next decade, all signs point to the need to develop economically and environmentally sustainable domestic aquaculture. The U.S. has the largest EEZ in the world, coupled with leading technologies and scientific expertise. And organizations such as the Food and Drug Administration and U.S. Dept. of Agriculture recommend Americans double our seafood consumption.” A recent World Resources Institute report concluded that farmed fish production must increase by 133 percent by 2050 to meet projected demand worldwide. However, the U.S. has lagged in developing a robust aquaculture industry due to environmental and regulatory uncertainty. “The time has come to launch a new industry – commercially successful and environmentally sustainable aquaculture in the U.S.,” said Robert Orr, Managing Partner of Cuna del Mar and Board Chair of RCF. “We expect the success of this project to provide a new paradigm for domestic seafood production and thereby catalyze nationwide development of the industry.” Once operational, the farm will also create jobs in hatchery and feed production, equipment manufacturing, port facilities, seafood processing and food service, as well as reinvigorate underutilized seafood infrastructure.

If commercial offshore finfish farming has a near-term future in the U.S., the HSWRI-CdM partnership certainly looks to be a winning combination. HSWRI brings over 35 years of aquaculture experience and associated regional knowledge of the ocean environment, candidate species, regulations, and the social and political landscape. For the past 20 years, HSWRI has operated the only commercial-scale, marine finfish hatchery on the west coast of the U.S. and one of only a few in the country. HSWRI has conducted extensive research in areas linked to environmental and economic sustainability including published research in genetics and breeding, fish health and nutrition, environmental monitoring, and engineering. HSWRI established the first demonstration cage farm for white seabass in California in 1998 with funding from NOAA’s Saltonstall-Kennedy grant program. Those cages are still in operation

and used to support regional replenishment efforts for seabass. HSWRI also has conducted larger scale growout and feeding trials in both surface and submersible cages off the coast of Mexico, partnering with existing tuna cage operators. In both cage examples, HSWRI has worked in partnership with local commercial fishermen for fish hauling and maintenance activities. This is a model that RCF plans to use, especially as it expands its operations, which will likely require large vessels and open ocean operating experience that commercial fishermen can provide. In complementary fashion, the CdM team and its associated portfolio of companies offer extensive experience in aquaculture technology and the commercial culture of salmon and marine species like cobia (Rachycentron canadum). This includes hatchery technologies and state-ofthe-art technologies for surface and submersible cages. » 51

Marine Finfish Aquaculture

One of their portfolio companies, Open Blue, has a few years head start on RCF with a similar vision for sustainable hatchery and cage production of marine fish. Their target species, cobia, and location in Panama entail significant differences from RCF, but most of the

operating principles will be the same relative to achieving economic and environmental sustainability. Open Blue is already the single largest supplier of fresh cobia to the U.S. and its growth plan is ambitious. A newly constructed hatchery on the Caribbean coastline of Panama is a

state-of-the-art facility that is expected to produce up to two million fingerlings when it is fully operational. Their offshore growout farm uses fully submersible sea pens in the largest deep-water, open-ocean aquaculture site in the world about seven miles off the coast of Panama. RCF must still navigate an unproven permitting landscape for fish farming in the U.S. EEZ before it can begin executing its vision for healthful, homegrown seafood production. While other entities have found the uncertainties too daunting, the RCF team is focused on the goal and betting that the undeniable need for sustainable seafood and national pride will prevail in launching a new ocean industry for the United States. For more information on the entities mentioned please see: www.rosecanyonfisheries.com www.hswri.org www.cunadelmar.com www.openblue.com

Mark Drawbridge has a B.S. degree in biology and a Master’s degree in Marine Ecology. He’s currently a Senior Research Scientist at Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute in San Diego, where he also serves as the Director of the aquaculture program. mdrawbridge@hswri.org

52 »

aquafeed

Recent news from around the globe by Aquafeed.com By Suzi Dominy*

Kaolin binds pathogens in fish .S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) scientists found Kaolin, a type of clay found globally, significantly improved the survival of channel catfish with columnaris disease in a recent study conducted by fish physiologist Benjamin Beck, located at the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Harry K. Dupree Stuttgart National Aquaculture Research Center in Stuttgart, Arkansas. Beck and his ARS colleagues evaluated kaolin as an alternative

These are some of the highlights of the past few weeks at Aquafeed.com

to antibiotics to treat Columnaris, a disease that affects the gills, skin and fins of many commercially grown finfish species worldwide, and which often leads to death. Few treatments are available to prevent the disease, which is caused by the bacterial pathogen Flavobacterium columnare. According to Beck, kaolin works by binding to the pathogen, preventing it from attaching to the fish and causing disease. The process potentially can be scaled up for commercial production to reduce the amount of pathogen in the water.

New Nutrition and Feed Technology research director at Nofima to speak at Aquafeed Horizons 2015 Dr. Mari Moren will address future possibilities and demands in salmon feed production at the 8th Aquafeed Horizons Conference, taking place along-side the FIAAP/VICTAM/ GRAPAS tradeshows in Cologne, Germany in June. Dr. Moren took up her post as Director of Research at the Norwegian food research institute in October. She takes responsibility for the Nutrition and Feed Technology Âť 53

aquafeed

research areas in Nofima’s Aquaculture division. “Dr. Moren’s team carries out research, development and innovation projects along the complete aquaculture value chain, with a special focus on research into new feed raw materials, feed technology and questions related to nutrition”, Aquafeed Horizon’s organizer, Suzi Dominy said. “Nofima’s expertise dovetails with the theme of this year’s conference, and we are excited by the knowledge and expertise Dr. Moren will be able to contribute to the meeting”. “Nutrition and feed technology are two fields within aquaculture that undergo continual development, in order to keep pace with new species, raw materials and forms of production. I expect to be able to contribute in my new post to research and development in these fields becoming even more focused on the future,” Dr. Moren said. Dr. Moren joins a line-up of world-class experts who will discuss the latest aquafeed production knowledge and know-how. These include practical researchers from institutes such as the Norwegian University of Life Sciences and Sparos, Portugal, and industry specialists. The impact of processing on feed ingredients and nutrient quality, aquafeed processing considerations when using novel ingredients and new aquafeed processing technology will be among the topics discussed in a full day of presentations with a focus on aquafeed processing. 54 »

This popular conference brings together aquaculture feed industry professionals from around the world. The 2014 conference took place April 8, 2014 at the BITEC, Bangkok, Thailand. More than 140 delegates from aquafeed companies and other industry stakeholders enjoyed presentations on aquafeed technology and formulation options. The 8th in the series of Aquafeed Horizons conferences will take place along-side VICTAM/FIAAP/ GRAPAS 2015, the world’s largest feed and grain exhibitions, creating a must attend event for anyone concerned with staying abreast of feed production developments. 2015 is the 50th anniversary of Victam and visitors can expect a number of special events, adding even more value to the experience. Aquafeed Horizons 2015 will take place at the Koelnmesse, Cologne, Germany June 9, 2015. Early registration is strongly advised. Details and registration on the conference website: http://www.feedconferences.com.

The 8th Aquafeed Horizons conference is sponsored by Andritz, Buhler and Wenger Manufacturing.

Producing aquafeed ingredients using plant-based proteins Two South Dakota State University researchers are a little closer to their goal of marketing high-quality commercial fish feed ingredients made with plant-based proteins. Prairie Aquatech became the first tenant at the Agricultural Technology Center for Rural Enterprises, the 30,000square-foot, city-owned Brookings Research and Technology Center. One part of the building will be used to convert feedstock, such as soybean meal and distillers’ grains, into feed ingredients. Another part will be used to conduct fish nutrition research, while yet another will house analytical labs and office space. Professor William Gibbons of the biology and microbiology department and Distinguished professor Michael Brown of the natural resource management department developed the patent-pending microbial process that increases the

“Nutrition and feed technology are two fields within aquaculture that undergo continual development, in order to keep pace with new species, raw materials and forms of production. I expect to be able to contribute in my new post to research and development in these fields becoming even more focused on the future,” Dr. Moren said.

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aquafeed

The feed ingredient production side includes a milling system, two 3,000-gallon processing tanks, a continuous flow centrifuge and a drying system to produce the plant-based protein.

protein content and digestibility of soybean meal. Brown, a fisheries expert, determines the percentage of soy product that can be used to replace expensive, marine-derived protein yet maintain a nutritionally balanced diet for the fish. “We will be able to test our processing conditions at a larger scale, and under continuous or semi-continuous operating conditions that will simulate commercial scale production,” Gibbons said. The feed ingredient production side includes a milling system, two 3,000-gallon processing tanks, a continuous flow centrifuge and a drying system to produce the plant-based protein. Conversion processes often need to be modified as the scale increases, he explained, pointing to mass transfer issues and energy requirements, and even the effects of 56 »

increased shear or turbulence on the microbes. In addition, the microbes may perform differently when they are cultured for extended times, Gibbons pointed out. “We can’t simulate this on the bench so we need the pilot-scale facility as a transition stage to allow us to then move to commercial-scale production. Gibbons also hopes to expand his experiments to alternative oilseeds, such as canola, flax, crambe and Ethiopian mustard. On the fish nutrition side, Brown can expand feeding trials to more fish species and increase the length of the trials. The number of species tested may also expand through independent feeding trials, with discussions underway for testing on high-value marine species such as yellow tail jack, red snapper and cobia. In addition, Brown and Gib-

bons visited freshwater and marine fish operations in China this summer to explore opportunities for feeding trials there. In 2015, they anticipate building a small commercial-scale plant.

Suzi Dominy is the founding editor and publisher of aquafeed.com. She brings 25 years of experience in professional feed industry journalism and publishing. Before starting this company, she was co-publisher of the agri-food division of a major UK-based company, and editor of their major international feed magazine for 13 years. editor@aquafeed.com

Health Highlights

Early Detection System (EDS) Knowing Indicators, Setting Thresholds and Triggering Action

The origin of the term ‘disease’ is from an Old French word ‘desaise’ meaning discomfort or distress. From des- “without, away”+ aise “ease, comfort, well-being”.

By Kathleen H. Hartman*

ow well do you know the animals you are culturing? Have you ever been in the heat of battling a disease issue and wonder, “How did I not see this coming?” or “How did this get so out of control?”? Establishing an early detection system (EDS) may be a tool worth developing as part of your animal health management. An EDS is a mechanism used to ensure the rapid recognition of clinical signs that are suspicious of a pathogen of concern or an emerging disease problem that exceeds site specific thresh-

olds for morbidity/mortality and triggers a prompt disease investigation. Developing an EDS requires knowledge of aquatic animal health and of the specific pathogens of concern for the species being cultured. A site specific EDS should establish morbidity and mortality indicators and thresholds that once exceeded triggers a disease investigation.

Knowing Indicators of Dis-ease Not all diseases are created or should be handled equally. Disease may be caused by infectious (or contagious)

pathogens or by non-infectious problems such as poor water quality or poor nutrition. Furthermore, many signs or symptoms of disease are non-specific such that fish gaping at the water surface could indicate a water quality problem or gill disease caused by parasites, fungus, bacteria or virus. It is important to remember that animal health is a continuum. The earlier a health problem is identified, the better the opportunity of treating the problem, correcting the problem and/or preventing the spread of the problem.

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Health Highlights

Aquatic animals may show signs or indicators of suboptimal health and subclinical disease in vague and often difficult ways to measure if indices or parameters are not well established before the decline in health begins. For example, changes such as decreased growth or reproduction may present early on in a pending health problem but if these parameters are not being measured routinely these signs may be missed. Change or decline in animal health may also occur in stages over time (termed chronic onset) or may happen very rapidly (termed acute onset). These changes may also occur in a limited number of animals or affect an entire population. The onset and number of affected animals (different species, different locations on site) will impact how quickly or not these subtle changes are observed. Clinical disease may present itself as behavioral and/or physical changes from the normal activity and appearance of the aquatic animals. These changes are often nonspecific meaning they do not clearly indicate what kind or what the cause of the dis-ease or diseases are affecting the animals (see Table 1 for a list of non-specific clinical signs of disease in fish). However, sometimes it is possible to piece the animal health puzzle together when clinical signs and other characteristics of the problem or outbreak are put together. For example, it is summer, hybrid striped bass fingerlings are seined from a pond and moved to and held in flow-through raceways prior to shipment. While in the raceways approximately 60% of the fish are seen piping at the surface, are offfeed, appear dark in color and have some scale loss. From this scenario we know the water temperatures are high (summertime), fish have recently been stressed (seined and moved to new environment), fish have behavioral (piping at surface and off-feed) and physical (dark in color and scale loss) changes. While 58 Âť

it cannot yet be determined what the cause is (non-infectious vs. infectious) we immediately know something is not right with the fingerlings in the raceways and it is possibly related to the stress of handling and movement during hot months. Noninfectious causes may include supersaturation issues or low water hardness. Infectious causes may include an external parasitic infestation (e.g., protozoan or flagellates), bacterial (e.g., Flavobacterium spp. or Vibrio spp.), fungal (e.g., Branchiomyces sp. or Saprolegnia sp.) or viral (infectious pancreatic necrosis virus [IPNV]) infection. Now, what if I gave more pieces of the picture, for example, year-class cohorts in another pond are healthy but a few are seen with scale loss and red spots. Fingerlings in the raceways are now showing skin erosions and red spots. We likely can eliminate non-infectious causes at this point. Taking into account the history of pond culture, water temperatures, and clinical signs of both the fish in the pond and raceways, performing a few skin scrapes and gill clips is warranted. And presto! If personnel on the farm are trained to use a microscope and know what external parasites look like you achieve an identification of an infestation of Epistylis sp. Now appropriate action can be taken to treat fish in ponds and raceways to control or eliminate the problem.

Identifying any of these changes or indicators early is critical to ensuring animal and population health. Personnel working with the animals must be educated on the signs of all the pathogens of concern for the aquaculture establishment. These pathogens of concern should include any OIE-listed (those listed by the World Organisation for Animal Health) to which the animals being cultured are considered susceptible and any state-listed diseases or those of regional concern. As mentioned earlier, not all causes of disease are created equally; some may be routine health issues common to the establishment and easily handled, while other causes may have detrimental effects on the entire population and have trade implications. To identify early onset or emerging or new diseases there must be established thresholds specific to the production site which may be used to assess when acceptable or normal production morbidity and/or mortality are exceeded.

Setting Thresholds Thresholds used as measurements for disease indicators cannot be established without intimate knowledge of the production site and practices as well as the disease issues that affect the cultured population(s) on the site. Aquaculture personnel working with the animals must be familiar with the species to know what signs or changes are normal or not normal. For example, fish behavior may change during times of spawning-animals that typically school together may form clusters or isolate themselves; whereas fish that are sick may also isolate themselves from the other fish. Personnel must also know what health issues are more routine or common for the farm or even for a tank or pond and to what extent they are â&#x20AC;&#x153;within normal or acceptable limitsâ&#x20AC;?. Depending on the species and production method used a normal morbidity or mortality rate may be 20% over a grow-out period while for other species or methods this percentage may significantly impact profit margins. Additionally, personnel that observe the animals on a regular basis should also be aware of signs of diseases that may indicate a more significant health problem such as an OIE-listed disease or disease of regional or state concern. Thresholds are established for selected/specific morbidity and mortality indicators (i.e., clinical signs) which if met will trigger a disease investigation. Thresholds (and selected indicators) will likely vary by fish species, age-class and manage-

Âť 59

Health Highlights

To identify early onset or emerging or new diseases there must be established thresholds specific to the production site which may be used to assess when acceptable or normal production morbidity and/or mortality are exceeded.

ment systems. Specific thresholds for a facility should be developed in consult with aquatic animal professionals that are also familiar with the site, species and pathogens of concern. Once developed, site specific thresholds should be communicated, documented and provide clear instruction as to what happens next (i.e., sample collection, hold on shipment, testing etc.). For example, if a production facility establishes that during the summer the acceptable level of morbidity and mortality is 3% for fish in ponds with ulcers (may be indicative of bird strikes or infectious pathogens) then anytime morbidity or mortality levels exceed this 3% a disease investigation would be initiated. Of course disease investigations may be initiated for problems that remain below the threshold too but once that threshold is exceed this is the trigger that indicates a structured thorough disease investigation is required and critical.

animals is compromised, or suspect, the affected animals should not be moved and should be isolated, if possible. Preparations should be made to collect samples for testing. Prior to sample collection it is recommended that an aquatic animal health veterinarian be consulted and before sending any samples to a diagnostic laboratory contact the laboratory to determine best methods for sample collection and submission. A successful disease investigation is concluded with an accurate diagnosis, effective treatment and resolution of clinical signs. Records should be kept describing the event, response and recovery activities. Astute farm managers or owners will review the incident to determine if new practices or strategies are needed to avoid, detect or mitigate factors that triggered the EDS.

Review of EDS Characteristics of an effective early detection system: 1. Broad awareness and training of site personnel on indicators and/or clinical signs of specific pathogens of concern including OIE-listed, state-listed, or emerging diseases; 2. Established site specific thresholds or parameters for identifying when acceptable levels of production and/or health are exceeded; 3. A health expertise team that is knowledgeable about the pathogens of concern and reporting requirements; 4. Ability to initiate a rapid and effective disease investigation; 5. Access to diagnostic laboratories with the equipment and protocols to diagnose OIE or State listed and emerging diseases; 6. Established communication plan for disease events; Triggering Action Once a threshold health parameter 7. Plan for effective disease response, is exceeded personnel should know recovery and prevention. Please watch the Aquaculture who to contact and what the next steps are to begin a disease investi- Magazine website for future video gation. When the health status of postings showing changes in fish be60 Âť

havior or appearance. If you would like to submit a video please contact me. Next column â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Preventative Medicine Strategies: Vaccination (with guest author Dr. Hugh Mitchell, AquaTactics Fish Health)

Kathleen Hartman, PhD, is the Aquaculture coordinator for USDA APHIES Veterinary Services at the Tropical Aquaculture Laboratory of the University of Florida, USA. She currently serves on the Professional Standards Committee of the American Fisheries Society-Fish Health Section and is a current member of the World Aquaculture Society (WAS). kathleen.h.hartman@aphis.usda.gov

THE Shellfish CORNER

Shellfish Sanitation

and the Price of Shellfish The differences in sanitary water quality in the Philippine, Gambian and Rhode Island shellfish growing estuaries got us to thinking about how shellfish consumers might be perceiving consumption of oysters and other shellfish as a health risk and how much this perception By Michael A. Rice*

affects the price of the oysters in the United States

ack in the early 1980s, I was working in Dagupan City in the Philippines with the Philippine Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), a seafood trader and oyster farmers in the area to solve the problem of developing better markets for the abundant supply of farmed and wild harvest oysters that were harvested out of the local estuary. The prices obtained by oyster farmers and wholesalers in Dagupan City was only ten percent or less of the prices being received in many countries with well-developed economies (Fig. 1). At that time, water quality and shellfish meat sanitation was identified as the key reason for trade barriers preventing the Philippines from more lucrative seafood markets such as those in relatively

Fig. 1. Marketing of whole and raw shucked oysters at a public market in Pangasinan, Philippines in 1982. Photo by Michael A. Rice.

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THE Shellfish CORNER

nearby Singapore and Hong Kong. To solve the shellfish sanitation program we undertook an effort to investigate whether oysters harvested from the Dagupan City estuary system could be placed in depuration systems (troughs with filtered & purified flowing seawater) for 48 to 72 hours to eliminate pathogens and coliform indicator to a level that would allow entry into the more lucrative international markets. Results of two independent studies, one by private industry and another by BFAR, showed over a thousandfold reduction of coliform bacterial load in the depurated oysters from the oyster farms. Although these initial results were promising and led to some shucked and raw frozen oyster shipments to Singapore, in the end Singaporean public health officials rejected entry of the Philippine oyster after a few months of shipments because spot checks of the oyster meats still showed unacceptable coliform levels despite the depuration process. Apparently there is no real substitute for establishing and maintaining sanitary water quality of shellfish growing waters. So unfortunately shellfish prices remain low in the Philippines Fig. 2. Women of the TRY Oyster Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Association harvesting West African blood ark clams (Senilia senilis) in the Alahein River Estuary at Kartong, Gambia 2012. Photo by Michael A. Rice.

The inflation corrected oyster prices in Connecticut and Rhode Island were relatively high prior to the widespread introduction of flush toilets and the construction of sewer systems during the decades of the 1900s and 1910s

62 Âť

and other countries where management of sewage effluents remains an expensive challenge. In more recent years since 2010, we have been working with women oyster harvesters in estuaries of The Gambia, West Africa (Figure 2). Much like the oyster farmers of the Philippines, prices received by the Gambian oyster women were far below prices that might be received in America or the European Union, and like the Philippines three decades earlier it was clear that sanitary

water quality is a problem. As part of the effort to describe the sanitary water quality situation, along with the Gambian water resource agency, we undertook several years of fecal coliform testing in shellfish growing waters in three different Gambian estuaries. To my great surprise we found that in general the sanitary water quality in many of the oyster growing sites actually met or exceeded internationally accepted fecal coliform water quality standards, with the only real coliform

‘hot spots’ occurring near coastal settlement areas and livestock rearing operations and during the Gambian rainy season of July August and September when freshwater runoff from the land is maximum. But overall the Gambian water quality is far better that that of the urban estuaries of the Philippines or even in my home state of Rhode Island when rainstorms might overwhelm the sewage treatment plants and the storm drain diverters designed to protect the treatment plants from being overwhelmed (called combined sewer overflows) dump raw sewage effluent into upper Narragansett Bay. Just what is it about The Gambia that allows for surprisingly good water quality in their shellfish-growing estuaries? As it turns out, most of the population of the county lacks the flush toilet systems that have been

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THE Shellfish CORNER

around in most developed countries since the turn of the 20th Century. In most Gambian villages, even in the densely populated periurban capital city region of Banjul, much of the human wastes are confined on land in pit latrines or flush toilets with cesspools that allow for soil attenuation and treatment before coliforms reach the estuary. This lack of flush toilets and basic sewerage infrastructure with effluent pipes dumping into the estuaries explains why dry season fecal coliform counts are generally low and highest counts are found almost exclusively during the August rainy season as non-point source runoff contamination from the land. The differences in sanitary water quality in the Philippine, Gambian and Rhode Island shellfish growing estuaries got us to thinking about how shellfish consumers might be perceiving consumption of oysters and other shellfish as a health risk and how much this perception affects the price of the oysters in the United States. Back in 1996, Dr. Clyde MacKenzie of the US National Marine Fisheries Service published a historical review of the major oyster producing estuaries of North America. In his review, provided a table showing the wholesale oyster prices from several of the estuaries including Connecticut and Rhode Island from 1880 on a decadal basis up until 1990. This is fortuitous because these oyster price data go back to a time in American history prior to the widespread adoption of flush toilets and sewerage systems in large cities and “honey wagons” would be employed to collect the night soils from basement toilets or outhouses. The collected wastes were often hauled to nearby farms and spread as fertilizer. To complete MacKenzie’s decadal oyster price series to the present, William Silkes and his son Greg of the American Mussel 64 »

Over the last 50 years or so, the consumption of raw shellfish has been regaining popularity in America and prices have reflected the rising demand.

Harvesters Company here in Rhode Island provided their average wholesale prices for oysters in 2000 and 2010 from their records and I am grateful to them. Of course all of the given oyster prices were in actual prices at the time, so I corrected all the prices to present value using inflation data from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics. The inflation corrected oyster prices in Connecticut and Rhode Island were relatively high prior to the widespread introduction of flush toilets and the construction of sewer systems during the decades of the 1900s and 1910s (Figure 3). Lowest inflation adjusted oyster prices were in 1920 at a time when water borne typhoid and cholera outbreaks were common in the news and known to be associated with raw shellfish. The National Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) of the United States began in 1925 due to these disease epidemics and that public health effort greatly increased the safety of shellfish consumption. Unfortunately it has not been until 1960 when the oyster prices began to match or exceed what the prices were in the 19th Century prior to the widespread adoption of the flush toilet and public sewerage systems. This 40 year lag in the rebound in oyster prices after the NSSP may have been caused by residual negative perception by consumers about the health risks of eating raw shellfish. Over the last 50 years or so, the consumption of raw shellfish has been regaining popularity in America and prices have reflected the rising demand.

Obviously there are many other factors besides sanitary water quality that affect the price of shellfish, but it is clear that the industry and governmental partnership in assuring that water quality in shellfish growing waters and proper handling of shellfish from harvest waters to the consumers’ plate does play a major role in maintaining an economically successful shellfish industry.

Michael A. Rice, PhD, is a Professor of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science at the University of Rhode Island. He has published extensively in the areas of physiological ecology of mollusks, shellfishery management, molluscan aquaculture, and aquaculture in international development. rice@uri.edu

Â» 65

Nutrition

Larval Nutrition Investing in early childhood nutrition is a surefire strategy. The By Paul B. Brown and Liu Bo, Purdue University*

nne Mulcahy was chairperson of Xerox Corporation (2002-2009) who, as far as I know, has little to do with the nutritional needs of aquatic animals. However, early life

returns are incredibly high. Anne M. Mulcahy.

history nutrition in aquatic animals is a critical time for aquaculturists and Mrs. Mulcahyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s quote is one to keep in mind. Early developmental periods in the lives of animals have profound impacts on growth, repro-

duction and health in later life. Our understanding of these early life history events and subsequent aquaculture production parameters is not well understood with fish, crustaceans or bivalves. This broad area of research might yield significant new approaches to raising aquatic species and understanding basic biology in the future.

Physical Challenges When most aquatic animals hatch from their eggs, they are small. We are talking microscopically small (< 12 mm) in many species, and it is difficult to feed an animal that is that small. Their mouths (gape size) can ingest only small particles and it is difficult making small feed pellets. The most common method of mass-propagating small-larvae species is by providing food as live organisms, most often rotifers (Brachionus sp.), followed by a second live food organism that is significantly larger (Artemia sp.), then finally formulated diets. The live food feeding approach has become somewhat of the norm, but the first larval formulated diets vary considerably. The early life history feeding period with live organisms is typically 30-45 days 66 Âť

for most species. Copepods remain an attractive alternative to rotifers as these are commonly the natural prey items for many small-larvae carnivores, but mass propagation remains a bit challenging.

Progress It would be easy to say progress in this challenging area has been slow. Just over 100 years ago, biologists were debating what small aquatic organisms ate. The debate centered on dissolved organic matter vs. intact cellular organisms (bacteria, algae or zooplankton). The original debate has diminished-living organisms appear to be the important food source for larval animals. However, the nutritional questions remain. What nutrients, in what concentrations and in which forms promote weight gain and survival of small larvae? As an example, we chose a recent article on larval lobster nutrition to emphasize a few points.

Colleagues in Australia (Conlan et al. 2014), recently evaluated an experimental diet as food for larval spiny rock lobsters (Panulirus ornatus). (Note: larval lobsters undergo multiple molts and changes in physical appearance before metamorphosing into juvenile lobsters. There are a limited number of formulated diets available for this group of animals). The experimental approach was to use weight gain and chemical composition data from larval lobsters as indicators of nutritional adequacy in the various stages of the growth cycle. The proportions of protein, lipid and ash were high at the premoult stage, reflecting growth and nutrient accumulation over the intermoult period, and lower in the post-moult stage, reflecting the large uptake of water to facilitate subsequent growth. The inverse trend of high levels of protein, lipid and ash in premoult animals reflects growth, nutrient accumulation and exoskel-

The physical challenges of nutritional research with small larvae necessitate a few changes in experimental protocols.

eton hardening over the intermoult period. Generally, dietary deficiencies or excess of essential nutrients such as protein, lipid and trace elements during early larval stages may lead to high mortalities and quality problems for larviculture. Mortality in this study was less than 5%, so gross nutrient deficiencies do not appear problematic. In many aquatic animals, larvae have a simple diges-

Âť 67

Nutrition

in individual samples (fatty acid and amino acid analyses are the exception to this generalization). However, the analytical challenges are rapidly dissolving away; a topic that will be discussed in future issues. The other interesting point in this article was the lack of information on the dietary formulation. The authors declared the formulation proprietary. There are so few high quality larval diets available for aquaculture that any significant advance could lead to gaining significant market share for the developers. Hopefully this need within aquaculture and the resulting economic opportunity for businesses will eventually result in readily available larval diets for the hundreds of species raised in aquaculture.

tive tract with the ability to digest live food organisms, but may not be able to digest macronutrients found in formulated diets. Based on weight gains, the ingredients used in the experimental diet appear digestible to the larval lobsters. The overarching complexity of amino acid nutrition in animals is depicted (Fig.1). The authors also reported that polar lipid (also known as phospholipid) was the dominant lipid class just prior to and after molting. Triacylglycerol concentrations were low despite being the principal lipid class available in the formulated diet. Likewise, despite receiving high concentrations of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) in the dietary lipid source, levels of these fatty acids were comparatively low in larval lobsters. This indicated the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids such as DHA and EPA had important physiological functions in larvae during these important stages of the molt cycle. The long-chain 68 Âť

fatty acids EPA and DHA have been focal points in larval fish nutrition for many years. A summary of fatty acid metabolism in larval fish in shown (Fig. 2).

Biological and Analytical Challenges The complexity of nutrition has been confounded in the Conlan et al. study by the moult stage of the animal. Not only are nutritional considerations complex, but the interaction of nutrition and specific developmental periods introduces another level of complexity. The physical challenges of nutritional research with small larvae necessitate a few changes in experimental protocols. Nutrient concentrations in surviving larvae have become common measures used to define dietary adequacies. This approach remains largely at the macronutrient level due to analytical challenges associated with many of the micronutrients and the limited analytical platforms for quantifying multiple micronutrients

Dr. Paul Brown is Professor of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences in the Department of Forestry and Natural Resources of Purdue University. Brown has served as Associate Editor for the Progressive Fish-Culturist and the Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, among many others. pb@purdue.edu Citations Conceicao, L., C. Aragao and I. Ronnestad. 2011. Proteins. in: G.J. Holt, editor. Larval Fish Nutrition. Wiley and Sons, NY, pp. 83-116. Conlan, J.A., P.L. Jones, G.M. Turchini, M.R. Hall and D.S. Francis. 2014. Changes in nutritional composition of captive early-mid stage Panulirus ornatus phyllosoma over ecdysis and larval development. Aquaculture 434:159-170. Dr. Liu Bo, Visiting Scholar at Purdue University, is Associate Professor at the Chinese Academy of Fisheries Science, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Wuxi City, China.

Genetics and Breeding

Genetic Improvement Considerations for Small Producers

A review of aquaculture industry publications over the past decade might suggest that much of the expansion in global production has been attributable to high-profile, largescale, highly capitalized By Greg Lutz*

operations.

onetheless, most of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aquaculturists are small-scale producers. Principles of genetic improvement are often fairly easily applied in industrial-scale aquaculture, but small operations typically face numerous difficulties in terms of genetic improvement of production stocks. And, while largescale breeding programs are being expanded to develop improved lines of many species in many parts of the world, these lines may not always be available or suitable for many smallscale operations. Small producers wishing to improve the quality of their production stocks typically face one of two common situations. They either obtain their fry, post-larvae or spat from outside sources, or they rely Âť 69

Genetics and Breeding

on on-farm production for their seedstock needs. In each situation, an understanding of basic genetic fundamentals and methods can result in improved efficiency and profitability. Evaluating available varieties is perhaps the simplest form of selection, and this is usually the first step in genetic improvement for most aquaculturists. For those producers who obtain their stocks from outside sources, the best place to start is to develop an understanding the basic methods involved in comparing available varieties. Record-keeping skills are essential for meaningful comparisons of various genetic lines. While growth rate is usually the attribute of greatest interest to aquaculturists, attention must also be paid to survival (and resultant ef-

70 Âť

fects on stocking density), feed conversion, and marketing attributes such as conformation and coloration. Fortunately for mollusk producers, side-by-side comparisons with these species are often fairly straightforward. They can, however, be extremely complicated with some crustaceans and finfish. When species such as shrimp, prawns or finfish are being evaluated, it may be desirable to utilize

communal stocking and rearing, wherein all individuals are cultured in a common environment. In such situations, however, it may be difficult or impossible to identify the origins of individual animals without some sort of practical marking system. Techniques such as cold-or heat branding, fin clipping and other approaches can provide sufficient identification of many types of finfish, at least on a short-term basis,

Evaluating available varieties is perhaps the simplest form of selection, and this is usually the first step in genetic improvement for most aquaculturists.

but they are often logistically difficult and time-consuming. Some of these methods are reviewed in my book, Practical Genetics for Aquaculture. Feed conversion efficiency cannot be easily compared, if at all, among strains or varieties that are reared communally. Other problems with evaluations based on communal rearing can arise if behavioral interactions bias overall performance. A variety that might grow and convert feed quite well in monoculture may perform poorly in the presence of more aggressive individuals from another genetic background. Such situations have been documented for a number of aquatic species. The alternative to communal rearing may involve increasingly artificial culture conditions to allow for identification and evaluation of strains or varieties. Perhaps the simplest approaches involve separate containment of groups of animals in

cages or pens within the same pond, tank or raceway. In the case of recirculating systems, individual tanks connected to common filtration can be used to minimize environmental differences among groups of animals being evaluated. The problem with this approach, from a small producerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perspective, is that it usually requires additional equipment, labor, time, and facilities. So, for small producers trying to locate the best available source of seedstock, maybe the simplest approach is to evaluate one source at a time. Complicating influences such as changes in feed, production management, system configurations, etc. must be avoided if comparisons are to be meaningful. Eventually, it should be possible to identify the strain or variety that performs best in relation to the management practices and facilities available. Of course, there is no guarantee that the genetic quality of any particu-

For small producers who produce their own seedstock on-site, either by choice or necessity, all the above considerations apply in terms of conducting meaningful evaluations and comparisons. lar source will not deteriorate (or improve) over time, as we will see below. For small producers who produce their own seedstock on-site, either by choice or necessity, all the above considerations apply in terms of conducting meaningful evaluations and comparisons. However, the concepts of selection, inbreed-

Âť 71

Genetics and Breeding

ing and crossbreeding must also be understood and utilized in a program of genetic improvement. Small producers are generally forced to obtain breeders from within their own production stocks, often for many generations at a time. This presents the opportunity to select for a line of fish, crustaceans, or mollusks that is highly adapted to the facilities and management being utilized. One unavoidable result of selection, however, is inbreeding. Limiting reproduction to a relatively small portion of a population, selected for particular traits, will result in mating more and more closely related individuals over time. Inbreeding depression is usually associated with a general decline in fitness. Breeding between more closely related individuals tends to increase the number 72 Âť

of loci that are homozygous, which often tends to reduce fitness (for complex reasons beyond the scope of this discussion). Several methods of selection can be applied to aquaculture stocks. Some are designed to slow the accumulation of inbreeding, but often require more extensive procedures and facilities. Some aquatic species are more easily adapted to specific selection methods than others. Per-

haps the simplest form of selection within a population involves rearing large groups of animals simultaneously and then selecting the best, based solely on their individual performance, to serve as breeding stock. This approach, referred to as mass selection, is often the only practical means of selection when facilities or labor are limited. A major problem with mass selection within many aquaculture operations involves the

Several methods of selection can be applied to aquaculture stocks. Some are designed to slow the accumulation of inbreeding, but often require more extensive procedures and facilities. Some aquatic species are more easily adapted to specific selection methods than others.

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Genetics and Breeding

inability to determine the ancestry of any particular animal. Mass selection, along with other selection methods, often has an additional uncertainty: the degree to which observed performance actually reflects genetic attributes. In many species, initial size advantages resulting from environmental, rather than genetic, advantages can be exaggerated over time, obscuring differences attributable to genetic superiority or inferiority. Some methods, however, have emerged in recent years to address this problem under the practical circumstances faced by most small producers. One study along these lines examined the efficiency of size-specific (rather than age-specific) selection for growth in tilapia on a farm in Indonesia. Fingerlings were size graded prior to selection, in an effort to simplify the selection method for on-farm use, where equallyaged fingerlings would not normally be available in sufficient numbers. Selection response was significant, with a 2.3% increase in length after one generation (recall that a unit increase in length generally translates into a substantially greater increase in weight). Realized heritability was roughly 12%. A more refined version of this approach, known as collimation, involves grading and culling of excessively large individuals prior to conducting mass selection. This procedure results in much better correlations between genetic and observed variation in the remaining population, and improves the efficiency of mass selection. Collimation and 2-step mass selection were applied to Nile tilapia reared in netcages in the Philippines. The goal was to further develop low-cost, small-scale tilapia broodstock improvement programs that could be applied under very practical conditions. Positive-selected fish were 3% larger relative to controls after one generation, with a realized heritability of approximately 16% and a pro74 Âť

For small producers who produce their own seedstock on-site, either by choice or necessity, all the above considerations apply in terms of conducting meaningful evaluations and comparisons. jected improvement of 34% over a 5-year period. Clearly, mass selection can be a practical, powerful tool for small operations to improve their breeding stock on the short term, but the question of inbreeding still remains. In fact, inbreeding becomes even more serious in small facilities with limited capabilities to maintain broodstock in large numbers. Smaller numbers of breeding individuals lead to the mating of more closely related individuals over a number of generations, and this problem is even further exacerbated by genetic drift, the tendency for genetic diversity to be lost simply through random chance as breeding pairs are formed among a limited number of animals. One potential solution to

this problem is to add new breeding stock from time to time, but this practice has its own associated problems, including the introduction of genes that are less adapted to the facilities and practices being employed, as well as the potential for introduction of pathogens. Another approach to selection, know as within-family selection, is quite effective at slowing the rate at which inbreeding accumulates in a closed population. Within-family selection involves the retention of the best-performing males and females from each family of fish (or prawns, or oysters, etc., etc., etc.) for use as breeding stock. When every available family contributes equally to a breeding population, the effective population size (theoretically) equals twice the actual breeding population size. The problem with within-family selection, especially from a small producerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s standpoint, is the requirement that every family must be raised separately (or marked in a more or less permanent fashion) to allow for identification of the best performing individuals within each family. Again, it may be possible to use separate cages or tanks under certain circumstances, but these approaches are normally less feasible for small operations. Additionally, arranging subsequent mat-

ing schemes to reduce the incidence of pair-mating between related animals also requires multiple spawning ponds, tanks, or hapas. One other option that has proven useful in selection programs for small aquaculture operations involves maintaining two or more separate lines of breeding stock, each subjected to intense selection pressure. The best performing individuals from each line are then mated with animals from the other line to produce seedstock for growout. This type of selection can be a powerful method of eliminating the deleterious genes that manifest themselves in inbreeding depression, but it requires maintaining (and constantly selecting) two distinct populations.

C. Greg Lutz, has a PhD in Wildlife and Fisheries Science from the Louisiana State University. His interests include recirculating system technology and population dynamics, quantitative genetics and multivariate analyses and the use of web based technology for result-demonstration methods. editorinchief@dpinternationalinc.com

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advertisers Index

antibiotics, probiotics and FEED additives KEETON INDUSTRIES INC.......................................................63 1520 Aquatic Drive Wellington, Colorado 80549 USA Contacto: Aney Carver T: 800.493.4831 o 970.568.7754 (USA) E-mail: aney@keetonaqua.com www.keetonaqua.com/shrimp aeration equipment, PUMP, FILTERS and measuring instruments Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc..................back cover 2395 Apopka Blvd. Apopka, Florida, Zip Code 32703, USA. Contact: Ricardo Arias T: (407) 8863939, (407) 8864884 E-mail: ricardo.arias@pentair.com www.pentairaes.com RK2 Systems.......................................................................71 421 A south Andreassen Drive Escondido California. Contact: Chris Krechter. T: 760 746 74 00 E-mail: chrisk@rk2.com www.rk2.com XpertSea Solutions inc....................................................45 2700 Jean-Perrin street, suite 170 Quebec, QC, Canada, G2C 1S9 T: +1 (418) 915-8028 Fax: +1 888 352 5868 E-mail: info@xpertsea.com www.xpertsea.com Sun Asia Aeration Int´l Co., Ltd........................................11 15f, 7, Ssu-wei 4 road, Ling-ya District, Kaohsiung, 82047 Táiwan R.O.C. Contact: Ema Ma. T: 886 7537 0017, 886 7537 0016 E-mail: pioneer.tw@msa.hinet.net www.pioneer-tw.com

JOB listing

If you want to publish a job vacancy, please send it to edicion@design-publications.com. It will appear in the next issue of Aquaculture Magazine, free of charge! Space is limited to 100 words. Ads will be accomodated in the order they are received. Help Wanted

Company: Mt. Parnell Fisheries, Inc., a progressive goldfish and koi farm in southcentral Pennsylvania is looking for a Fisheries Biologist. Minimum education – Bachelor’s in Aquaculture. Farm experience with ornamental pond culture preferred. Please email resume with references to info@mtparnell.com

YSI.............................................................Inside back cover 1700/1725 Brannum Lane-P.O. Box 279, Yellow Springs, OH. 45387, USA. Contact: Tim Groms. T: 937 767 7241, 1800 897 4151 E-mail: environmental@ysi.com www.ysi.com

WORLD AQUACULTURE 2015.................................................73 May 26th - February 30th, 2015. Jeju Island, Korea. T: +1 760 751 5005 F: +1 760 751 5003 E-mail: worldaqua@aol.com www.was.org

events and exhibitions 10º FIACUI..........................................................................15 November 4th - 6th, 2015. Guadalajara, Mexico. Information on Booths Contact in Mexico: Carolina Márquez E-mail: servicioaclientes@globaldp.es International Sales Steve Reynolds E-mail: marketing@dpinternationalinc.com www.fiacui.com | www.panoramaacuicola.com |

feeds Reed Mariculture, Inc.......................................................67 900 E Hamilton Ave, Suite 100. Campbell, CA 95008 USA. Contact: Lin T: 408.377.1065 F: 408.884.2322 E-mail: sales@reedmariculture.com www.reedmariculture.com

Middle east aquaculture forum 2015...........................55 April 5th - Aprilth , 2015. Dubai World Trade Centre. T: +971 56 684 8080 E-mail: info@meaf.ae / mario@marevent.com www.meaf.ae OFFSHORE MARICULTURE CONFERENCE MEXICO 2015.....................................................INSIDE FRONT COVER June 9th - June 9th , 2015. Baja California, Mexico. T: +44 1329 825335 E-mail: conferences@offshoremariculture.com www.offshoremariculture.com SEAFOOD EXPO NORTH AMERICA 2015.................................65 15 al 17 de Marzo de 2015. Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Tel: +1 508 743 8577 E-mail: sales-na@seafoodexpo.com www.seafoodexpo.com/northamerica

Aquaculture Magazine.......................................................1 Design Publications International Inc. 203 S. St. Mary’s St. Ste. 160 San Antonio, TX 78205, USA Office: +210 229-9036 Office in Mexico: (+52) (33) 3632 2355 Subscriptions: iwantasubscription@dpinternationalinc.com Advertisement Sales: marketing@dpinternationalinc.com RAS SYSTEMS, DESIGN, EQUIPMENT SUPPORT AQUACARE.............................................................................35 T: 1 360 734 7964 www.aquacare.com

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FEBRUARY 2015 Salmon ShowHow Feb. 11 Progress Point Copenhagen, Denmark. T: +354-563-8000 F: +354-563-8001 E: salmonshowhow@marel.com

Empack Feb. 11 - Feb. 12 Norges Varemesse Lillestrøm, Norway. T: +47 (0) 22 99 60 12 E: hanne.westvik@easyfairs.com E: stina.heyl@easyFairs.com Aquaculture America 2015 Feb. 19 - Feb. 22 Marriott New Orleans, 859 Convention Center Blvd New Orleans, Louisiana. USA. T:+32-9-2334912 E:mario@marevent.com Shrimp 2015 Feb. 21 - Feb. 21 Vijaywada, India. T: +6 03 8064 9307 E: info@infofish.org

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Information Services

MARCH 2015 Aqua-Fisch Mar. 6 - Mar. 8 Friedrichshafen, Bodensee Germany. T:+49 7541 708-405 VIV Asia Mar. 11 - Mar. 13 BITEC, Bangkok International Trade & Exhibition Centre. Bangkok, Thailand. T: +31 30 295 2302 F: +31 30 295 2809 E: guus.van.ham@vnuexhibitions.com E: karlienke.smitt@vnuexhibitions.com Aquatic Asia Mar. 11 - Mar. 13 BITEC, Bangkok International Trade & Exhibition Centre. Bangkok, Thailand. T: +31 30 295 2302 F: +31 30 295 2809 E: vincent.veelbehr@vnuexhibitions.com Seafood Expo North America and Seafood Processing North America Mar. 15 - Mar. 17 Boston Convention & Exhibition Center Boston, USA. E: kbutland@divcom.com