Sinaw: Harat Al Barashid & Harat as-Sawafah. Documentation and Heritage Management Plan

SINAW: H• ARAT AL BURASHDI & HARAT AL -S UWAWFAH • • SINAW: HARAT AL BURASHDI & HARAT AL-SUWAWFAH •

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This Heritage Management Plan contains a complete vision for the sustainable redevelopment and revitalization for the settlements of Harat Al Burashdi and Harat Al-Suwawfah in the Oasis of Sinaw. Extensive fieldwork campaigns, detailed documentation and analysis of the built environment, as well as in-depth study of historical sources and anthropological data, have been brought together to provide a high-quality multidisciplinary examination of the settlement’s past, present and possible future.

Drawing on previous experience and cooperation between the Ministry of Heritage and Culture and Nottingham Trent University, this study is to set the potential for future public-private partnerships in the field of heritage Management Salim M. almahruqi Undersecretary for Heritage Affairs

MINISTRY OF HERITAGE SULTANATE OF OMAN COMMITTEE FOR THE REGISTRATION HISTORIC BUILDING CLUSTERS

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NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY

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MINISTRY OF HERITAGE SULTANATE OF OMAN COMMITTEE FOR THE REGISTRATION OF HISTORIC BUILDING CLUSTERS

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CULTURE

PROTECTION

NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY

Commissioned by M INISTRY OF HERITAGE S ULTANATE OF OMAN

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COMMITTEE FOR THE R EGISTRATION B UILDING CL USTERS

CULTURE

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Developed by NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY & MANCHESTER METROLOPITAN UNIVERSITY CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA, ARABIA AND THE MAGHREB

Sinaw: H• Ārat Āl BarĀshid & H• Ārat as-Saw Āfah •

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ArCHIAM Research Team PROF SOUMYEN BANDYOPADHYAY

Ministry Participants ALI BIN HAMOUD BIN SAIF AL-MAHROOQI

Principal Investigator and Project Director HISHAM BIN TALIB BIN ALI AL-FARSI DR GIAMILA QUATTRONE Research Fellow and Project Coordinator

DR MARTIN S. GOFFRILLER Research Fellow and Project Member

PAUL MACMAHON Research Assistant

JONATHAN WREN Research Assistant

SMARANDA GHINITA Fieldwork Assistant

ДAITHAM AL-ΚABRĪ Project Student

MOHAMMED BIN HALFAN BIN AHMED AL-’EISSAI

SUMMARY

Summary This Documentation and Heritage Management Plan (HMP) is concerned with two settlements in the Sinaw Oasis - Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah - and builds upon the extensive documentation carried out on site, as well as on knowledge on the sites acquired prior to fieldwork and during project development. Alongside providing comprehensive drawn documentation resulting from the survey carried out in Autumn 2013, this report includes a preliminary strategic Master Plan which addresses issues of heritage management, conservation and development, as well as approaches for its implementation. Due to the close proximity and the long connected history of both Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah it was decided to address both settlements in conjunction. The Master Plan proposed in this report, while divided into two sections to address the settlements separately, assumes both Ήārahs to function in tandem with one another in the future. This solution was deemed the most likely to succeed in view of economic constraints and is expected to provide the necessary developmental contingencies.

Drawing on track record research and development of HMPs for Дārat as-Saybanī, Barkat al-Mawz (2011), Дārat al-Yemen, Izkī (2012), Дārat al-Hujra, Fanja (2012), Дārat as-Sulayf, ΚIbrī (2012) and Дārat al-Aqr, Bāhla WHS (2012) this HMP is informed by a study of the oasis context as well as by extensive documentation, analysis and interpretation of the urban structure, morphology, building typology and social conditions of the settlements’ present and the immediate past. It also identifies and illustrates zones and categories of development and conservation to be carried out, which build on a statement of significance and an accurate assessment of the state of conservation and the threats to the vernacular heritage at Sinaw, and includes a comprehensive inventory of structural and non-structural defects present at the settlement.

On this basis, a culturally and technically informed Master Plan is proposed, which aims to move away from an entirely tourism-focused development towards a holistically and inclusively sustainable alternative. To this end a study of contemporary precedents of rehabilitation of historic towns and buildings is included in order to show a range of possible cutting-edge strategies, approaches and solutions to the topical issue of historic built fabrics adaptive reuse. The Master Plan advocates a sustainable revitalization centred on re-habitation, heritage tourism, education, training and skills development programmes with emphasis on traditional knowledge of the built environment and the crafts. Key zones are identified for protection, restoration, rebuilding, consolidation and redevelopment, and a set of detailed guidelines is provided for the implementation of related actions and measures.

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Table of Contents SUMMARY

3.5 Settlement Architecture, Structure and Morphology 3.5.1 Morphology

1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Objectives and Approaches 2 RECONNAISSANCE AND FIELDWORK 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Preparatory Work 2.3 Reconnaissance 2.4 Documentation 2.4.1 Fieldwork at Дārat Āl Barāshid 2.4.2 Fieldwork at Дārat as-Сawāfah 2.5 Training 2.6 The Architecture of the Ash Sharqiyah Governorates 3 DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSYS OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Context and Topography 3.2.1 Sinaw Oasis Past and Present 3.2.2 The Settlement of Дārat Āl Barāshid 3.3 History 3.4 Social History

3.5.2 Dwellings 3.5.3 Defences 3.5.4 Public Spaces and Structures 3.5.5 Other Features (Falaj, Sundial, Wells) 4 DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSYS OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Context and Topography 4.3 History 4.4 Settlement Structure and Morphology 4.4.1 Layout 4.4.2 Dwellings and Liwans 4.4.3 Defences 4.4.4 Public Spaces and Structures 4.4.5 Mosques 4.4.6 Falaj and Water Management 5 ARCHITECTURAL VALUES AND THREATS TO SITE’S SIGNIFICANCE 5.1 Urban and Architectural Values of Дārat Āl Barāshid 5.2 Urban and Architectural Values of Дārat as-Сawāfah 5.3 Historical Values

TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.4 Social Values

9.5 Conservation and Development of Дārat Āl Barāshid

5.5 Threats to Sites’ Significance

9.6 Conservation and Development of Дārat as-Сawāfah

6 STRUCTURAL FAILURES AND STATES OF PRESERVATION 6.1 States of Preservation and Failure Analysis 6.2 Guiding Principles to Conservation and Rehabilitation 6.3 Guiding Principles to Repair Actions 6.4 Structural and Non-Structural Failure Types

Appendix a1, Bibliography Appendix a2, Unit Typology & Ownership in Дārat Āl Barāshid Appendix a3, Unit Typology & Ownership in Дārat as-Сawāfah Appendix a4, Selective Documentation of Дārat Āl Barāshid Appendix a5, Selective Documentation of Дārat as-Сawāfah

7 PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES TO HERITAGE MANAGEMENT 7.1 Philosophy of Development and Conservation: Principles 7.2 Approaches to Development and Conservation 7.3 General Policies for Development and Conservation 7.4 Guidelines for Development and Conservation 7.5 Additional Studies and Analyses 8 DESIGN PRECEDENTS 8.1 Introduction 9 MASTER PLAN OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID AND ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Management Plan and Goals 9.3 Regional Approach to Sinaw 9.4 Oasis Protection Policies

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INTRODUCTION

1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction This Documentation and Heritage Management Plan is supported by extensive fieldwork and off-site drawn documentation, and was undertaken to provide integrated conservation and development strategies and a preliminary Master Plan for the settlements of Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah in the Sinaw Oasis, Ash Sharqiyah North Governorate.

The project was undertaken by commission from the Ministry of Heritage and Culture (MHC) of the Sultanate of Oman and with logistical support from Nottingham Trent University in order to develop cohesive strategies for four oasis settlements in the Ash Sharqiyah North Governorate of Oman, including also Al MuΡayrib in the Wilayat of al-Qabil and the small mountain settlement of Дārat Al-Jīlah (its falaj irrigation system is a UNESCO WHS) deep in the Ash Sharqiyah Mountains (Fig. 1.1). The report aims to maximise tangible impact from sustained high quality research in the field of Oman’s vernacular settlement study undertaken at Nottingham Trent University. This is part of a longer term aim to debate, collaborate, contribute and influence heritage, architecture and urban design policy in Oman at the levels of the government, public and private sectors, charitable organisations and the local stakeholder communities, with additional knowledge benefits becoming available to the international learned bodies, heritage institutions, industries and communities.

The work has been undertaken at the Centre for the Study of Architecture and Cultural Heritage of India, Arabia and the Maghreb (ArCHIAM), based at Nottingham Trent University, UK, which aims to provide an interdisciplinary research platform for historical and contemporary cultural developments across three interconnected global regions.

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The Centre consists of an international team of researchers from a variety of academic backgrounds in architecture, architectural technology, archaeology, social history, conservation and digital documentation, among others. In this sense one of the fundamental themes underlying the Centre’s research aims is the multidisciplinary study of how human culture and social practices are expressed spatially, and how in turn space affects the cultural practices of groups and communities.

The Ministry of Heritage and Culture of Oman has recently established an inventory of over one thousand vernacular settlements of which 86 have been identified for immediate attention.

Heritage Management and Development Plans (HMPs) are the first step in the process. The ArCHIAM projects, beginning with a pilot project for Дārat as-Saybanī in Barkat al-Mawz produced in 2011, deliver detailed models and guidelines relevant to Oman and the Middle East, as well as develop appropriate, cost-effective and expedient methods for producing HMPs. While HMPs are fundamental to the shaping of historic settlements by suggesting methods of management and conservation of historic fabric, this research group strongly believes that the success of such approaches is only limited if not fully integrated with addressing developmental needs and aspirations of future generations. By developing new models and methods, the projects aim to contribute extensively to sustainable modernisation in Oman and the Middle East. Findings are to be disseminated also to and via local institutions, stakeholder communities and international presence in Oman.

Figure 1.1 Topographical section between sites of the ArCHIAM 2013-2014 project

The existing UNESCO HMP guidelines are focused on World Heritage Sites and are mainly Eurocentric, making their approach inadequate for sites of regional and national significance in the Middle East facing significant development pressures. The project will reshape, refine and adapt UNESCO guidelines and methods for the key aspects of the present HMP: a) detailed documentation, b) establishment of significance, c) integrating development and heritage management, and, d) sustainable built environment development guidelines. The contribution will underpin and inform future heritage management policy and budget allocation in the region.

INTRODUCTION

The project’s eventual success will be measurable from its impact on heritage policy, processes and methods, change in socio-cultural attitude and greater awareness of issues related to integration of heritage with development.

1.2 Objectives and Approaches The objective is to prepare an HMP for two oasis settlements of importance, possessing significant characteristics and a distinctive setting, with the aim to develop: a. HMP and appropriate management guidelines; b. sustainable built environment developmental guidelines; c. expedient and cost effective documentation methods and related best practice guidelines.

This has been undertaken by: a. conducting fieldwork documentation throughout Autumn 2013; b. producing relevant drawn documentation (maps, plans and photographic documentation); c. analysing data for establishing significance; d. producing a strategic HMPs as model and guideline; e. considering wider issues of design, culture and society for developing sustainable building and developmental guidelines; f. using alternative, cost effective and expedient methods of documentation.

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RECONNAISSANCE AND FIELDWORK

2 Reconnaissance and Fieldwork

2.1 Introduction This chapter outlines the process and methodologies employed in the documentation process at, both, Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah in the Sinaw Oasis. While both settlements form two distinct urban cores and are in other ways also substantially distinct entities, their close proximity to one another (barely 100m) makes it best practice to treat them as complementary elements within the same system.

2.2 Preparatory Work Extensive preparatory work was carried out at Nottingham Trent University during the weeks leading up to fieldwork, in order to develop a cohesive documentation strategy and rigorous implementation procedures. With these aims in mind the following efforts were undertaken: • Preparation of detailed fieldwork documentation and production of drawing guidelines for on-

site use; • Procurement and preparation of maps and aerial photographs for on-site use (Figs. 2.1, 2.2);

Figure 2.1 a, b Maps of Oman and area of study (Source: NSA, 2000, ASTER GIS)

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• Development of inventory data sheets appropriate for use on designated sites drawing on previous work on Oman’s traditional Ήārahs, focusing especially on states of preservation; • Creation of schematic components map including main building types and zoning derived from aerial photographs; • Establishment of a data handling and storage strategy, as outlined in the ‘Fieldwork Guidelines 2012’, which was subsequently distributed to MHC participants in order to standardize proceedings; • Preparation of detailed fieldwork plan and logistics making provision also for the expected training of Ministry employees;

A number of aerial photographs were acquired from the NSA (National Survey Authority) by the MHC, with the liaison being carried out by the doctoral student from NTU.

2.3 Reconnaissance Upon arrival at Sinaw it was decided to address Дārat Āl Barāshid first, prior to embarking on the documentation of Дārat as-Сawāfah. The reasons for this were largely based on the apparent complexity of Дārat Āl Barāshid, which, due to its organic street plan and multiple overhanging structures, was expected to take longer to document than the comparatively clear and regular Дārat as-Сawāfah.

Following arrival on site in November 2013, an extensive reconnaissance campaign lasting two days was undertaken to determine the actual size, characteristics and condition of the settlement. In the course of this it became clear that the built environment of Дārat Āl Barāshid had decayed substantially since the sites’ gradual abandonment in the 1970s, and that consequently the documentation of the urban setting would have to take into account the continued deterioration of the settlement in the near future. This process, visible to the team during the heavy rains of late November 2013, is expected to accelerate substantially with the currently evident collapse of roofs and coverings. At the current rate of deterioration it is evident that within a decade Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah, as most other sites of similar characteristics, will be beyond repair.

Figure 2.2 Aerial photograph of the Sinaw Oasis and study area (Source: NSA, 1975)

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2.4 Documentation The documentation methodologies applied in the course of the Sinaw project are largely in accord with those employed at most previous projects by the ArCHIAM team in Oman. After an initial appraisal of the size, condition and nature of each settlements and their environs, the entirety of the settlement is split into alphanumerically designated units which are then drawn and measured in plan and, if deemed necessary, in section. The drawing and measuring process is followed by exhaustive photographic documentation of every unit in the settlement, including open spaces, exteriors and aerial views. Wherever possible the use of aerial photography is also included in the documentation process, together with taking GPS points for greater accuracy and to ease the drawing process. In the majority of cases a total of 3-4 GPS points are taken at any given waypoint at 30 second intervals, the resulting points are then ‘averaged’ in a GIS suite to further refine the accuracy of the final point. The result is a flattened skeleton of points from which the general dimensions of the settlement can be determined, while also having the certainty of an accurate overall geometry.

As part of the documentation and to better determine age and socio-cultural context of the settlements time is devoted too to the recovery of finds and artefacts from the settlements. Large amounts of Chinese porcelain, ancient pottery and lithic artefacts have all been found at Sinaw and they confirm the picture of an extraordinarily long history of occupation and a surprising degree of continuity within the settlement patterns of the Sinaw region.

2.4.1 FIELDWORK AT ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

Work on Дārat Āl Barāshid started November 8th, 2013. It was evident from the team’s work that the site offers some interesting characteristics for study. Indeed, the social history of the area is of great relevance to the field as a whole since the important inter-tribal and overseas links of the local communities are still traceable to a large extent. The urban and architectural characteristics of the two settlement quarters display important distinctions.

The urban morphology of Дārat Āl Barāshid demonstrated a high degree of organicity, with the street pattern constantly changing and adapting to the terrain, gradual urban growth and

Figure 2.3 CAD plan of Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah

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the requirements of the inhabitants. The limited amount of space available within the fortified enclosure of the Ήārah required creative solution to the creation of new living space for the growing community. To a large part this was achieved by the construction of rooms overhanging the narrow winding streets. These features are so ubiquitous, at times covering entire stretches of street for several dozen metres, that the aerial imagery provided proved somewhat useless in determining the overall street layout of the settlement as this was largely obscured by the superstructures.

The work on site was delayed and complicated to an extent by the heavy rains of late November, which made visible the extent to which Oman’s architectural heritage is under threat. The mud brick and stone construction of the dwellings suffered substantial damages and many roofs in the settlement collapsed during the three weeks on site.

Following the drawn and photographic documentation (Figs. 2.4, 2.6) a series of interviews were carried out with erstwhile inhabitants of the Ήārah and the Imam of the recently restored mosque (Figs. 2.7, 2.8). These interviews form the core of the ethnographic dimension which this project aims to address, by providing an expansive account of the oasis’ oral history. The interviews are also fundamental to the development of a successful Master Plan for the future of the Ήārah. It would be impossible and irresponsible to engage in any kind of restoration work or, indeed, substantive development without the input and consent of the local population, who ought to be involved at all stages of the project. An additional aim of the interviews is to establish the tribal ownership pattern of dwellings within the Ήārah and, thus, gain a deeper insight into the morphological development of the urban layout.

2.4.2 FIELDWORK AT ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

The documentation approach to be applied at Дārat as-Сawāfah was initially intended to follow a more selective approach, mainly because such a methodological direction would have lent itself best towards identifying and recording the specific characteristics the settlement exhibited.

The intention was to focus on the distinctive urban space at the heart of as-Сawāfah and a cluster of buildings surrounding it.

While at first the intention had been to concentrate on specific structures and spaces that best exemplified the overall aspect of the settlement, this approach was gradually expanded upon to include practically the entirety of the settlement except the modern structures. These were drawn only in outline to complement the context of the vernacular fabric.

Figure 2.4 Fieldwork at Дārat āl Barāshid

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Figure 2.5 Panoramic view of Дārat as-Сawāfah The documentation methods employed were largely identical to those applied at Дārat Āl Barāshid. All buildings were drawn and exhaustive measurements were taken in order to permit for accurate CAD drawings to be produced upon return to the UK (Fig. 2.3). However, due to the somewhat better state of preservation and more stylised architecture of Дārat as-Сawāfah it was decided to draw a substantial number of the structures in section and isometric perspective (Fig. 2.9). These drawings, together with the large number of photographs taken on site, aided in the production of computer-generated 3D models of selected buildings later used for exhibitions and other public outreach efforts, as well as improved the spatial understanding of the architectural practices prevalent in this region of Oman.

The ethnographic work carried out at Дārat as-Сawāfah consisted also in interviewing a number of previous residents from various families. Beyond the gathering of data pertaining to the history and morphology of the settlement, these interviews are essential in order to gauge the expectations for the site’s future and what modifications or developments the actual stakeholders would have in mind for their ancestral homes.

The fieldwork at Дārat as-Сawāfah was hampered to an extent by the presence of young boys and children from the nearby houses who routinely vandalised the settlement by collapsing down walls and roofs, removing support beams and throwing rocks. While immediate steps were taken to stop this behaviour, this is a clear indication that there is no real appreciation among the younger generations for the homes of their ancestors and, generally, for their cultural heritage.

Figure 2.6 Sketch drawing of dwelling D1

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2.5 Training One fundamental aspect of ArCHIAM’s fieldwork effort in the documentation of Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah was the training of local stakeholders in the current surveying techniques. The aim of this capacity building engagement was to impart to MHC employees the necessary skills for them to be able to carry out basic survey and documentation in an independent fashion.

Figure 2.7 Interview and exchange with local inhabitants and informants

Figure 2.8 Interviewing erstwhile inhabitants of Sinaw

Over the duration of the fieldwork campaign at Sinaw two MHC employees were given around two weeks of training in reading and drawing plans and basic sketching techniques for the accurate representation of the built environment. Particular attention was given to the establishment of a homogeneous architectural drawing convention, for which a series of guidelines had been previously developed for use on site to establish a standard of representation. This was followed by in-depth analysis of the site’s morphology by accurately determining its geometry with measuring tapes and lasers. In this field the MHC workers were able to assist the ArCHIAM team and substantially accelerated the duration of fieldwork.

One final aspect of the capacity building exercise undertaken on site was the induction of MHC employees into methods of systematic photographic documentation. Particular emphasis was given to the creation of a stitchable photographic record that would permit the panoramic visualisation of architectural spaces (Fig. 2.5).

It is expected that with the skills imparted by the ArCHIAM team the trainees will be able to assist in future fieldwork campaigns. While these past experiences can be considered to have been a success in terms of the aims initially set out by the research team, there is clearly great potential in expanding this practice to motivated individuals with a personal interest in the field of vernacular architecture and history. Furthermore, capacity building exercises and outreach projects pose the opportunity to sensitise the local communities to the values of cultural heritage, aid in its preservation and promote a shared identity.

2.6 The Architecture of the Ash Sharqiyah Governorates The Ash Sharqiyah region is defined by the eastern Hajar Mountains, which are cut by the Wādi Taiyin and several connected valleys known collectively as the Wādi Bani Jabir. It remained virtually inaccessible to Europeans for most of its history, with most foreign traffic remaining on

RECONNAISSANCE AND FIELDWORK

the important coastal trading centres of Sur and Ras al-Hadd. The interior of the region remained antagonistic to the Sultanate of Oman for much of the 20th century, and outsiders were not always welcomed. Like much of the interior of Oman, the predominant settlement pattern was that of small oasis towns watered by the drainage of mountain valleys, which themselves acted as trading centres to the nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes - the Bani Bu Hasan, Hishm and Awlad Kasib tribes - who made a living from the grazing of livestock in the surrounding steppes (Hawker 2008: 225).

As Mershen notes (1998: 105) settlements located away from the mountains, such as Sinaw, “are relatively larger settlements and are the sites of important markets. The appearance of these settlements is distinguished by their strong emphasis upon substantial defensive installations. These may be realized in the form of either town-walls, towers, fortified gates, and a fortress…or in the form of large fortified dwellings belonging to wealthy families or shuyuh”.

Architecturally speaking, the Ash Sharqiyah Governorates had a style that is quite distinct from that of the coastal towns. Writing in the 1830s about the settlements of the region, Lieutenant James Raymond Wellsted says that ‘to avoid the damp and catch an occasional beam of sun above the trees they are usually very lofty. A parapet encircling the upper part is turreted; and on some of the largest houses guns are mounted. The windows and doors have the Saracenic arch (…) and every part of the building is profusely decorated with ornaments of stucco and bas-relief’ (Damlūji 1998: 325-326). A further common feature is the arcaded portico which looks out to a walled private courtyard. The ogee arches, reminiscent of subcontinental examples, are often rendered in juss and through their openings provide the light and air that makes living in these houses cool and pleasant. These porticoed dwellings, referred to here as the ‘liwan type’ are particularly common in Дārat as-Сawāfah, while they are, interestingly, almost completely absent from Дārat Āl Barāshid.

Whether this is related to late arrival of the Burashdis from Adam, which lies further towards the Ad Dakhliyyah, remains to be determined, but it may be considered a distinct possibility.

Figure 2.9 Isometric perspective drawing of dwelling A7 in Дārat Āl Barāshid

Figure 2.10 Data collection and anthropological research in the broader Sinaw/Mudaybi region

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DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF HĀRAT AL BŪ RĀSHID

3 Documentation and Analysis of Дārat Āl Barāshid

3.1 Introduction This chapter will discuss some of the main characteristics of Дārat Āl Barāshid, including a description of the geographical and topographical context as well as a short discussion of the climatology of the region. Importantly this report will also address, as far as possible, the highly complex history of the site, paying particular attention to the Āl Barāshid migration from the oasis of Adam in the 17th century and how their arrival and establishment within the Ήārah might have affected its urban development.

Included in this chapter is also an analytical discussion of the Ήārah’s layout and principal architectural characteristics, visualised by a series of detailed plans and maps at the end of the chapter. The same structure will be repeated for Дārat as-Сawāfah in the following chapter.

3.2 Context and Topography The Oasis of Sinaw (22°29’55.93” N - 58°01’14.70” E) is located on the western edge of the Ash Sharqiyah Governorate about 130km south of Muscat and 55km south-west of Ibra. Due to its distance from the water-bearing wādis of the al-Hajjar Mountains and the comparative proximity

Figure 3.1 Mosque of Дārat Āl Barāshid, post restoration

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to the Ash Sharqiyah desert the area of Sinaw is comparatively arid, even by Omani standards.

Water, tapped from the aquifers of the Wādi Andam was available in sufficient quantities to practice intensive oasis agriculture, but rainfall is scarce, at around 115mm per year. The availability of water carried by the two main aflaj Abu Manayn and al-Mushaq, and the location astride an important north-south trade route ensured Sinaw’s prominence as a staging post for Oman’s interior mercantile connections.

The terrain of the area of Sinaw is composed predominantly of sandy gravel with large amounts of granitic and conglomerate rocks which were used in construction throughout the oasis.

Due to the porosity and low moisture retention of the soil agricultural lands require substantial preparation, habitually by creating walled, sunken fields in which the falaj water can pool and temperatures are lowered by the shade of the date palm trees.

Дārat as-Сawāfah

Дārat Āl Barāshid Дārat ar-Rāshidi

Дārat Hisn as-Souq

The total area of the oasis comprises around 1,53 sqkm, though the agriculturally productive space has experienced an extreme reduction of almost 40% in the last 10 years, due partly to the scarcity of water, but also the growing habit of local residents to build their houses into the palm groves.

3.2.1 Sinaw Oasis Past and Present Judging from the large number of remains dating to the Hafit and Umm an-Nar periods the area of Sinaw has been settled since at least the 3rd millennium BCE, if not longer. A number of potentially Neolithic remains in the form of flint assemblages and a potential hand axe (Fig. 3.3) recovered from Дārat Āl Barāshid indicate a long-standing human presence. In recent years there has been mounting evidence suggesting the late Pleistocene human presence in the Arabian inland (Rose 2007; Delagnes et al. 2012) which makes a human presence in Sinaw in the 20ka BP time frame possible, though not necessarily likely, as the area appears to have been quite arid even during this comparatively humid period.

The archaeology of the area, though apparently quite dense, has seen relatively little scholarly involvement. One of the most famous finds in the area was made in the Ήarāh of al-Mudaybi, to the east of Sinaw, where a local farmer unearthed a large earthenware vessel containing over 900 coins from Achaemenid and Early Islamic periods (Lowick 1983; Gaiser 2010). The study of this numismatic treasure trove has allowed for the formulation of some interesting conclusions regarding developing aspects of sectarianism in Islam and the formation of the early Ibadi state.

Figure 3.2 Sinaw oasis analysis

DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

Gaiser in particular has written on the subject and concluded that the minting of coins pertaining to such traditions hints at the consolidation of Ibadi Islam to the extent that it had by then become institutionalized as a state.

More recently archaeologists from the University of Bologna have been conducting a series of excavations near the settlement of al-Fath, also in the vicinity of al-Mudaybi along the Mahawt/Duqm Road, concentrating on a series of Umm an-Nar grave mounds and cairns, further consolidating the view of the Sinaw region as having been a location of near-permanent settlement since the earliest periods of sustained inhabitation in the region. The graves demonstrate, among other things, the use of elaborate burial rituals, including the sacrificial internment of camels, as well as the potential connection with artefacts and practices of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

While the two settlements in this study are the largest of the ancient settlements of the Sinaw Oasis, they are by no means the only ones. The largest part of the population appears to have been distributed among the many other substantial, but also smaller, Ήarāhs dispersed across the once extensive date palm plantation. Important among these was Дārat ar-Rāshidi located at the southern edge of the Islamic burial hill that separates the modern expanse of Sinaw from its traditional counterpart (Fig. 3.2). With the two settlement quarters, Сawāfah and Barāshid also encircling the hill on the west and southwest, respectively, the main settlement quarters were evidently pushed to the eastern edge of the valley that extended north-south along the hill and made arable through the two falaj systems, Abu Manayn and al-Mushaq. Southwest of Дārat ar-Rāshidi is an intriguing cluster of settlements known by the names of Дillat al-QalΚah, Дillat as-Suq and al-Arqub. A number of smaller settlements extend further south, including Tal and Дandalī, where little remains of vernacular environments are extant. Even further south, aerial photographs show indication of once extensive agricultural fields and pathways, and associated habitation quarters, which have all but disappeared. These are plausibly the remains of Dastar, reputedly one of the most ancient quarters of Sinaw originally inhabited by the Musallami tribe. Additionally, a number of farmlands along Wādi Andam, west of the oasis proper, complete the picture of vernacular settlements and agriculture.

At Дārat ar-Rāshidi a circular tower marking the northern end of the quarter is clearly visible from both the settlement quarters of our concern. It was not possible to establish the structure of the settlement quarter with any accuracy due to the lack of documentation effort channelled towards this settlement. However, it would appear that the more substantial dwellings - such as the impressive Bayt al-Kabir - were located along the southern edge of the settlement, where at least one Figure 3.3 Probable Neolithic hand-axe (top left) Figure 3.4 Chinese export pottery, probably Fujian 19th century (top right) Figure 3.5 Samad-Style Iron Age compartmented bowl (bottom)

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prominent entrance into the settlement quarter was also positioned. From here the arcaded entrance passage extended north following the steep topographic ascent. The circular watchtower had, close to its base, a distinctive arcaded structure of pronounced rectangular proportion - possibly used as a sablah or male meeting hall - and another rectangular structure used as a guardroom.

The presence of a fort (qalΚah), Hisn al-Aqik, sometime in the past is attested through the prominently raised tell on which the disused souq and a mosque are located. A shallow strip of dwellings tightly encircle the mound forming Дellat al-QalΚah and, further south, Hellat al-Arqub, separated by a narrow pathway. The souq is remarkably well preserved, providing excellent evidence of a compact trading establishment, which would appear to have been accessed externally through a wide clearing further south, alongside an internal access from the tell. Although specialised in nature, it is unlikely that Hillat as-Souq will have been the principal market centre for the oasis.

Given that the settlements had some form of commercial establishment associated with it, the hierarchy of commercial and trading establishments in Sinaw demands separate investigation. Also located along the western edge of the tell is a ‘closed’ cuboidal prayer hall, typical of the Omani interior regions (Bandyopadhyay & Sibley 2003)m which, along with the souq, evidently postdates the fort in their construction. It is plausible that the souq occupied a part or the entirety of the original keep. The ablution area and well of the mosque are located at a lower level outside the tell, accessed by a bridge that straddles the path.

As concerns the age of the settlements of the Sinaw oasis, it seems likely that the one known today as Дellat al-QalΚah might be among the more ancient ones. Its location atop a low hill in the centre of the valley now occupied by the palm groves provides it with the kind of commanding and easily defended position which would be a likely point of settlement for early arrivals. This pattern appears to be consistent with at least two settlements north of Sinaw - As-Sudayrah and Al-Mutaylah - the latter located along Wādi Andam, and have parallels in the oases of al-Hamra, Bāhla and Izkī. This, coupled with the fact Hillat as-Souq was until very recently a key market area of Sinaw, contributes to the possibility of this site having been one of the earliest locations for permanent settlement in the Sinaw Oasis. Evidence for these claims is currently still circumstantial and can only be substantiated through archaeological surveys of the area.

The other key settlements in the Sinaw Oasis (Дārat Āl Barāshid, Дārat as-Сawāfah and Дārat ar-Rāshidi), as already noted, all lie on the edge of the current agricultural lands, indicating that their establishment came after - or was at least contemporaneous with - the creation of the

Figure 3.6 CAD drawing of Дārat Āl Barāshid (far left) Figure 3.7 Composite aerial photograph of Дārat Āl Barāshid, 2013 (left)

Figure 3.8 AGIsoft 3D photogrammetry model of Дārat Āl Barāshid

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Figure 3.9 Ground floor plan of Дārat Āl Barāshid

DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

Figure 3.10 First floor plan of Дārat Āl Barāshid

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oasis’ main falaj system, which they would otherwise have interrupted.

Falaj Abu Manayn is a dawoodi falaj drawn from around the area of as-Sudayrah, some 10km to the north of Sinaw, and its waters are used primarily to irrigate the lands of the inhabitants of Дārat Āl Barāshid, which stretch north from the settlement past Дārat as-Сawāfah. This arrangement appears to date to the Hawashim era in Sinaw and might therefore pre-date the construction of Дārat as-Сawāfah. Дārat as-Сawāfah draws its water from Falaj al-Mushaq, a ghayli falaj of younger date than Abu Manayn, originating from Wādi Andam, but today carrying significantly more water. The present inhabitants mention two other dawoodi falaj systems once operational at the southern end of the oasis - Dastar and Handali - which have now disappeared.

The disappearance of these southern falaj systems must have contributed to the general deterioration of agriculture in this region. Falaj Abu Manayn, the present source that waters the gardens west of Дārat Āl Barāshid, has lost a significant amount of its water due to blockage and a series of deviations made at its upper reaches (possibly towards Sudayrah), which have allegedly drawn water away from the Āl Barāshid palm groves. According to local lore the name derives from the sheer force with which water used to once gush forth, strong enough to move two stones each weighing a man (maund, the Indian unit of mass - possibly also in use in Arabia - equating to one man’s weight). In any case, there is evidently more water in Falaj Mushaq than in Falaj Abu Manayn. According to local informants a further reason for the comparative lack of water on the southern reaches of the Sinaw Oasis appear to stem from the faulty reconstruction of the falaj made in recent years by expatriate workers using stone and cement and, therefore, interrupting the percolation of aquifers into the main channel.

The consequences of the lack of water are clearly visible in the aerial photography of the Sinaw area (Fig. 3.7), where in just around 10 years about 1/3 of the oasis’ palm gardens have all but disappeared. Agricultural land beyond the post-1970 housing expansion on the low hill that once defined the western edge of the original irrigated valley has also vanished, leaving only small pockets of activity. This is the case with Al-Wasit, once a large agricultural settlement south of Sinaw. Sudayrah and Mutaylah, as well as the oasis north Дārat as-Suwawfah in Sinaw oasis appear to have survived better in comparison.

3.2.2 The Settlement of Hārat Āl Barāshid The small settlement of Дārat Āl Barāshid lies about 1.5km west of the centre of the modern

Figure 3.11 Solar and shadow patterns in Дārat Āl Barāshid (left)

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town of Sinaw, along the eastern edge of the ancient Sinaw palm groves and oasis. Between the modern town of Sinaw and the ancient Ήārah lies a barren stretch of slightly hilly land about 300m wide, which appears to have been used since the remote past as a cemetery. Remains of low cairns and stone enclosures are visible as well as are several hundred small and unassuming stone slabs, characteristic of the headstones of Islamic graves. While the apparent antiquity of this cemetery has not been conclusively confirmed by archaeology, the discovery of artefacts potentially dating to the Neolithic and Early Iron Age suggests that some of the inhumations in this area may well date to these earliest periods of settlement, as recently also confirmed by the excavation of the University of Bologna along the Duqm Road, which are still underway and as yet unpublished.

The Ήārah itself covers little more than 9000sqm and lies on relatively level ground, sloping off towards the west, i.e. the palm groves. From its highest points it overlooks the surrounding territory in a commanding radius, though its general orientation appears to have been towards the agricultural lands in the west. This is not unusual in itself, as also the majority of traffic was expected to come from along the route of the falaj, which runs from north to south along the eastern edge of the farmlands, and indeed from the west and the farmlands themselves. This would explain the comparative paucity of gates on the eastern side of Дārat Āl Barāshid (Fig. 3.25), where only two small posterns for livestock give access to individual dwellings. The modern hardtop road that comes through the cemetery from modern Sinaw and currently separates the two settlements is not an ancient feature, as originally the main access routes into the oasis were from the south and the north. In this sense the two settlements of Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah formed the eastern edge of the oasis, with little more than open landscape stretching off in that direction.

3.3 History The precise length of occupation of Дārat Āl Barāshid (also known locally as Hillat Āl Barāshid) is still undetermined though archaeological surface finds in the area may indicate that it has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. A large number of Hafit period tombs are visible on the hill tops of the region at large, and within Дārat Āl Barāshid a number of stone tools and artefacts have been found that are likely to date well into the Stone Age. Researchers from the University of Bologna have discovered and are currently excavating an important Umm an-Nar and Bronze Age site near Sinaw at the settlement of al-Ayn, further substantiating the picture of a densely settled area possibly stretching well into the Hafit era.

Figure 3.12 Settlement transit patterns and transport usage in Дārat Āl Barāshid (left)

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Among the surface finds recovered during the fieldwork for this project is a Samad Period compartmented bowl, dating to the Early Iron Age (Fig. 3.5). While this may not have been produced locally, it does provide a hint at the regional trade links that are evident for the period.

The more recent collection of relevant finds comprises mostly the 16th and 17th centuries and is characterised most importantly by the copious amounts of Chinese porcelain, mainly Fujian export ware from Dehua and other east coast Chinese centres of production (Fig. 3.4). In terms of dating, these finds coincide roughly with the Portuguese occupation of the Omani coast and the ensuing spike in far-Eastern trade. Commerce in these goods did evidently not trail off with the eventual ousting of the Portuguese in the 18th century, but instead appears to have increased judging from the amount of available sherds. This may be due to a re-orientation of the market wherein under Omani control Oman ceased to be a mere entrepôt and became an end consumer in itself, leading to an accumulation of far-eastern pottery.

While settlement in what is now the Oasis of Sinaw clearly stretches back to the earliest human presence in Oman’s interior, the exact dating of the architectural remains of Дārat Āl Barāshid is a largely hypothetical task. The highly dynamic environment of Arabia’s tribal societies encourages the movement, migrations and displacement of tribal groups over large geographical areas. As groups arrive in a new oasis their settlement choices are affected by the relations with the already present tribes. In some cases the new arrivals integrate themselves into an already existing Ήārah, and in other cases the newcomers may be forced to set up their own new settlement quarter. In the case of Дārat Āl Barāshid the story is somewhat more complex and, to an extent, unusual. Local informants confirmed that the Āl Barāshid tribe originally stemmed from the oasis of Adam in the Dakhiliya Governorate, but due to a dispute with the other groups in the oasis they were forced to search for a new place to settle. At the same time the al-Дawāshim tribe (nisbah, al-Hāshmī) in Sinaw faced a similar situation and an agreement was reached between both tribes to exchange their respective settlements for one another, at currently unknown date likely to be some time in the second half of the 17th century. Hence, Дārat Āl Barāshid was initially known as Дārat al-Hashmi/ Дawāshim. The original document outlining the agreement between both tribes is understood to be extant, but unfortunately its whereabouts are currently unknown. Salvaging this piece of Oman’s social history would be of great significance to scholarship.

Figure 3.13 Water run-off, drainage and erosion patterns in Дārat Āl Barāshid (left)

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3.4 Social History The settlement was named after the Āl Barāshid tribe (nisbah, al-Bū Rāshdī) who resided there after the agreement to exchange settlements with the Дawāshim tribe (nisbah, al-Hāshmī) of Adam. Originally the Hawāshim resided in the Ήārah known as Sidīrah in the Oasis of Adam, which had an unusual circular form. The agreement was to exchange dwelling for dwelling and date palm for date palm with the Āl Barāshid. The reason for the exchange between the two was unclear, but most oral history indicates socio-political conflict for each tribe in their original settlements. Hence, the Āl Barāshid moved to Sināw and resided near the mosque, Masjid Āl Barāshid (Fig. 3.1), which already existed before the Hawāshim moved to Adam and is, therefore, likely to be a Hawāshim foundation. Indeed, the mihrab of the mosque bears an inscription with the date 1068 AH (1657 AD), and citing СāliΉ b.Ali al-Hāshmī as the shaykh of the settlement. A late 17th century changeover between the settlements of the Āl Barāshid and Дawāshim tribes therefore appears possible.

As alluded to in the previous section, the social history of the Ήārah known today at Дārat Āl Barāshid is an unusually complex one. The exchange of an entire settlement between two tribes is, to our knowledge, unique for the region. Not just is this an incidence of significant political acumen and strong regional exchange, it also demonstrates the complexity inter-tribal relations which could in fact succeed in displacing entire kinship groups across large regions. Also of interest is the question to what extent the various client groups and retainers of the leading tribes followed the exchange and what properties they were given in their respective new settlements. What is clear is that Дārat Āl Barāshid was initially smaller than its modern extent, concentrating to the east of the mosque in what are zones A, B, D according to the zoning elaborated for the present project (Fig. 3.23). The area further south (comprising roughly zones I, F) was originally occupied by a separate cluster of houses named as-Sauriya, which was gradually incorporated into Дārat Āl Barāshid at this grew. Its inhabitants are said to have been primarily of the Дawātm (nisbah, Дātmī) tribe, though their numbers were always small and many of them appear to have relocated to Muscat in recent years. Originally the Hawāshim had a small sablah located outside the settlement, next to the mosque, which corresponds to unit L1 (Fig. 3.22). This was recently rebuilt to again serve as a meeting hall for the broader population.

Few dwellings of other tribes and clients such as ShuΚailīs (nisbah, al-ShuΚailī) and FarΚis (nisbah, al-FarΚī) resided within Дārat Āl Barāshid. Some client groups resided in the far south

COVERED PASSAGES OF HARAT ĀL BARĀSHID cp B7 cp B12 cp C3 cp C6 cp E3 cp E5 cp E6 cp F3a cp F3b cp F9a cp F9b cp F10 cp G1 cp G6a cp G6b cp J2 cp K1 cp K3a

Figure 3.14 Covered passages and liwan-type dwellings in Дārat Āl Barāshid (left)

cp K3b

covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from B7 (non-decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from B12 (non-decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from C3 (non-decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor presumably accessed from E3 (non-decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from E5 (non-decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from E6 (non-decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead rooms on 1 floor accessed from F3 (non-decorated arches) assumed covered passage presumably accessed from F3 (decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from F9 (non-decorated arches) covered passage covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from F10 (decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from F10 (decorated arches) covered passage sheltering access to G1 (decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from G6 (decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from G6 (non-decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from J2 (decorated arches) covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from K1

(non-decorated arches) assumed covered passage with 1 overhead room on 1 floor presumably accessed from K3 (non-decorated arches) assumed covered passage presumably accessed from K3

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section of Дārat Āl Barāshid known as Дillat al-Shāwrīyah. These groups were Дawātm (nisbah, Дātmī), Musallamiyīn (nisbah, Musalamī), and Hidifiyīn (nisbah, Hdifī) (Fig. 3.30). The Дawātm practiced weaving in the open space north of the mosque and later constructed their own sablah in the same place.

3.5 Settlement Architecture, Structure and Morphology 3.5.1 Morphology The settlement of Дārat Āl Barāshid exhibits some of the most commonly accepted characteristics for what is often considered to be the standard ‘tribal settlement’. Striking is at first sight the almost complete lack of rectilinearity or orthogonality of the structures and street pattern which is caused, to an extent, by the slight irregularity of the terrain. More importantly, however, this lack of a ‘planned’ layout is reflective of the segmentary social structure of its inhabitants. The gradual accretion of built fabric is a product of the growing size of families within the confines of the fortified perimeter that constituted the edge of the Ήārah. Rather than building outwards into new open spaces, which would have required the reconstruction of corner towers and parapet walls, the solution was to build vertically and over open spaces such as lanes and courtyards. The resulting warren-like aspect of the settlement may, in fact, have had the additional desired effect of providing shaded streets during the hot summer months (Figs. 3.6, 3.8, 3.9, 3.10).

The lack of sufficiently large open spaces in the central parts of the settlement has meant that the public core of the Ήārah is located off towards the north western side, in the area adjacent to the mosque and the adjoining sablah. The small square generated by the conjunction of mosque, sablah, gate and zone B is the main public space of Дārat Āl Barāshid and is to some extent still used as a meeting point for the men at prayer times. This is still the case today as the old mosque has been rebuilt to cater for the surrounding population. Despite the lack of habitation the streets of Дārat Āl Barāshid are still functioning as something of a thoroughfare to some of the local inhabitants. In particular the expatriate labourers who work in the nearby fields and have taken up residence in some of the nearby houses, tend to walk through and around the settlement at certain times of the day (Fig. 3.11), on the way to the fields and towards the souq of Sinaw.

In material terms the majority of structures are built from a combination of mud brick and

Figure 3.15 Tower F18 in Дārat Āl Barāshid

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stone masonry (Fig. 3.29). Primarily the lower stories and foundations are kept in stone masonry rendered with mud or clay (sarooj) plaster. The copious use of stone is quite specific to the Ash Sharqiyah region and not as readily observed in the Ad Dakhliyyah and ad-Dhāhirah regions. This appears to have given the structures a slightly more stable character and preserved them from collapse longer than at other sites. Equally, the use of sarooj render has, at times, protected wall surfaces from excessive water damage, though the collapse of roofs has accelerated the degradation process overall.

The gradual development of Дārat Āl Barāshid can be gleaned through the distribution of the various tribal groups who lived there. From mapping the distribution it became clear that the majority of the settlement’s inhabitants are of the Bū Rāshdi group and their concentration clearly occupies the upper two thirds of the settlement in a fairly homogeneous manner. Immediately south of Tower F18 (Būrj Āl Barāshid) (Fig. 3.14) there appears to have been no Bū Rāshid dwellings.

As the current usage of the site is concerned the settlement is practically entirely abandoned except for a few dwellings along the south-western edge which are new-builds in concrete. Vehicular access into Дārat Āl Barāshid is currently not possible due to the highly constricted nature of the street pattern (Fig. 3.27), which makes only pedestrian transport possible. Cars are currently being parked to the north and west of the Ήārah, in particular during prayer times (Fig. 3.12).

Due to the topography of the terrain at Дārat Āl Barāshid, the eastern side of the settlement effectively constitutes the watershed for the area, leading all surface flow to run off towards the western, lower, section of the settlement. The unchannelled flows, however, constitute one of the major threats to the structural integrity of the architectural heritage of the Ήārah. Even though the majority of buildings have stone foundations, the mortar is easily washed out during powerful downpours. This obviously compromises the remainder of the structure, leading to collapse and disintegration of the fabric.

3.5.2 Dwellings The dwellings of the inhabitants of Дārat Āl Barāshid are reflective of the overall cluttered appearance of the settlement (Fig. 3.24). There is, however, substantial evidence that the buildings, which now appear to be small and dark, were originally larger and with more open spaces. As the population of the Ήārah grew larger houses were gradually subdivided to provide more spaces for the growing families.

The dwellings range between one and three storeys (Fig. 3.28) and follow the well-established architectural pattern of the Omani interior in that the ground floor levels tend to be reserved for Figure 3.16 Three views of sablah C1 in Дārat Āl Barāshid

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household activities such as cooking and the keeping of livestock in the rear rooms, whereas the living spaces were located on the upper floors. Slightly larger or higher status structures might have counted with a majlis or a male meeting room, either close to the entrance (Fig. 3.26) or on the top floor.

Within the settlement itself a clear gradient between affluent and more impoverished households is visible, but it is not as pronounced as in larger settlements such as Bāhla or Nizwa.

The largely monocultural setup of smaller Ήārahs, such as that of Āl Barāshid, meant that the economic standing of a tribe was shared relatively evenly amongst its constituent members. There were, however, some relatively grand structures in Дārat Āl Barāshid. In particular Zones A and D count with some of the most impressive structures in the Ήārah, with D1 (Fig. 3.22) taking on the character of a mini-fortress integrated into the settlement, complete with gate tower and parapet walls.

According to local informants dwelling D1, also known as Bait al-Kabir, was built by an Al Barāshidi who had made his fortune by trading in Zanzibar. The model of the wealthy merchant returning to his place of birth and building themselves grand structures to assert their position and showcase their wealth is not at all unusual. Indeed at Дārat as-Сawāfah and Al MuΡayrib this appears to be one of the characteristic features of the local architecture. D1 was clearly built to act as a widely visible representative structure, with its somewhat oversized tower and generous

Figure 3.17 Interior of Masjid Āl Barāshid, post-restoration (below) Figure 3.18 Mihrab of Masjid Āl Barāshid. Note the insertion of modern ceramic bowls (left)

DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

interior spaces.

Other structures along Zone A were also of a higher status, in most cases exhibiting copious amounts of high quality juss and sarooj work and courtyards leading off to the various rooms.

Amongst these buildings one in particular stands out due to its somewhat different stylist completion.

A7 is in many respects much more similar to the dwellings of Дārat as-Сawāfah, especially due to the pointed arch arcade which forms its façade and the high quality render on mouldings and arches.

On the lower end of the economic scale the majority of dwellings of Дārat Āl Barāshid were much more cramped homes than those of the northern end of the settlement. Entrances tend to be significantly less lavish, with little space for courtyards.

3.5.3 Defences Дārat Āl Barāshid is not a particularly heavily defended site and yet it does exhibit a somewhat hermetic character, being accessible by only one public gate and having a number of towers and substantial wall formations. The main defensive features, the three towers, are located on the north side, indicating that any potential threat was perceived as most likely coming from that direction.

Indeed, the fact that the northern portion of the settlement is quite heavily defended is suggestive of an antagonistic relationship in the past with Дārat as-Сawāfah, located only about 150m to the north.

Except for F18 the towers are integrated into the fabric of the adjacent buildings. In the case of A10 the extent of the dwelling was at some point expanded outwards and built up to a greater height than of the tower, effectively making this feature obsolete from a defensive standpoint. Due to its solid fill this structure appears to have functioned more as a platform than as an enclosed structure. In the case of L3, the tower attached to the mosque, this feature was heavily restored in recent years and its original appearance is hard to gauge. It appears to have had a slightly ovoid plan with an access placed at the middle level, reachable only via a set of narrow stairs attached to the mosque wall. The integration of the mosque itself into the defensive perimeter of the settlement is an interesting development, but not unusual in itself as mosques were often located close to the gates.

The settlement is not surrounded by a visible curtain wall, instead the perimeter is formed by the outsides of the buildings themselves. In specific cases there are traces of what may be

Figure 3.19 Covered passage and decorated arches in Дārat Āl Barāshid

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the remains of a wall which has since been built over and integrated into the substance of the surrounding dwellings, specifically buildings A10 and F7. Whether these features do in fact form part of an older wall can currently only be determined from their morphologic alignment with the edge of the Ήārah.

A final defensive feature of Дārat Āl Barāshid is the sabah (gate) located on the southern side of the mosque, which also formed part of the recent restoration work. While the general proportion of the gate is likely to have remained the same, the materiality has clearly changed with the substitution of mud brick for cement. According to local informant this gate was the only public access to the interior of the Ήārah and it was closed every day after sunset.

3.5.4 Public Spaces and Structures SABLAH

One of the main public structures of Дārat Āl Barāshid is the large sablah (C1) located immediately south of the main gate (L2) adjacent to the mosque. It was common for sbal to be located in the vicinity of mosques and gates, and these structures together tend to form the main public spaces of a typical Omani settlement, generally complying with the practice of retaining outsiders and strangers close to the settlement’s periphery rather than bringing them into the inhabited core of the Ήārah. This roughly rectangular structure is setup along two arcaded transverse bays. The roof of this building has collapsed and the interior appears to have been sparse with no visible traces of decoration (Fig. 3.15). In front of the sablah is a relatively large open courtyard with a gate that provided access from in front of Zone B. A further communal sablah stands outside the settlement immediately to the north of the Masjid Al Bū Rashdi (L1), whereas C1 is today completely ruined. This other, smaller sablah was recently rebuilt as part of the reconstruction of the mosque. The building is today completely modern, built from cement, and no trace of the ancient structure remains visible.

Apart from the two main sbal discussed above, larger dwellings usually counted with small meeting halls of their own. While it was not uncommon for these spaces to be decorated with pictographic motifs and inscriptions on the roof beams, in the case of Дārat Āl Barāshid there is no evidence of this practice visible today. As the majority of dwellings in Дārat Āl Barāshid were rather small not very many sablahs were discernible, while the largest house in the settlement (D1) appears to have counted with two: one for the men and one for the women.

DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

SOUQ

As already briefly alluded to in previous sections, Дārat Āl Barāshid is a very tightly built-up settlement leaving relatively few spaces that could be considered public. It is really only outside the sablah C1 that the available space opens to such an extent as to be able to speak of a square, though it seems unlikely to have been used for any major gatherings or functions. While there have been mentions by local informants of a small souq in Дārat āl Barāshid this is unlikely to have consisted of much more than just a few shops rather than a permanent market. There are, however, a number of small shops, normally of a single room, which catered to local inhabitants with household products such as baskets, pottery and the production and sale of foodstuffs.

MOSQUE

One of the central buildings of Дārat Āl Barāshid is the old Mosque, called Masjid Al Bū Rashdi (L1). The recent restoration by MHC of this building has seen its external appearance somewhat altered from the use of contemporary materials, but also the form of the rooftop bumah being different. The overall proportions, however, appear to have remained largely in tune with the original, retaining its arcaded interior divided into 4 transverse bays supported by stout tapering columns (Fig. 3.16).

On the western wall of the mosque is integrated a richly decorated stuccoed mihrab which has recently also been the victim of a severe bout of restoration. Indeed, the restoration has seen the removal (to an unknown location) of the antique Chinese porcelain bowls from the Qing period which formed part of its decoration, and suffered from their substitution for modern breakfastcereal bowls (Fig. 3.17). Further alterations to the mihrab include a complete whitewashing of the stucco and the amendment of the original dedication script with the addition of the restoration date and some extra wording. The original inscription read: “The construction completion of this miΉrāb was on Monday in 27 of RabīΚ al-Ākhir in 1068 AH by Ali Ali b.Talib b.Kahl al-Nakhalī, during the ruling time of Imam Sultan b.Saif al-YaΚrubī, and Shaikh СāliΉ b.Ali al-Hāshmī has resided there” The mention of СāliΉ b.Ali al-Hāshmī as the resident shaykh suggests that the mosque was built by the Hawashim, the predecessors of the Al Barashdi in the Ήārah, further indicating that the

Figure 3.20 Aerial view of the sundial in Дārat Āl Barāshid (top) Figure 3.21 Sinaw Oasis and Falaj Abu Manayn during flooding (below)

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changeover between the settlements of either tribe must have occurred post 1657.

STREETS AND COVERED PASSAGES

A striking and somewhat unusual feature of the settlement of Дārat Āl Barāshid are the numerous overhangs which cover entire stretches of street and alleyways. These overhangs tend to consist of rooms which were associated with a given dwelling and placed atop supporting arches, which were often decorated on the intrados with symbols, geometric patterns and stylised imagery in high relief (Fig. 3.18).

Lack of space and population growth within the settlement are the most likely reasons for the construction of these features, as they are not commonly seen in such numbers in other settlements of the region. They do, however, have the important and welcome secondary effect of providing shading and cool air currents flowing through the streets of the Ήārah, which would likely have made life there must more pleasant during the hot seasons.

The arcaded passages of Дārat Āl Barāshid are certainly one of the defining features of the settlement and, as such, are central to the preservation effort of this Heritage Management Plan.

Their qualitative impact on inhabitants and visitors could be substantial and should, therefore, be given special attention.

19 covered passages are found in Дārat Āl Barāshid (Fig. 3.13), 8 of which are located along the main street, 9 along the east-west secondary streets, one along the north-south alley and one along a cul-de-sac. 16 of these covered passages have overhead rooms entered from the top floor terraces of adjoining units, three are simply roofed (F9b, G1, K3b). Six overhead rooms are coupled together – B12-C3, F3a-F3b and E6-J2 – the former two couples sharing a wall and the latter two a corner.

3.5.5 Other Features (Falaj, Sundial, Wells) Most other relevant features of Дārat Āl Barāshid are related to the settlement’s water distribution and management systems. The Ήārah received most of its water from the Falaj Abu Manayn (Fig. 3.20) as the settlement itself counted with only one well which was located in the mosque courtyard. The well located within unit J3 appears to be modern and, in fact, does not carry a ministry tag.

The falaj itself runs on the surface for the majority of the distance within the oasis. It never actually enters the settlement itself, but instead runs along the western edge between the outer

gardens and the road. Along this stretch one finds a number of washing and ablution facilities, some of which remain in use until the present. The water of the falaj is tapped from several miles to the north from the wādi which also supplies the water for Дārat as-Сawāfah.

Located just to the east of the settlement one finds a large sundial traditionally used for the allocation of water shares amongst the local shareholders (Fig. 3.19). These shares were split into 40 minute time slots throughout the day. The size and complexity of this sundial warranted its detailed documentation. In misleading simplicity it consists primarily of a simple gnomon in the form of a steel re-bar rammed into the ground with a large brass pommel at the tip. The remainder of the system, the time markers and longitude lines, consist almost exclusively of lines drawn into the sand and a number of rocks to mark the start and end of each longitude line. Due to its weathered condition it has become very easy to oversee this feature, which is today almost completely out of use. Wristwatches and modern chronometers have made this ancient technique largely obsolete, and so the associated skills of reading the time by the sun and stars have also begun to disappear amongst the younger generations.

DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

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Figure 3.22 Дārat Āl Barāshid, base plan

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Figure 3.23 Дārat Āl Barāshid, zoning plan

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Figure 3.24 Дārat Āl Barāshid, settlement components

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Figure 3.25 Дārat Āl Barāshid, settlement accesses

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Figure 3.26 Дārat Āl Barāshid, dwelling accesses

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Figure 3.27 Дārat Āl Barāshid, street pattern

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Figure 3.28 Дārat Āl Barāshid, number of storeys of architectural units

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Figure 3.29 Дārat Āl Barāshid, building materials and modes of construction

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Figure 3.30 Дārat Āl Barāshid, tribal mosaic

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4 Documentation and Analysis of Дārat as-Сawāfah

4.1 Introduction Located about 150m north of Дārat Āl Barāshid the second settlement in this study, Дārat asСawāfah, is closely associated with the first by their mere proximity, and yet the two sites differ in a number of important aspects from one another. Morphologically as well as socio-politically Дārat as-Сawāfah exhibits a number of traits which make it appear the product of a more uninterrupted development, and its comparatively unobstructed street plan gives the impression of the relatively calm and peaceful history. The comparative clarity of form of the settlement maybe, however, also be indicative of a younger age of this settlement. Local informants have been contradictory in determining which of the two Ήārahs in this study is the more ancient, typically stating their own was the older one. In the case of Дārat as-Сawāfah a number of morphological qualities, which will be discussed below, may indeed indicate that it is the younger of the two settlements.

4.2 Context and Topography The topographical context of Дārat as-Сawāfah is largely identical to that of Дārat Āl Barāshid, hemmed in on the western side by the falaj and the agricultural lands (Fig. 4.18) and to the east by the barren expanse of high ground occupied by the cemetery. The modern road which cuts through the Sinaw Oasis approaches as-Сawāfah from the north and passes the settlement on its eastern side making this the main direction of access today (Figs. 4.1, 4.2). Prior to the construction of

DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

Figure 4.1 Composite aerial photograph of Дārat as-Сawāfah, 2013

Figure 4.2 CAD drawing of Дārat as-Сawāfah

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Figure 4.3 Ground floor plan of Дārat as-Сawāfah

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Figure 4.4 First floor plan of Дārat as-Сawāfah

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the graded road, however, the main gates of the settlement were located on the downhill side on the Ήārah’s northern and southern ends respectively. Both gates are today in a state of advanced disrepair, being almost completely collapsed. The overall orientation of the settlement is therefore westward, looking towards the greenery of the palm groves and turning the main openings of the buildings away from the hot and humid north winds (Figs. 4.3, 4.4). The photogrammetric render constructed in AGIsoft (Fig. 4.5) shows quite clearly the gradual downhill slope westwards.

Largely uninhabited (Fig. 4.34), Дārat as-Сawāfah is the northernmost of the larger Ήārahs of Sinaw and lies on the middle reaches of Falaj Abu Manayn. The agricultural lands of the Suwafi tribe lie further to the north of the settlement and not immediately adjacent to it as would usually be the case. This is a further indicator for the late arrival of this tribe, who would otherwise have attempted to settle closer to their palm gardens and water source.

4.3 History As is common in the case of most Omani Ήārahs there is a near complete paucity of written documentation or archival material on these sites, so the researcher must necessarily rely on the not always reliable information provided by local informants. Hard data regarding dates and events is difficult to obtain in this manner, but a general overview of a settlement’s development as well as an impression of the inhabitants’ socio-politic alignment tribes in the oasis and the client groups in their own Ήārah may be gleaned in this manner.

While the settlement area of the Sinaw region has been occupied for many thousands of years, as testified by the many Hafit and Umm an-Nar remains in the area, this continuous occupation was subject to great shifts and upheavals with the constant entry of new groups and ethnicities.

As Oman’s history shows, natural disasters, economic displacement and conflicts are the most common causes for the migration of entire groups from one region to another.

At Дārat as-Сawāfah, the Suwafis were the dominant group within the urban confines of the village, of whom the settlement takes its name, but the exact date of their arrival in Sinaw has been difficult to ascertain, though local informants tend to place it into the late 18th or early 19th centuries.

Figure 4.5 AGIsoft 3D photogrammetry model of Дārat as-Сawāfah

DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

4.4 Settlement Structure and Morphology 4.4.1 Layout The roughly longitudinal layout of the settlement is a product of the lay of the land, with the Ήārah being located on the western slope of a rise and immediately above the falaj which flows past its western edge. In contrast to Дārat Āl Barāshid, Дārat as-Сawāfah is organized around a rectangular central square which appears never to have been built up. From this space the main thoroughfares spread out in a more or less orthogonal fashion, creating clearly delineated housing clusters of large dwellings with south-facing arcades and courtyards.

In general the settlement appears to be proportioned in a more generous manner than Дārat Āl Barāshid, with broader streets and passages, and a more orthogonal structure (Fig. 4.31). At around 9300m2 it occupies an area roughly comparable to that of Дārat Āl Barāshid.

In terms of morphology of the settlement and its components, it is possible to talk about two distinct sections which may reflect two separate development phases. The southern half of Дārat asСawāfah consists of slightly smaller dwellings with a larger number of internal spaces proportioned according to their smaller footprint. The layout of the street plan in this area is also slightly more convoluted and less orthogonal than in the northern half of the Ήārah. A further indicator for a greater age of the southern section is the old corner tower in B1 (Fig. 4.22), now integrated into the fabric of the house having lost all defensive functions. This tower may once have formed the northern-most corner of this proto-Ήārah which was gradually integrated into a newer foundation growing downwards from the north. Due to the lack of textual or archaeological evidence the dates for these evolutionary processes are largely conjectural, though bearing in mind the younger age of Дārat as-Сawāfah than Дārat Āl Barāshid it may be possible to locate them in the late 19th century, the period most commonly associated with Suwawfi ascendancy.

4.4.2 Dwellings and Liwans

Figure 4.6 Liwan-type dwelling A4 in Дārat as-Сawāfah (top) Figure 4.7 Liwan-type dwelling D1 in Дārat as-Сawāfah (bottom)

The domestic architecture of Дārat as-Сawāfah is quite remarkable, exhibiting what could be described as high-status traits such as generous arcades, courtyards and sarooj rendering in high quality workmanship and a large proportion of the liwan type of dwelling. This is somewhat unexpected when considering the otherwise not so affluent context of Sinaw, and in particular in juxtaposition with Дārat Āl Barāshid. The dwellings of Дārat as-Сawāfah are often laid out in a south or south-west facing direction, accessed from the front into a porticoed courtyard beyond which lie the main rooms of the dwelling itself.

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One of the characteristic features of Дārat as-Сawāfah are the arcades formed of pointed arches on round masonry columns, and the masonry lattice balustrades which delineate the courtyard from the shaded porticoes (Figs. 4.6, 4.7). The resulting covered but airy space is reminiscent of the majlis observed among some of the higher status houses of Al MuΡayrib, a space traditionally used for receiving guests or sitting on hot evenings. A further common decorative feature are the stucco mouldings and grills around the ventilation openings below the ceilings. Ventilation holes are ubiquitous in Omani vernacular architecture, but they are commonly simply plastered in mud mortar and not decorated in any significant manner.

Mostly built out of mud brick and mud brick combined with stone (Fig. 4.33), approximately half of the dwellings in Дārat as-Сawāfah have two floors, while only very few ones have a third floor access (Fig. 4.32). Amongst these is dwelling A10 (Fig. 4.14), which consists of a large square tower located at the core of the settlement, and includes a ground level passage which appears to have acted as a gate in the past, while the upper floors were accessible only from an adjacent structure. The ground floor of this building, known as Bait al-Kabir, appears to have originally had a certain defensive function, though this appears to have been lost in the later phases of the settlement.

Reputedly one of its ground level chambers was used for the storage of ivory, imported from East Africa, a fact which may serve as a clue to the apparent affluence of as-Сawāfah’s inhabitants and their up-market architecture.

Also distinct from the houses in Дārat Āl Barāshid are the large courtyards and open spaces associated with dwellings, in particular on the eastern side of the settlement. In some cases the open spaces can be clearly identified as livestock pens, whereas in other cases they fulfil a more architectural function, creating an open space for lighting and ventilation of the surrounding rooms.

A typical dwelling of Дārat as-Сawāfah, which exhibits some of the most common characteristics normally visible in the settlement, would be J4 (Figs. 4.8, 4.9), located on the north-western edge of the settlement. This house is centred around a courtyard - in this case east-facing - accessible from the street via a large representative and highly decorated gate. These decorations are reminiscent of those visible in the mihrab of mosque E1 (Figs. 4.19, 4.24) of as-Сawāfah and, as such, serve to illustrate the extent to which maharib and gates stand in close semiotic association with one another in the local tradition.

The interior courtyard gives access to the main rooms and spaces of the house, first of all flanking what may have been an animal pen on the left. The arcaded space to the west was most commonly used for cooking and enjoying the shade. The adjacent rooms on the ground floor were quite often used for the storage of goods and foodstuffs (such as dates and derivative products) as well as for holding animals. Facilities for the manufacture of halva and date honey is also a commonly observed feature, consisting of large cooking pots and hearth to smoking chambers

Figure 4.8 Plans, sections and elevation of dwelling J4 in Дārat as-Сawāfah Figure 4.9 Two-point perspective of dwelling J4 in Дārat as-Сawāfah

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Figure 4.10 Evolution and expression of the liwan-type house in Дārat as-Сawāfah

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Figure 4.11 Architectural variations of liwan-type dwellings in Дārat as-Сawāfah

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respectively.

The sleeping chambers we located upstairs, furthest away from the unpleasant odours of the livestock and cooking fires, and closer to the cooling breezes. These rooms were usually also very simple, containing little in the form of furnishings and relying instead on the ubiquitous wall niches for the storage of day-to-day items.

LIWANS

Liwans are gallery-like arcaded spaces found in dwellings, which have the function of marking, both climatically and functionally, the transition between courtyards and rooms. They provided a shaded semi-private area where daily activities such as grinding, coffee making and weaving would take place. The lower temperatures afforded by the shade would make the rooms’ interiors thermally comfortable.

Ragette (2006: 57) traces the origin of the liwan in the Bedouin Arab tent made of goat skin and suspended through ropes over poles and light beams. The interior of the tent was focused on its central area, where the occupants would gather and sit in a U-shaped arrangement. Open to the outside, this area provided access, prospect and a degree of visual control over the external environment. Most importantly, it functioned as a transition space from outside to inside, public to private, dazzling sun to darkness. It seems plausible to maintain that a memory of the U-shaped sitting layout and the central buffer zone was retained when, as nomadic groups settled, the tent gradually evolved into a courtyard house. The former can be traced in the arched configuration of the entrance door, the latter in the later protrusion of the main living spaces onto the courtyard, to form the arcaded porch known as liwan. Subsequently, as households grew and more space was required, external rooms built against the property boundary walls made their appearance, along with staircases leading up to first floor rooms or roof terraces (Fig. 4.10).

While A7 is the only dwelling in Дārat Āl Barāshid presenting the archetypal functional layout described above, in Дārat as-Сawāfah 13 units feature several plan/section typological variations of it, based on: a) position and geometry of the liwan in relation to courtyard and rooms; b) presence of external rooms; c) presence and location – within courtyards or liwans – of the stairs; d) boundary between liwan and neighbouring properties.

Figure 4.12 Section along passage and gate E9 in Дārat as-Сawāfah Figure 4.13 Isometric perspective along gate E9 in Дārat as-Сawāfah

Furthermore, a number of architectural types and subtypes can be identified in relation to liwans’ configurations in elevation, which vary depending on: a) number and geometry of the arches (semi-circular or pointed); b) presence of balustrades (latticed or solid) within the archways; c) presence of windows instead of arches (Fig. 4.11).

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In general the houses function as self-contained units aimed at establishing a maximum degree of privacy and yet attempting to retain the cooling flows of air which make living on the edge of the desert possible. This is usually achieved with the afore-mentioned courtyard, which is normally built in such a way so as to keep out prying eyes. Equally, windows are usually dispensed with, with light reaching the interior spaced from openings that are directed towards the courtyard. Ventilation, on the other hand, is ensured by narrow ventilation slots which pierce the upper sections of the exterior walls.

4.4.3 Defences While the overall dimensions and layout of Дārat as-Сawāfah are roughly comparable to those of Дārat Āl Barāshid, located in close proximity, the Suwaffi settlement presents itself as surprisingly undefended. Unlike Дārat Āl Barāshid, with its towers, perimeter walls and single access gate, at Дārat as-Сawāfah there are few indicators of an unstable past apart from one stone masonry round tower, the donjon of Bait al-Kabir and three gates (Fig. 4.29), none of which exhibits the usual hallmarks of defensive strength one would expect to see in the traditional oasis context.

Indeed, the entire eastern side of the Ήārah is wholly unprotected except by low boundary walls enclosing the livestock pens. This highly permeable nature of the settlement is suggestive of a state of confident security in the latter stages of the Ήārah’s growth.

There are, however, a few indicators of an earlier phase in which a section of the settlement was enclosed by a substantial wall flanked by corner towers. Of these just one remains standing, integrated into the structure of zone B (Fig. 4.27). The large piles of masonry debris strewn around the eastern portion of the settlement may be indicative of the existence of a more solidly built curtain wall which has since collapsed and its constituent materials spoliated and incorporated into more recent structures.

4.4.4 Public Spaces and Structures The settlement of Дārat as-Сawāfah counted with a number of large open spaces and squares which structured the public life of the village. Unusual for most Omani oasis Ήārahs is the rectangular square located at the centre of the settlement, which gives the impression of having been a specifically delineated space which new builds did not expand into. The organic settlement growth, which characterises most Omani Ήārahs, tends to make such features unusual.

A further relevant space lies to the west of Дārat as-Сawāfah immediately outside the urban perimeter of the settlement. There a large walled expanse of open territory formed a buffer zone

DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

COVERED PASSAGES OF HARAT AS-SAWĀFAH ap cp A10 cp B6 gate C2 cp C8 gate/cp E9 cp H3 cp I1 cp I11 cp J2

arcaded passage between F2 and H10 (non-decorated arches) 2 overhead rooms on 2 floors from A10 (non-decorated arches) covered passage (non-decorated arches) gate (non-decorated arches) 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from C8 (non-decorated arches) combined gate and covered passage (non-decorated arches) 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from H3 (decorated arches) 2 overhead rooms on 1 floor accessed from I2 (decorated arches) 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from I11 (decorated arches) 1 overhead room on 1 floor accessed from J2 (decorated arches)

between the palm gardens and the settlement proper. These areas contained a number of bathing areas attached to Falaj Abu Manayn and a series of smaller enclosures which were used by the locals to practice weaving and other crafts (Fig. 4.28).

COVERED PASSAGES

Covered passages are characteristic architectural features of Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah. Scattered throughout the settlements, they straddle urban blocks over public passages (main streets, secondary streets and alleys) and private passageways (cul-de-sacs) or at points of access into the settlements (settlement edge), covering stretches of different geometries and lengths. Depending on the particular location of the covered passages – along streets, at junctions or entrance points of residential compounds – three main types can be identified (Fig. 4.15).

From a morphological and typological evolution point of view it is suggested here that covered passages originated from arcaded passages in-between facing dwellings’ boundary walls, which at some point got roofed and turned into covered passages, which in some cases combined with gates, like in the case of E9 (Figs. 4.12, 4.13), and eventually developed upwards, when rooms on one and two storeys were built above (Fig. 4.16). These overhead structures, known also as “airright structures”, were constructed over a public right of way, yet allowed unimpeded traffic flow beneath, in order to create additional living space. This happened when opposite dwellings on both sides of the street were owned by the same person or family and when a house was small in area and the owner could demonstrate that some or all of his requirements for additional space could only be met by building such an overhead structure (Besim, 2007). In any case, whether simply configured as roofed arcades or more elaborately as tower-like structures, covered passages had the advantage of creating shaded circulation routes as well as comfortable access zones to the adjoining properties.

Though quite homogeneous in terms of style, which is predominantly pointed or Tudor, the arches of arcaded and covered passages in Дārat as-Сawāfah present a multitude of architectural types and subtypes based on plan and section configurations (Fig. 4.17). These include: a) arches springing from the wall’s surface or arches on columns; b) arches with or without impost; c) single arches or coupled arches with gap in-between; d) symmetrical or non-symmetrical arches.

4.4.5 Mosques Figure 4.14 Fortified dwelling A10 in Дārat as-Сawāfah

Дārat as-Сawāfah had a total of four mosques, only two of which were integrated into the urban fabric of the settlement. Of these, one was a very small single-chamber structure (D2) which

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Figure 4.15 Urban variations of arcaded and covered passages in Дārat as-Сawāfah

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Figure 4.16 Evolution and expression of arcaded and covered passages in Дārat as-Сawāfah

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Figure 4.17 Architectural variations of arcaded and covered passages in Дārat as-Сawāfah

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formed part of dwelling D1 (Fig. 4.26), and appears to have been a relatively recent construction as it is built partly in concrete blocks.

Next to the northern gate of the settlement a further mosque is located, but this was not surveyed due to its modern construction and consequently diminished heritage value.

To the west of the Ήārah, but still located within the perimeter wall of the settlement, lies a further small mosque (H13) which is currently in a partially collapsed state. This building appears to have been associated with the crafts areas located along the falaj.

The main mosque of Дārat as-Сawāfah (E1) is one of the most relevant features of the entire settlement. Characterised at first sight by the habitual sobriety of Omani oasis mosques, the building is a simple cube divided on the interior into two bays separated by an arcade standing on stout columns. The floor consists of simple pisé which may originally have been covered by carpets. The building is accessed from the east via a small courtyard which held a small ablution room on its northern edge (Fig. 4.30). The mosque did not have its own well, so that the water must have been brought up from the falaj by hand.

While it is structurally and architecturally not particularly distinct from other examples of this type of building in the Interior of the Sultanate, the mosque of asСawāfah counts with a highly decorated mihrab still in its original condition, complete with furnishings from Chinese Ming and Qing Dynasty porcelain. Unlike the Mosque of Дārat Āl Barāshid, which has suffered from a severe bout of restoration, the smaller Masjid as-Сawāfah is still largely in its original condition, though attempts at extracting the Chinese bowls (Figs. 4.20-4.23) from the mihrab are evident from cracks, breakages and scratch marks on these artefacts. Chinese porcelain is not an unusual find in the Ήārahs of the Sharquiya and Ad Figure 4.18 Panoramic view of Дārat as-Сawāfah from south-east

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Dakhliyyah regions as sherds of this materials are commonly strewn throughout the settlements and their immediate environs. In the case of mosque decorations, however, somewhat higher quality artefacts were used than one might usually find as part of household wares. These object exemplify and illustrate the important international trade links which tied together the eastern Indian Ocean in the period of Oman’s ascendancy as a mercantile power.

A further feature of interest in the mosque of Дārat as-Сawāfah are the two small pencil inscriptions of either side of the prayer niche. Their condition is not very good and they have yet not been fully translated.

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The rationale is unclear as to why the mosque of Дārat Āl Barāshid was recently so lavishly restored but in the process all its porcelain bowls removed, while the mosque of Дārat as-Сawāfah, which is no less relevant has remained overlooked. This situation must be remedied immediately and the site secured from theft or vandalism.

CHINESE BOWLS

One of the characteristic features of the mosques of both Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat asСawāfah are the Chinese bowls decorating the mihrabs of either mosque. While the mosque of Дārat Āl Barāshid falls into a 16th century decoration pattern which can also be observed at Manah, Muslimat and Bahlā with its richly stuccoed geometric decor, the mosque of neighbouring asСawāfah is kept in the much more sober traditional Ibadi style.

As the whereabouts of the porcelain dishes, which once decorated the Bū Rashdi mosques, are currently unknown, the as-Сawāfah mosque is currently the only example in the area still bearing these artefacts.

• Bowl 1 is a plain white glazed bowl, probably of Chinese origin • Bowl 2 is a white glazed porcelain bowl of unknown origin with a brown decorative rinf inside.

Somewhat damaged by vandalism • Bowl 3 is a white glazed bowl of unknown origin though like Chinese.

• Bowl 4 has been violently removed.

• Bowl 5 is a white glazed plain porcelain bowl of likely Chinese origin.

Figure 4.19 Drawn representation of Masjid as-Сawāfah

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• Bowl 6 is a large porcelain dish with white glaze. Though undecorated this appears to also be of Chinese origin due to the quality of the porcelain.

• Bowl 7 is identical to number 5, this is also a plain white glazed porcelain bowl.

• Bowl 8 is a large blue-and-white dish with a central decorative wreath. Also of likely Chinese origin.

• Bowl 9 is a deep bowl with brown decorations of unknown origin.

• Bowl 10 is a plain blue and white porcelain bowl with a small abstract motive at the centre.

Possibly Chinese.

• Bowl 11 is not unlike bowl number 10, but with a stronger blue. This is also a Chinese blue-andwhite bowl of likely Chinese origin.

• Bowl 12 is the most decorated dish in the mihrab. This central piece is of likely Qing Dynasty origin (late 17th century) and has been quite heavily damaged by vandalism.

• Bowl 13 has been forcibly extracted.

CENTRAL SQUARE

Unlike many of Oman’s traditional Ήārahs, the settlement of Дārat as-Сawāfah counts with a relatively large central square, kept in a regular rectangular shape along a north south axis. This is unusual in so far as open spaces such as this were not commonly provided with shade, which is a definite concern in Oman’s desertic climate. The fact, however, that this space was flanked on the northern and eastern sides by masonry benches attached to the surrounding building suggests that this square was frequented by the inhabitants and used in communal events. It may be argued that the relative tribal homogeneity of the Ήārah (Fig. 4.35) encouraged public life within the settlement, therefore making the creation of public spaces such as this more likely.

The open space at the centre of Дārat as-Сawāfah has lent itself to a dual analysis with the aim

Figure 4.20 Bowl number 12 (top left) Figure 4.21 Bowl number 10 (top right) Figure 4.22 Bowl number 11 (lower left) Figure 4.23 Bowl number 8 (lower right) Figure 4.24 Interior view of Masjid as-Сawāfah (top)

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to explore, on the one hand, the relationship between spatial permeability and visual connectedness and, on the other hand, that between environmental comfort and circulation patterns (Fig. 4.25).

Based on the linear or more or less winding nature of the surrounding streets, three different modes of access to this space have been identified which have an impact on the physical and visual connectedness between the two. Approach, access and prospect considerably change between a linear, a 90 degree and an angled access via a covered passage, with visual fields respectively narrowing and getting framed and, therefore, views becoming more and more focused.

In addition, three modes of movement through the central space have been supposed in relation to temperature, light and shadow at three key times during the summer solstice. The analysis suggests that around lunch time, when the sun is high in the sky vault, the square is fully lit, with the exception of the covered passage that is entirely in shade. Under this condition people tend to walk quickly across the square and avoid stopping and sitting. At mid-afternoon, when the sun lowers, the shadows cast on the square and the street on the northern side allow for a slower pace crossing and walking, thus inviting to stop and sit on the ground or the benches at the base of G1’s western wall. After sunset the square and all surrounding streets are in shadow, thus encouraging to walk all around at a much slower and relaxed pace, as well as stop and sit anywhere.

4.4.6 Falaj and Water Management A further indicator of Дārat as-Сawāfah’s comparatively young age is the fact that officially the settlement has not got a falaj of its own and that its palm garden and agricultural areas are located significantly further away, whereas those gardens immediately adjacent to the Ήārah all belong to Дārat Āl Barāshid. Nevertheless Falaj al-Mushaq, which waters Дārat as-Сawāfah’s gardens further to the north, is today the most productive whereas Falaj Abu Manayn, which waters Дārat Āl Barāshid, has lost much of its ancient water capacity to lack of maintenance and tapping.

While Falaj Abu Manayn does not flow through the settlement the residents of Дārat as-Сawāfah appear to have had access to its waters via a number of bathing wudus for both men and women.

The settlement appears to have had just one well (M2) on its interior, which suggested that Дārat as-Сawāfah relied almost exclusively on the falaj for all its water-related needs. This is not unusual in itself as many Omani settlements are located atop rocky escarpments or apart from the main water courses, requiring daily trips by the inhabitants to the closest channel to gather water for the household.

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Figure 4.25 Diagrammatic analysis of the square in Дārat as-Сawāfah

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Figure 4.26 Дārat as-Сawāfah, base plan

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Figure 4.27 Дārat as-Сawāfah, zoning plan

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Figure 4.28 Дārat as-Сawāfah, settlement components

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Figure 4.29 Дārat as-Сawāfah, settlement accesses

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Figure 4.30 Дārat as-Сawāfah, dwelling accesses

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Figure 4.31 Дārat as-Сawāfah, street pattern

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Figure 4.32 Дārat as-Сawāfah, number of storeys

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Figure 4.33 Дārat as-Сawāfah, building materials and modes of construction

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Figure 4.34 Дārat as-Сawāfah, habitation status

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Figure 4.35 Дārat as-Сawāfah, tribal mosaic

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5 Architectural Values and Threats to Site’s Significance

This chapter addresses some of the key aspects of the settlements’ architectural values and some of the primary issues that threaten their continued significance. In this section both settlements will be addressed together as the majority of issues are applicable to both sites equally.

5.1 Urban and Architectural Values of Hārat Āl Barāshid • One of Дārat Āl Barāshid’s most defining features is the organic and almost convoluted urban structure, with the numerous tower-like overhangs and superstructures giving a unique character to the settlement.

• The unusual nature of the Ήārah’s settlement history, with the ‘swapping’ of inhabitants between al-Hawashim and Āl Barāshid tribes.

• The recently restored mosque of the Ήārah was an important exponent of this building type, with the Chinese pottery it once contained being an exemplar of Oman’s important trade links in the past.

• The relatively undisturbed context of the settlement which, despite the degradation of the palm groves, still retains much of its original character and could be re-activated by implementing adequate measures.

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5.2 Urban and Architectural Values of Hārat as-Sawāfah

5.4 Social Values

• The relatively high-status architecture of the Ήārah exhibits some unusual stylistic elements which serve to illustrate the affluence gained by Oman’s hinterland population through overseas trade.

• The above-mentioned event of significance, whereby two tribes exchanged settlement quarters and agricultural land, had imparted a distinct social dimension to the settlement quarter. More detailed ethnographic research could uncover the nature of such a social dynamic.

• The high quality materials employed in the construction of its buildings have helped in slowing down the rate of decay of this settlement, making responsible re-use and development less problematic than elsewhere.

• The largely single-tribe dominated settlement quarters in Sinaw distinguish the oasis town from other large settlement clusters (e.g., ΚIbra, BaΉlā, Nizwa, ManaΉ, etc., but especially the ones in the Dakhiliyah Governorate), where the core quarters developed as multi-tribal settlements.

• The relatively undisturbed context of the settlement which, despite the degradation of the palm groves, still retains much of it original character and could be re-activated with by implementing adequate measures

• An important socio-political value lies in a better understanding of the relationship that existed between the two settlement quarters, Hārat as-Сawāfah and Hārat āl Barāshid, and the impact trade, tradition of religious scholarship and other activities had in their distinctive formal development.

• The good state of preservation of the mosque which, by being in its original condition, showcases Oman’s religious architecture perfectly.

5.3 Historical Values • The Sinaw region is as yet a severely understudied area which, by being at the interface between the mountainous interior of Oman and the coastal regions, may offer important insights into the settlement history of the Ash Sharqiyah Governorates.

• The unusual event of two tribes exchanging settlement and agricultural lands with one another (Hawashim and Al Bū Rashidis) provides fertile ground for future ethnographic studies.

• The presence of the raised ‘tell’ of the fort, Hisn al-Aqik, south of the two settlements points towards an oasis settlement structure with an extended history. Detailed archaeological work would be necessary to establish its antiquity.

• The location of Sinaw at the edge of the desert foreland also meant interaction with nomadic groups since time immemorial. This has resulted in population exchange and significant mobility.

The historical impact of this factor in settlement morphology cannot be ignored.

• The location of Sinaw on the edge of the desert foreland had important social impact on settlement configuration and population make up with nomadic groups settling down over a long time.

5.5 Threats to Sites’ Significance The threats faced by both Дārat as-Сawāfah and Дārat Āl Barāshid are more or less identical and largely comparable to those endangering Oman’s architectural heritage at large. Both human and environmental factors are having an adverse effect on the Ήārahs’ architectural fabric. The following points list the primary destructive effects that are currently impacting both sites: • Heritage is not yet regarded as inherently valuable in neither cultural nor economic terms.

• Heritage should be regarded as a living entity not just as a mere object of preservation. There is strong evidence suggesting that the object of heritage management in Oman has, so far, been the latter.

• The settlements are currently, for the most part, uninhabited. This is a result of demographic shift, both generally from the predominantly rural interior to the larger urban centres in the region as well towards the coastal areas. There is also a general lack of interest in living within traditional environments which results from significant social change and ‘modernisation’.

Depopulation and abandonment rather than overcrowding is the main problem of Omani

ARCHITECTURAL VALUES AND THREATS TO SITE’S SIGNIFICANCE

vernacular settlements. In relation to these, associations of poverty and backwardness also adversely affect the attitude towards traditional modes of living.

• Wilful destruction by youngsters, especially in the case of Дārat as-Сawāfah, not only accelerates the decay of the site, but also illustrates the attitude many members of the younger generations have towards their ancestral homes.

• The continued lack of day-to-day maintenance and conservation, arising from abandonment, is a significant threat to the built fabric. This study documents an only momentary glimpse in the gradual degradation of the architecture, as within the months between fieldwork and submission the condition of the buildings will have altered substantially.

• Tourism activity is hampered to some extent by the lack of signage and information in the Sinaw area.

• The wide range of constructional, structural and architectural issues arising from neglect poses an extremely important threat. Structural failure arises from unchecked weather and bacterial action on the built fabric, as well as altered levels of stress and strain on building materials and components resulting from fluctuating levels of humidity and collapsed structures. Key architectural features of the settlement are being lost through erosion and collapse. In addition to the decay of structures due to the eroding action of the elements, abandonment and resulting dilapidation, the inevitable loss of the richness and cultural/material value of the earthen architecture is caused by repair/maintenance malpractices. This report provides a comprehensive understanding of the extent of constructional problems.

• Sinaw’s extraordinary potential as a repository and showcase for Oman’s architectural and social traditions has come under threat by the modern developments of some of its current inhabitants.

• Haphazard reconstruction efforts, such as that carried out at the mosque and gate of Дārat Āl Barāshid may appear to reactivate the usage of individual parts of the site, but must be regarded as a short term solution. The ultimate effect of such interventions is one of creating a dependence on central funds.

• Modern building techniques and design should be made to integrate traditional materials and forms. Approaches to development within heritage contexts will be elaborated upon in detail in Chapters 7 & 8.

• The late adoption of heritage management and development strategies for the settlement has intensified deterioration and continues to threaten the wider significance of the site. This Management Plan aims to address this problem by establishing specific strategies and detailed approaches, which require integration within a broad economic, social, cultural and spatial

development framework.

• The local residents and especially the younger generation do not feel the sense of ownership they once had. This is due to a socio-cultural shift resulting from a particular kind of ‘modernisation’ that has moved the new generation away from a deep and continued understanding of vernacular environments. New urban development has paid very little regard to the existing vernacular environments. This, again, the development plan aims to address these issues through concrete propositions.

• There is a lack of available contemporary alternatives for intervening within such historic fabric to bring it back to use within the modern context. It is important that such international approaches and precedents are studied with care and with a view to adapting these to the Omani context. This appears in Chapter 8.

• The Royal Decree 6/80 establishes foundation and provides guidance regarding the importance of conserving built heritage. MHC is working towards overcoming the challenges in extending, developing and coordinating the institutional framework required for dealing with a complex phenomenon. It is important that other governmental bodies work closely with MHC to coordinate policies at national and local levels to address integration of heritage management with planning and development. A robust tourism policy is again critical to the sustainable management of the historic built fabric.

• In the short term, pending the development of wider coordinated policy, the present pressures on land for developing new housing and economic, social and civic infrastructure is likely to lead to further deterioration of the settlement, and in particular the oasis.

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DOORS, WINDOWS, OPENINGS DOORS Single or double leaf, doors are set in frames embedded in the walls.

Panels are made of vertical wood planks joined on the inside face by means of horizontal timbers.

These are nailed over the planks through iron studs.

A central carved post, fixed to one of the two panels, acts as a check to stop movement.

Locks range from iron latches with chains or padlocks to wooden latches.

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WINDOWS Rectangular in shape, windows are positioned at different heights, sometimes within niches, and can be framed or frameless. The latter are simply lintelled.

The frame supports a single or double leaf wood shutter. A vertical carved post is fixed to one of the two leaves, acting as a check to stop movement.

In the absence of shutters, windows are protected by wooden frames with horizontal mullions and vertical iron bars.

OPENINGS Pointed arch and rectangular slits, porthole, square and cylindrical openings let air and light inside the buildings.

Slits are positioned in the upper part of the walls, sometimes above niches or windows.

Porthole openings are usually located just below ceiling level.

Square openings are situated either above doors or, like the small cylindrical openings, across the walls.

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CONSTRUCTION FEATURES - Дārat Āl Barāshid

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FLOORS AND ROOFS, WALLS, SPOUTS AND DRAINAGE CHANNELS FLOORS AND ROOFS Floors and roofs consist, from intrados to extrados, of: palm tree wood beams from old trunks; palm fronds laid perpendicularly to the beams; woven palm leaf mats (not always present); palm organic fibers mats (not always present); mud screed; mud finishing.

Roofs, particularly in kitchens, sometimes have openings for the extraction of smoke.

Stairs are occasionally roofed by sarooj domes or sarooj vaults on a skeleton of palm frond arches.

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WALLS A combination of stone and mud brick masonry finished in mud mortar or sarooj constitutes the main wall construction.

Walls are built as follows: 1) throughout, through courses of rubble stone set in mud or sarooj mortar and finished in sarooj render; 2) at foundation level, through courses of rubble stone set in mud or sarooj.

The mud finishing is sometimes applied so as to leave finger imprints for decorative purposes.

SPOUTS AND DRAINAGE CHANNELS Devices for rainwater collection and drainage include iron tubes and semi-circular sections and split palm tree trunks, the former fully embedded in the masonry walls, the latter protruding out.

An alternative to spouts and gargoyles are drainage channels carved out of walls in the guise of vertical chases along which rainwater is carried away from the roofs down to the terraces below or the ground.

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ARCHES, STAIRCASES, LINTELS ARCHES Arches are triangular, semicircular, elliptical, ogee and parabolic, built in mud bricks or thin stone slabs and finished in sarooj. They are built out of stones overlaid on top of each other in a staggered fashion. Horizontal timbers act as reinforcement ties.

At the apex are larger and thicker stones. Sometimes arch outlines are finished in sarooj mouldings.

Triangular arches are built out of two couples of timber logs which prop each other at the apex.

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STAIRCASES Made of rubble stone or mud brick steps, respectively finished in sarooj or mud, staircases have a linear or L-shaped layout, depending on whether they lean against a spine wall, are enclosed between facing walls or supported by arched undercrofts. In the latter type arches are quite deep and form a recessed niche underneath.

A timber, laid horizontally between the arch shoulders, has the function of strengthening the arch as well as allowing to hang household items.

LINTELS Lintels form a support for the wall above and provide a horizontal surface to fix openings’ frames.

They are made of timber logs from tree branches or palm tree trunks; rarely are they made of wooden boards, sometimes recycled from door panels. In either case a palm frond mat is laid on top to receive the mud filling which creates the bond with the masonry above.

Rarely, reeds are perpendicularly laid on the main logs to distribute loads uniformly.

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DECORATIVE FEATURES - Дārat Āl Barāshid

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CARVED FRAMES, HIGH RELIEFS CARVED FRAMES Timber doors are decorated with repetitive geometric and floral patterns, which are carved out of the central posts and horizontal frames, less often the jambs.

Recurring motifs include geometric shapes such as triangles, circles, semicircles, lozenges, leaves, branches and volutes.

As opposed to ceiling decorations, where beams are ornamentally painted by the users with varied motifs in order to preserve the palm tree timber from deterioration due to termites as well as smoke and vapour produced by cooking, timber carvings are done by skilled tradesmen.

The latter reveal the influence of the rich Indian decorative vocabulary that developed during the British protectorate time.

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HIGH RELIEFS The sarooj rendered intrados of arches is moulded through high relief motifs which range from geometric patterns to stylized human figures, from Arabic inscriptions to a combination of the former. Geometric patterns include crosses, circles and volutes.

Decorative relief, which is crafted while applying the final finishing coat, is particularly common in the arches of covered passages along streets and alleyways, whereas it is less common within the dwellings.

In exposed areas some of the decorative patterns have worn away due to erosion or volumetric expansion of the built fabric following water infiltration.

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NICHES AND SHELVING DEVICES, HANGING TIMBERS, IRONS AND STONES NICHES AND SHELVING DEVICES Whether divided by stone slabs or timber planks into shelved recesses, where household items are stored, niches punctuate most of the walls. The upper recess ends with a semicircular, pointed or triangular arch.

Niches vary in shape, size and number of recesses: those arranged in rows across the wall are multi-recess, those scattered across the wall have one or two recesses.

Niches may also encompass windows, openings or cavities to store valuables.

Other shelving devices include wooden boards sitting on low brick walls and palm tree trunks embedded into facing walls.

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HANGING TIMBERS, IRONS AND STONES A variety of functional elements – timbers, fronds, sticks, stones, chains and hooks – complement walls, arches and roofs. Timbers spanning arches were used, depending on their width, to hang various household items including clay pots filled with water for evaporative cooling. For the same reason, iron chains with hooks were fixed at the apex of arches.

A more modest device used to hang items was a palm frond hanging from the ceiling beams through ropes.

Stones and wooden sticks protruding out of the walls were also used to hang items. Wooden sticks embedded into the walls at the corners of rooms were used to tie up animals.

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COOKING PITS, DATE DRYING PLATFORMS COOKING PITS Found inside the dwellings, pits were used to cook food or, if necessary, to warm up the rooms in winter. They are made of mud and straw mortar, which was moulded in situ on the floor to form a series of horseshoe-shaped pits, placed one next to the other and then left to dry.

These pits would have accommodated firewood and aluminum or copper cooking pots.

They are generally found adjacent to walls and benches, in a central position, or at the corners of the rooms. This accounts for the blackened walls, due to the smoke coming from the hearths.

Sometimes, simple recesses at the corners of walls were used to accommodate pots for brewing coffee or tea.

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DATE DRYING PLATFORMS Normally found at ground level in window-less storage rooms, platforms are of standard depth but varying width, depending on the size of the household’s stock, but also the length of walls.

Platforms are made of mud bricks, with the top face moulded in parallel concave channels, which alternate with convex supports.

Sacks of woven palm fronds containing the dates used to be piled up on the convex supports in order for the syrup to be squeezed out under the weight of the sacks.

The syrup would flow through holes carved out of the front face of the platforms, and be collected inside terracotta jars, which were leant against it so that the syrup could naturally flow in.

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DOORS, WINDOWS AND BALUSTRADES, OPENINGS DOORS Single or double leaf, doors are set into the wall via frames and are hinged into stone discs on the floor.

They may have a smaller operable panel embedded into the leaves.

Panels consist in vertical wood planks joined on the inside face by means of horizontal timbers. These are nailed over the planks through iron studs or nails. A central post fixed to one of the panels acts as a check to stop movement.

Locks consist in iron latches and padlocks.

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WINDOWS AND BALUSTRADES Rectangular in shape, windows are positioned at different heights and can be framed or frameless.

Frames support a single or double leaf wood shutter.

Windows are often set within niches, in contact or not with their timber or stone shelves, and have lintels generally made of timber logs or planks.

Latticed sarooj balustrades were occasionally employed to close off arched openings in loggias or archways in liwans.

OPENINGS Rectangular slits, porthole, square and semicylindrical openings let air and light inside the buildings.

Ventilation openings are generally positioned in the upper part of the wall below ceiling level, sometimes above niches or windows.

Less often the slits are found at the base of walls, complemented with small circular holes punctuating also the wall around, which would have provided glimpses of the surroundings for defence purposes.

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CONSTRUCTION FEATURES - Дārat as-Сawāfah

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FLOORS AND ROOFS, WALLS, SPOUTS AND DRAINAGE CHANNELS FLOORS AND ROOFS Floors and roofs consist, from intrados to extrados, of: palm tree wood beams from old trunks; palm fronds or reeds laid perpendicularly to the beams; woven palm leaf mats (not always present); palm organic fibers mats (not always present); mud screed; mud finishing.

Kitchen roofs sometimes have circular or rectangular holes for smoke extraction and ventilation.

Ceilings are occasionally painted with white calligraphic inscriptions and colourful geometric patterns.

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WALLS Mud brick masonry finished in mud mortar and stone masonry set and rendered in sarooj are the two main wall construction types.

Stone walls vary depending on the type, size and shape of the stones: grey rubble stones, presumably from wādi beds, and quarried redand-white cut stones are more or less densely and regularly laid in sarooj.

Rarely walls are finished in smooth whitewash and decorated with abstract colourful motives.

SPOUTS AND DRAINAGE CHANNELS Rainwater drainage is ensured by gargoyles, channels and holes.

Gargoyles are made of iron and plastic tubes, iron sheets, split palm tree trunks and stone slabs.

Drainage channels are carved out of stone masonry walls in the guise of vertical chases along which water from the roof flows down to the ground.

Drainage holes are sometimes left at door thresholds in order to drain water away from courtyards.

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ARCHES, STAIRCASES AND LADDERS, LINTELS ARCHES Arches are triangular, semicircular, elliptical, ogee and parabolic. They are built out of thin stone slabs or rubble stones and finished in sarooj. Stones are overlaid on top of each other in a staggered fashion; reeds or palm tree logs, horizontally laid individually or in couples, act as reinforcement ties.

At the apex are larger and thicker stones. Sometimes arch outlines are finished in sarooj mouldings.

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STAIRCASES AND LADDERS Made of rubble stone finished in sarooj, staircases have a linear, L-shaped or curvilinear layout, depending on whether they lean against a spine wall or are enclosed between facing walls. In either case they are supported by deep arched undercrofts.

Ladders are made of stones fitted within narrow vertical recesses in the stone masonry or of timber logs fixed at the corners of rooms. They give access to the roof through small triangular openings.

LINTELS Lintels form a support for the wall above and provide a horizontal surface to which window and door frames are fixed.

They are generally made of timber logs from tree branches or palm tree trunks; less often are they made of wooden boards or stone slabs. It is not unusual to find a combination of the above elements. A woven palm frond mat is laid on top to receive the mud filling which creates the bond with the masonry above.

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DECORATIVE FEATURES - Дārat as-Сawāfah

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CARVED FRAMES, HIGH RELIEFS CARVED FRAMES Timber doors are decorated with repetitive geometric and floral patterns carved out of the central posts and horizontal frames, less often the jambs.

Recurring motifs include geometric shapes such as triangles, circles, semicircles, zigazags, lozenges, leaves, branches and volutes.

As opposed to ceiling decorations, where beams are painted by the users in order to preserve the palm tree wood from deterioration due to termites, smoke and vapour produced by cooking, timber carvings are done by skilled tradesmen.

They reveal the influence of the rich Indian decorative vocabulary that developed during the British protectorate time.

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HIGH RELIEFS The sarooj rendered intrados of arches is decorated through high relief motifs which range from geometric patterns to Arabic inscriptions to a combination of the former. Geometric patterns include crosses, circles, lozenges and volutes.

Decorative relief, which is crafted while applying the final finishing coat, is particularly common in the arches of covered passages along streets and alleyways, but is found also around internal and external doors of dwellings.

In exposed areas some of the decorative patterns have worn away due to erosion or volumetric expansion of the built fabric following water infiltration.

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sheet 4a

NICHES, HANGING TIMBERS, IRONS AND STONES NICHES Whether divided by stone slabs or timber planks into shelved recesses where household items are stored, niches punctuate most of the walls.

They vary in shape, size, number of recesses and position in the wall: those arranged in rows across the wall are multi-recess, those scattered across the wall have one or two recesses. In multirecess niches the upper shelving unit is generally crowned by a semicircular or pointed arch.

Niches are also found within the shoulder walls of staircases’ undercrofts, where they would have been used to place items, or above internal doors in order to reduce the weight of the masonry on doorways’ lintels and the consequent the risk of wall cracking.

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HANGING TIMBERS, IRONS AND STONES A variety of functional elements – timbers, sticks, stones, chains and hooks – complement walls and arches. Timber beams spanning arches were used, depending on their width and firmness, to hang various household items including clay pots filled with water for evaporative cooling. For the same reason, iron chains with hooks were fixed to holes in the keystones and left hanging.

Stones and wooden sticks protruding out of the walls were also used to hang items, such as cooking pots and the fabric belts used to secure date harvesters to palm trees.

Wooden sticks embedded into the walls at the corners or foot of rooms were used to tie up animals in indoor pens.

ARCHITECTURAL VALUES AND THREATS TO SITE’S SIGNIFICANCE

FUNCTIONAL FEATURES - Дārat as-Сawāfah

sheet 4b

HEARTHS, DATE DRYING PLATFORMS COFFEE MAKING FACILITIES Found inside the dwellings coffee making facilities were built either in mud brick or sarooj. They were located at various spots such as the foot of columns, niched walls and door jambs and embedded in low platforms and niche recesses.

They consisted in round or rectangular bases where a small circular hole was left in order to accommodate the aluminum and copper pots used to brew the coffee. The hole was connected with a small aperture on the front face of the facility, through which firewood was introduced and then cleared of ashes. In the most elaborate examples an iron grill was fitted in, with the purpose of holding the pots more firmly.

Unit A3

Unit I5

Unit K1

Unit M4

Unit A3

Unit H8

Unit I4

Unit I7

DATE DRYING PLATFORMS Normally found at ground level in storages, platforms are of standard depth but varying width, depending on the size of the household’s stock, but also the length of walls.

Platforms are made of mud bricks, with the top face moulded in parallel concave channels, which alternate with convex supports.

Sacks of woven palm fronds containing the dates used to be piled up on the convex supports in order for the syrup to be squeezed out under the weight of the sacks.

The syrup would flow through holes carved out of the front face of the platforms, and be collected inside terracotta jars which were leant against it, occasionally resting inside mud rings moulded on the floor, so that the syrup could naturally flow in.

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6 Structural Failures and States of Preservation

6.1 States of Preservation and Failure Analysis An analysis has been carried out of the failure types, both structural and non-structural, affecting the traditional building units of Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah that still retain most of the original fabric, even though partially altered by use of modern materials, and have been fully surveyed. Units included in the analysis are as follows: • Дārat Āl Barāshid: 108 building units out of a total of 113 that make up the settlement.

Structures intervened upon for repair/restoration purposes (L1 and L2), inaccessible structures ( J6* and I8) and modern structures (L1*) have been excluded from the analysis.

• Дārat as-Сawāfah: 84 building units out of a total of 98 that make up the settlement. Structures of which only debris or remains are left (B6, H5, H7, H9, H10, I10, M2), inaccessible structures (C4, C6, C7, I12) and modern structures (A1, L1, L3) have been excluded from the analysis.

Structural and non-structural pathologies affecting the mud brick envelope of the above mentioned units have been identified, listed and analysed under broad categories in order to accordingly devise conservation and rehabilitation strategies and understand why they occurred, how they developed and what kind of repair actions could be carried out.

Pathologies identified are the result of the combined action of “anthropic” and “natural”

Figure 6.1 Overleaf: state of preservation mapping, Дārat Āl Barāshid

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degradation factors. The former consist in the physical transformation of the original built fabric, e.g. through addition and juxtaposition of new build made of modern materials – concrete blocks and cement plaster – to the original built fabric made of mud brick and stone masonry, mud and sarooj mortar and palm tree wood floors. The latter include the action of rainwater, wind, water runoff, water stagnation around and infiltration and on the roofs into the buildings, which then lead to erosion of wall tops and bases, wall surfaces and roofs.

Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.4 (state of preservation tables) describe the state of preservation of the settlements by broad categories, by: • indicating the degree of preservation of the building units; • showing it by means of sample photos; • suggesting broad actions to be implemented; • identifying and quantifying, in percentages out of the total of building units analysed, those falling into each state of preservation category.

Figure 6.2 and Figure 6.5 map the state of preservation within Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat asСawāfah respectively, and have to be read in conjunction with the related tables. Figure 6.2 feature 108 traditional building units, ranging from A to L, in Дārat Āl Barāshid (this figure excludes structures L1 and L2 because they have been intervened upon, L1* because modern, and I8, J6* because inaccessible). Figure 6.5 features 91 traditional building units, ranging from A to M, in Дārat as-Сawāfah (for the above mentioned reasons this figure excludes A1, C4, C6, C7, I12, L1, L3). Figure 6.3 and Figure 6.6 map the failure types that affect the traditional structures of Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah respectively. They have to be read in conjunction with the two sets of 10 sheets per settlement, which describe and illustrate the various failure types (Figs. 6.7-6.26).

The sheets: • describe key types of recurring structural and non-structural defects; • explain the causes of failure; • illustrate the factors contributing to the decay of structures through sequences of diagrams which show how defects have occurred in relation to those factors; • show how defects manifest themselves by means of sample photos;

Figure 6.2 Overleaf: state of preservation mapping, Дārat Āl Barāshid

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• identify and quantify affected building units through key maps and tables respectively, where units excluded from the analysis have been indicated as light grey filled fields.

GUIDANCE NOTES

1. For the purpose of having a complete mapping of failure types, these have been identified wherever present, that is in all affected building units, irrespective of their state of preservation and the feasibility and/or expediency of repair.

2. Only building units where each type of failure is clearly distinguishable and unequivocally classifiable have been included in the analysis.

3. Presumably all mud brick and mud-stone building units underwent a stage where each relevant failure type occurred, even though currently there is no clear evidence of it.

6.2 Guiding Principles to Conservation and Rehabilitation The following complementary and interconnected guidelines must lead any intervention to be carried out on the mud-brick, juss and stone masonry fabric of the settlements for conservation and rehabilitation purposes: • authenticity, in both material and form which means that in the work of conservation of a structure which is part of a group, partially or fully, not only must the total authenticity not be diminished but the overall integrity of the group has to be enhanced too; • neutrality, which means that in the work of conservation of a structure its character must neither be enhanced nor degraded.

Once a structure has been restored and therefore rehabilitated the best way to preserve it from future deterioration is to use it. Its continued utilisation, even if for a new purpose, will pose a need for regular upkeep which should in turn discourage neglect.

The alteration or extension of a building structure for its adaptive reuse requires a degree of spatial flexibility which earthen construction has, given its informal and plastic nature.

If reuse builds upon these intrinsic characteristics earthen structures are able to meet the requirements and standards of present-day uses without losing their essential qualities.

With reference to the degrees of preservation of the settlement, conservation strategies will have to meet the following: • structures in an “adequate” state of preservation: refurbishment alterations will be carried out in a way that respects the scale, massing, form, materials and the social status of the structure as well as the architectural composition and skyline of the cluster to which it belongs (no new construction, demolition or modification which would alter the relations of mass and colour must be allowed according to art. 6 of the Venice Charter, 1964); • structures in “adequate”, “acceptable” and “inadequate” states of preservation: the original fabric will be retained as much as possible to be consolidated, renewed and refurbished; • structures in “acceptable” and “inadequate” states of preservation: missing elements – walls, floors, ceilings, staircases – will be replaced with new elements clearly distinguishable by material, form, grain, construction or texture from the original structure. Replacements of missing parts must integrate harmoniously with the whole, but at the same time must be distinguishable from the original so that restoration does not falsify the artistic or historic evidence (Art. 12 of the Venice Charter, 1964). Any extra work which is indispensable must be distinct from the architectural composition and must bear a contemporary stamp (art. 9 of the Venice Charter, 1964); • structures in “inadequate” and “ruinous” states of preservation: consolidation will be carried out by employing the most suitable available technologies at the time of intervention (where traditional materials prove inadequate, the consolidation of a monument can be achieved by the use of any modern technique for conservation and construction, the efficacy of which has been shown by scientific data and roved by experience, art. 10 of The Venice Charter, 1964).

6.3 Guiding Principles to Repair Actions The following methodological criteria must be met in implementing the general repair measures: • repair must be necessary, reversible, the minimum required to achieve the proposed result and compatible with the original fabric;

Figure 6.3 Failure types mapping, Дārat Āl Barāshid

• repair must be preceded by investigation of the reason for failure, so that recurring failure can

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be prevented by appropriately dealing with the causes of damage and making good effectively;

surface;

• repair must be preceded by investigation into construction aspects - soil content, clay type, pH value, lime/clay composition in mortar and plaster, strength of materials - climate aspects - relative humidity and temperature both inside and outside the building units - environmental aspects - thermal conductivity of walls and temperature of floors - use aspects - changes made to the structure which might have caused failure;

• both external and partition walls are affected, irrespective of their height, and sometimes both faces of the same wall.

• repair must take into account the results of recording and documentation in terms of historical background, social status, spatial organization and construction of the structures;

1. Repair of roofs

• repair must take into account social, cultural and economic driving factors such as the need for local employment, maintenance of tradition and training; • repair must achieve a balance between the materials required for the intervention and the requirements of tradition; • repair must be fully documented and archived throughout works.

6.4 Structural and Non-Structural Failure Types Based on the above analysis, the following failure types have been identified and related repair measures suggested. It is important to bear in mind that repair measures refer to individual failure types in isolation; they are by no means to be looked at as resolving more complex situations where one particular failure may have developed as a consequence of and concurrently with others.

Non-Structural Failure Types SURFACE EROSION “A” (sheet 1)

• The saw-toothed clefts which are typically produced by this type of failure are sporadically present. However, they presumably developed at some point due to faulty wall capping, and when superficial erosion at wall heads got deeper they faded into the surrounding eroded wall

Figure 6.4 State of preservation table, Дārat as-Сawāfah

The following repair measures can be taken:

Method a (traditional, labour-intensive): compaction of surface layers, which have washed away following rainfall, through the mechanical action of a relatively light roller. This can only be done when earth is in a plastic state. Surfaces are smoothed, rolled and “wood-floated” to restore their previous densities.

Method b (modern, cost-effective): provision of a synthetic material or inclusion of an impermeable layer. Pros: the fundamental profile of the earth structure is retained. Cons: 1. colour and texture are lost; 2. quality and integrity of the surface construction is not satisfactorily maintained.

Method c (modern, cost-effective): construction of an impermeable deck or membrane on which a stabilized earth is reconstituted to the original profile, by adding lime, cement, bitumen or synthetic organic polymers to provide a more durable surface. Joints have to be provided which tolerate movement, such as the upstanding and cover-flashing system with undercloaking. Pros: 1. wearing qualities improve; 2. run-off rate increases. Cons: 1. vapour permeability is lost with consequent formation of interstitial condensation within the roof structure, which can provide a habitat for insect and fungal life with consequent effect on the load-bearing structure; 2. a significant change in colour and texture occurs; 3. the earth structure is subject to higher stress due to temperature extremes, humidity changes and physical wear.

2. Repair of cappings Method (traditional, labour-intensive): provision of wall cappings by laying a course of cement and mud bricks projecting by about 10 mm and set so as to shed the rain.

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3. Repair of wall heads

The following repair measures can be taken:

Method a (sacrificial protection, traditional): capping of wall with mud brick or rendering over with a mud-dung plaster. After this, the wall can be restored in the previous manner in the expectation of similar renewals at intervals determinable by:

Repair of wall vertical surfaces

• the quality of the earths used;

Action 1 (repair of non-structural voids): introduction of carefully cut earth blocks, built into the void either with a minimal jointing, which is filled with a thin mud mortar or slurry of the same or comparable material, or with a tamped stiff plastic mix.

• the quality of the workmanship employed;

Action 2 (repair of fabric losses): application of a mud render to the wall.

• climate and erosion.

Pros: the thin coat of material takes up shrinkage in the depth of the application, so the wall surface, drawing moisture from the applied material by capillary action, reaches a compatible state at the interface and, consequently, an adequate bond is formed under pressure of application.

This method is recommended where: 1) the wall profile is a significant aspect of the aesthetic; 2) other elements of wall survive in their original condition.

Notes: Method b (stable protection, modern): Option 1 - stabilization of earth with a consolidant or reconstitution of earth, for improved durability, by addition of limes, cements, fly-ash and similar materials. Preformed stabilized earth, which has been densified (i.e. pressed) and possibly bituminized, can be used to form a capping course with an overhang. This method is recommended where: 1) greater protection is desired; 2) there are reasons to defend the wall against heavy wear; 3) there are reasons to increase the periodicity of the maintenance cycle.

Option 2 - provision of soil stabilized with cement or ethyl silicate or consolidated earth blocks or under layers of earth or earth blocks stabilized with asphalt emulsion or earth stabilized with latex.

• Where structural cohesion is important the introduction of fibreglass or other reinforcing rods can be considered.

• Where additional tensile strength is required, synthetic fibre may be introduced. During the process of introduction temporary support may be required and this should always be provided using a soft or compressive pad at the point of transfer of load.

SURFACE EROSION “C” (SHEET 3a, 3b)

• The vast majority of walls are affected; • undercuts are visible at the base of external and partition walls, doors’ and doorways’ jambs, above the top edge of the stone foundations.

SURFACE EROSION “B” (SHEET 2)

• Deep channels run down external and partition walls, both on the outer and inner face of external walls.

• deep channels run down the inner face of external walls, originating at high-level ventilation openings and niches, which constitute weak construction areas.

The following repair measures can be taken: Repair of wall feet Method a (inhibition of rising saline moisture): Option 1 - introduction of: 1) natural damp barriers, such as dry-laid rock and slates; or 2) perforated sheet materials; or 3) stabilized earth blocks, such as asphalt stabilized ones, tile or stone.

Option 2 - removal of base courses in short lengths of half a wall thickness at a time, alternated, and no longer that twice the thickness of the wall.

Figure 6.5 State of preservation mapping, Дārat as-Сawāfah

Notes:

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• Impermeable membranes, such as are used in brick masonry structures, are inappropriate in earths because they can trap water on their upper surfaces and because they produce a sharp boundary between very wet and very dry zones.

• The techniques of underpinning, applicable to brick masonry, are likewise inappropriate in earths.

Method b (control of water run-off) Stabilization of soil surfaces with geotextiles, that is non-rotting mesh materials, laid beneath the surface.

Action 2 (repair of fabric losses): application of a mud render to the wall.

Pros: the thin coat of material takes up shrinkage in the depth of the application, so the wall surface, drawing moisture from the applied material by capillary action, reaches a compatible state at the interface and, consequently, an adequate bond is formed under pressure of application.

Notes: • Where structural cohesion is important the introduction of fibreglass or other reinforcing rods can be considered.

• Where additional tensile strength is required, synthetic fibre may be introduced. During the process of introduction temporary support may be required and this should always be provided using a soft or compressive pad at the point of transfer of load.

Method c (rainwater discharge) Introduction of flood discharge channels.

DETACHMENT OF COATINGS “A” (SHEET 5)

• Most of the walls rendered in mud mortar are, to a different extent, affected; SURFACE EROSION “D” (SHEET 4)

• all units are, to a different extent, affected; • external wall surfaces are generally more deeply affected than partition walls due to prolonged exposure to wind and rain action; • the degree of erosion varies between mud brick and sarooj-stone structures: the former are visibly more deeply affected and have the masonry fabric exposed and clearly legible.

• the peeling off produced by this type of failure is more accentuated on walls that are still protected, though partially, by roofs than on walls that are exposed to the weather; • both external and partition walls are affected, though the defect is more common and marked amongst the latter.

The following repair measures can be taken: Repair of wall vertical surfaces

The following repair measures can be taken: Repair of wall vertical surfaces Action 1 (repair of non-structural voids): introduction of selected fillers, which exclude expansive clay fractions, such as sulphate-free pulverized fly ash (PFA)/lime mortar.

Cons: the filler is different from the original thus posing problems of visual acceptability.

Figure 6.6 Failure types mapping, Дārat as-Сawāfah

Method (repair of fabric losses): application of a mud render to the wall.

Pros: the thin coat of material takes up shrinkage in the depth of the application, so the wall surface, drawing moisture from the applied material by capillary action, reaches a compatible state at the interface and, consequently, an adequate bond is formed under pressure of application.

Notes: • Where structural cohesion is important the introduction of fibreglass or other reinforcing rods can be considered.

• Where additional tensile strength is required, synthetic fibre may be introduced. During the process of introduction temporary support may be required and this should always be provided

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using a soft or compressive pad at the point of transfer of load.

DETACHMENT OF COATINGS “B” (SHEET 6)

• Most of the walls rendered in sarooj are, to a different extent, affected; • this failure type is present in units with mud render applied on sarooj-bound stone masonry structures as well as in units with sarooj-render applied on mud brick masonry structures.

The following repair measures can be taken: Repair of wall vertical surfaces Method (repair of fabric losses): application of a mud render to the wall.

Pros: the thin coat of material takes up shrinkage in the depth of the application, so the wall surface, drawing moisture from the applied material by capillary action, reaches a compatible state at the interface and, consequently, an adequate bond is formed under pressure of application.

Notes: • Where structural cohesion is important the introduction of fibreglass or other reinforcing rods can be considered.

• Where additional tensile strength is required, synthetic fibre may be introduced. During the process of introduction temporary support may be required and this should always be provided using a soft or compressive pad at the point of transfer of load.

COATING CRACKS (SHEET 7)

Cracking of wall coatings is particularly marked on the inner faces of external and partition walls, which are less deteriorated by surface erosion. The following repair measures can be taken: Repair of wall vertical surfaces Method (filling of non-structural cracks): application of a mud render to the wall, with

Figure 6.7-6.26 Failure types sheets, Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah

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characteristics, particularly moisture content, as similar as possible to the original cracked coating.

Structural Failure Types WALL CRACKS (SHEET 8)

Wall cracks are generally marked at wall junctions, around openings and niches and construction weakness areas. The following repair measures can be taken:

2. dampen the backing of the cavity; 3. lay in mesh (terylene, fabric, expanded aluminium etc.) against backing; 4. tamp in infill material in layers of maximum 50 mm.

Notes: • It is possible to provide shuttering behind which the earth is tamped in, to achieve effective consolidation. An alternative to tamping the fill against the mesh is tamping in a mix of terylene and chopped random fibres, in layers of maximum 50 mm.

Repair of structural voids

DETACHMENT OF BUILT FABRIC (SHEET 9)

Method a (filling of structural voids where mud bricks lack contact): tamping of deep infill material in the shape of mud brick components and earth mortar (e.g. mixtures of fly-ash, brick dust and lime).

Detachment of sections of built fabric occurs predominantly at junctions of walls built with same or different materials. The following repair measures can be taken:

Work phases to be carried out: 1. cut out cavity to adequate depth and regular shape; 2. dampen the backing of the cavity;

Repair of wall displacements Method (filling of structural gaps): non-invasive structural grouting through injection of limeor earth-based fluid mortars or adhesives to fill discontinuities and reintegrate detached wall sections.

3. drive in natural or manufactured interlocking mechanisms, such as pieces of stone, helical bars and tiles, randomly regular and avoiding courses;

LOSS OF BUILT FABRIC (SHEET 10)

4. tamp in infill material in layers of maximum 100 mm.

• Loss of mud bricks occurs indiscriminately across the masonry structure;

Notes:

• loss of stones is prominent at foundation level;

• The infill should be a material free of the problem of shrinkage and with characteristics of thermal movement, strength, resilience, loading and self-weight comparable with an earth structure. Materials to be used to produce it should meet the requirements of a synthetic gap filling component for earth structures, have an indefinite life and conform to the requirements of reversibility (by removal) and identifiability.

• loss of entire built fabric portions is pronounced in areas above ground level; • loss of cornices occurs in arches and round ventilation openings.

The following repair measures can be taken: Repair of missing elements

Method b (filling of structural voids where mud bricks or stones are in contact): tamping of a plastic earth or sarooj fill depending on original material.

Work phases to be carried out: 1. cut out cavity to maximum of half-depth of wall including the crack;

Method (filling of structural voids): reinstatement of missing bricks and/or stones and injection of non-invasive structural grouting of lime- or earth-based fluid mortars or adhesives to fill voids and make insertions adhere to the original structure.

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PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES TO HERITAGE MANAGEMENT PLAN

7

PRINCIPLE NUMBER

DESCRIPTION OF PRINCIPLE

P1

Minimum intervention

P2

Reversibility

P3

Retention of buildings, settlements and context: conserve vistas, views, spaces and enclosures and sensitively interpret as necessary

P4

Anthropological (i.e., people centred) approach to heritage management and reuse

P5

Integration of the younger generation through reuse and interpretation of the site

P6

Private and public sector engagement – organisational and individual stakeholder cooperation

P7

A combined bottom-up and top-down approach

The following are 10 key principles the Heritage Management Plan and associated Master Plan intend to embrace and develop further with special reference to the Ήārah (Table 7.1):

P8

Introducing functional diversity – possible/compatible uses for existing buildings through innovative thinking

7.2 Approaches to Development and Conservation

P9

Sustainable management and conservation

P10

New buildings not copy, replica or pastiche but interpretation: buildings ‘of their time’

Principles and Approaches to Heritage Management

In accordance with the Venice Charter on Conservation (1964) and the ICOMOS Conservation Charter (2004) this chapter sets out the ways in which the significant values of the settlement, its integrity, and the heritage and material culture are to be safeguarded within a context of sympathetic development. Following the establishment of a broad philosophy, a set of general policies for development and conservation are discussed. This is followed by a set of detailed guidelines for restoration, consolidation, rebuilding and redevelopment measures (cf. definitions below).

7.1 Philosophy of Development and Conservation: Principles

7.2.1 THAT ALL SIGNIFICANT ASPECTS OF THE SETTLEMENT MORPHOLOGY, FORTIFICATION, TOWNSCAPE, STRUCTURES (INSTITUTIONAL AND RESIDENTIAL), IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURE BE RETAINED, SAFEGUARDED, CONSOLIDATED, RESTORED AND WHEREVER APPROPRIATE REBUILT, TO PRESERVE THE IDENTITY, INTEGRITY AND AUTHENTICITY OF THE SITE.

The identity of the settlement depends on the retention of all significant material, socio-cultural and historic characteristics amidst development that is both necessary and inevitable. Development

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should not overwhelm the past; rather, development needs to be carefully managed and integrated with heritage to retain the identity of both, Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah. The significant aspects have been identified in earlier chapters (3 & 4). However, further issues are expected to emerge from the necessary additional studies/analysis identified below to extend our knowledge of the infrastructural and socio-cultural aspects (§7.5).

7.2.2 THAT ALL NEW DEVELOPMENT SHOULD BE SYMPATHETIC TO THE CULTURAL AND MATERIAL HERITAGE OF THE SETTLEMENT.

All development should respect and remain subservient to the rich cultural and material heritage of the Sinaw area. Development should not in any way become overbearing – urbanistically, architecturally and otherwise visually. Further studies identified below (§7.5) are crucial to establish a comprehensive picture of the dynamic nature of this heritage.

This will demand a knowledge-based yet creative approach to establishing policies, strategies, master plan and all interventions. An experienced multi-disciplinary team, which will draw from latest methodology and techniques, should be entrusted with addressing all aspects of development, conservation and heritage management.

7.2.3 ALL NEW-BUILD AND EXTENSION SHOULD BE CLEARLY DISTINGUISHABLE FROM EXISTING AND ‘AUTHENTIC’ BUILDING AND SETTLEMENT FABRIC.

All alterations and additions should reflect the culture of its time and therefore should employ materials and construction systems relevant to the present. Hybrid systems engaging traditional materials and methods may be introduced to allude to the complex culture of today. The materials and construction methods chosen for new-builds and extensions should explore the full range of opportunities presented by the juxtaposition of traditional and modern contexts, as long as it does not compromise with the essential integrity of the traditional settlement and its fabric.

7.2.4 THE USE AND APPLICATION OF TRADITIONAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF MATERIALS AND BUILDING COMPONENTS ARE TO BE ENCOURAGED.

This should especially be the case where a ‘significant’ component or fragment is required to be rebuilt or where the character and integrity of the structure would be lost through the use of new materials and/or construction systems. It would also be possible to employ new techniques of construction to traditional materials or in some cases, employing traditional construction methods to modern materials. Salvaged building materials and architectural components, wherever possible and relevant, should be reused. Such hybrid construction would still allow for making the clear

distinction required under §7.2.3.

7.2.5 A LINK NEEDS TO BE ESTABLISHED BETWEEN MODERN-DAY ASPIRATIONS AND CONTINUATION OF AGE-OLD METHODS OF LIVELIHOOD AND CULTURE.

New programmes would need to establish the fine balance between the continued and very welcome existence of traditional life and those demanded by the globalised environment and societal change. Continued sustenance of the traditional ways of life gives the settlement its character and identity and is clearly an important socio-cultural and economic resource. Requirements emerging from societal changes driven by shifts in the globalised culture and economy, on the other hand, demands careful attention from the developmental perspective.

Economics, employment, education, cultural and social development should be considered.

Wherever feasible, traditional industry and economic methods should be safeguarded (e.g., agriculture, crafts, infrastructure – irrigation systems and tertiary sectors dependent on traditional economics and modes of production). The nature and scale of new programmes to be introduced should be considered carefully – what size of production, its appropriateness, etc. A large scale ‘modern’ industrial production is certainly inappropriate for small locations such as the Ήārah of Sinaw; however, a scaled down and modified or partial production might work, with a larger industrial component situated outside the vernacular environment. Decoupling of industrial production with careful consideration of impact of specific components of the processes might need to be carefully and creatively thought through.

Cross programming should be considered to avoid zoned restrictions.

7.2.6 A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT SHOULD BE ADOPTED TO ACHIEVE A BALANCED AND SUSTAINABLE FUTURE WHICH IS IN SYMPATHY WITH THE PAST.

Such studies should take the entire oasis and its setting into account. Development needs, therefore, would have to be established for the entire oasis and not for a constituent settlement in isolation. In the light of the research being currently conducted, the present report thus calls for a revision of existing regional planning strategies and policies to integrate heritage management as a crucial component of development.

A regional approach should be adopted for the establishment of use patterns for settlements.

An Ash Sharqiyah-wide plan (including Al MuΡayrib and Minzafah) is needed to consider the range and hierarchy of settlements for reuse. The strategy should be drawn up keeping significance and aspirations in mind. A regional significance hierarchy should be established to ascertain the importance of settlements and should be aligned with national and regional development policy

PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES TO HERITAGE MANAGEMENT PLAN

and growth plans. Regional development plans, therefore, should include a comprehensive understanding of the extant historical settlements and fabric. The region-wide strategy will help avoid duplication and repetition of provisions (e.g., too many museums). It will avoid stresses and strains on limited infrastructure and resources.

settlement development and structures that are historically important. Such high-value structures and zones indicative of key phases of development need to be given action priority. Approaches to conservation and development (§7.2.6) have to be established in accordance with the priority list and the value assigned to structures.

7.2.7 A FULL EVALUATION OF ALL CONVENTIONALLY AVAILABLE AND STANDARDISED STRATEGIES SHOULD BE UNDERTAKEN BEFORE EMBRACING ANY OF THOSE AS ACCEPTABLE APPROACHES.

7.3.3 ESTABLISH A PHASING PLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF STRUCTURES. THE PHASING PLAN WILL TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE PHYSICAL STATE OF STRUCTURES, PRIORITIES, APPROACH AND AVAILABLE RESOURCES.

An example of this would be the often uncritical adoption of tourism as a universal panacea for heritage settlements. While this sector is certainly to play an important role, on its own it will fail to ensure sustainable heritage management. Less direct tourism might be worth considering – resulting in more ecologically and socially appropriate tourism. Tourism need to be also considered in terms of its very local nature – not just as international or Arab regional tourism (GCC/Arab world); this is often overlooked. Increasing sensitive and sustainable local tourism (even within the governorate of e.g., Ash Sharqiyah) would introduce a rich palette of experiences across visitor groups.

The phasing plan needs to take into account the established priority zones and structures.

However, a key issue in that is the physical state of individual structures, their ownership and approaches to conservation and development those would demand. Together, the phasing plan, required approaches and available resources would provide the premises of the Master Plan.

7.3 General Policies for Development and Conservation The following general policies are envisaged to form the basic framework for development planning and conservation initiatives in Sinaw.

7.3.1 ESTABLISHMENT OF A BUFFER ZONE TO SAFEGUARD THE SETTLEMENT, ITS INTEGRITY AND ITS VISUAL APPEARANCE.

This would ensure that the settlement retains its traditional context or limits/prevents any further damage to it. Additionally, all significant visual corridors need to be conserved, retained and/or opened up to optimise the significant character of the settlement. A detailed survey needs to be undertaken to identify all significant structures (mosques, sbal, dwellings, water and agricultural infrastructure, etc.) located within the Buffer Zone. Conservation and developmental policies and guidelines established for the settlement will apply to the Buffer Zone to retain integrity.

7.3.2 PRIORITISE ACTION ON ZONES AND STRUCTURES ACCORDING TO HISTORICAL AND STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE TO SETTLEMENT.

Settlement analysis and the Statement of Significance have identified important phases of

7.3.4 ESTABLISH SPECIFIC GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT WITHIN SETTLEMENT GIVING CONSIDERATION TO OWNERSHIP.

Detailed conservation and development guidelines will have to take into account the ownership and nature of occupation of all structures concerned. A few important issues of ownership and occupation may be highlighted here: Mosques (s. masjid, pl. masajid): While the mosques are used for prayer and congregation by the neighbourhood and the community, their day-to-day running is entrusted with the Ministry of Awqaf and Religious Affairs. However, physical upkeep of any mosque more than 100 years old falls within the purview of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture. All extant traditional mosques are in use and are in an acceptable state of preservation.

Meeting halls (s. sabla, pl. sbal) and communal facilities: Male meeting halls are normally owned by a particular tribe. However, there is also another distinctive type, associated with dwellings as private reception lounges (s. majlis, pl. majalis) and under private ownership but also used by the tribe, of which there were comparatively few in Sinaw. While these lie in a state of disuse and dereliction, the socially and historically perceived and actual ownership issues are important considerations in the acquisition of these properties and in the preparation of guidelines and Master Plan. The ownership of other communal facilities, such as roasting pits (tannur), water access and bathing points along the falaj channels, etc., again, needs to be established.

Dwellings: the external walls of the majority of dwellings in Sinaw are still standing to their original height However, overall the majority of dwellings has suffered collapse of floors and roofs due to the rotting of supports. The status of these zones will have to be re-addressed in the course of Phase-II development.

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7.3.5 MINISTRY OF HERITAGE AND CULTURE TO ESTABLISH POLICY AND STRATEGY FOR THE ACQUISITION OF ALL RELEVANT LAND AND PROPERTIES CURRENTLY UNDER PRIVATE OWNERSHIP. ACQUISITION COULD WORK IN TANDEM WITH A STRATEGY TO INVOLVE THE PRIVATE SECTOR.

Acquisition of important properties is critical to the successful application of the Master Plan and phasing programme. All possible strategies and approaches related to acquisition, including a range of incentive measures, need to be given consideration. While acquisition is important for the early phase of the project, it should form part of a broader policy that incorporates the involvement of the private sector, the community and individual residents.

7.3.6 CONSERVATION APPROACH SHOULD BE CONSISTENT WITH INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES AND GUIDELINES AND SHOULD BE CONSISTENT WITH THE PHILOSOPHY OF DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION ESTABLISHED FOR ДĀRAT AS-SUWAWFAH AND HĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID.

Consistent with international guidelines and definitions for conservation and development within historic contexts, the conservation and development proposal will adopt the following distinction in approaches: Restoration: Those structures or components of structures that will need careful attention to return it to its original condition and appearance.

Consolidation: Physical addition and the application of adhesive or supporting material to retain the architectonic, visual and structural stability of the ensemble. It will also involve the removal of all debris and organic and inorganic waste deposited on site. Usable and significant architectural and constructional components will be salvaged and treated for reuse.

Rebuilding: Considerable reconstruction based on available documentation and conjecture to give the structure its earlier and more authentic appearance.

Redevelopment: New build with an established and restricted context of architectural operation. In Sinaw this should be directed towards either, i) sites presently lying empty and earmarked for development or, ii) properties in such a state of severe dereliction so as to demand immediate clearance and redevelopment.

7.4 Guidelines for Development and Conservation All guidelines for development and conservation have been developed consistent with the

development and conservation philosophy and policies established above. The settlement has not been treated as a mere assemblage of built structures and artefacts, but specific attention has been given to the present state of life and future aspirations of the inhabitants, ownership status of structures and the opportunity for public-private partnership. The guidelines are put forward with a view that the private sector, owner-occupiers and individuals with ownership of properties within the two Ήārahs will take an active interest and part in the development and conservation initiative to move towards the holistic goal. A set of general guidelines for development and conservation in the Ήārahs is followed by a set of more specific developmental/design guidelines applicable to specific sites, buildings and structures to be redeveloped or rebuilt. The dwellings are given special attention in the light of their numerical dominance, the opportunities they present, the concerning state of preservation, and the range of development and conservation possibilities that can be envisaged.

It is envisaged that the guidelines will be held under regular review and refinement as the project progresses.

7.4.1 GENERAL GUIDELINES

The following general guidelines will be applicable to all development and conservation measures: • The morphology of the original phase of the features, or the phases deemed to be of most significance, will be safeguarded and/or highlighted to preserve the identity, integrity and authenticity of the site.

• All reasonable attempts will be made to ensure the appropriate, and if possible, authentic reuse of any redundant components and features. It will be ensured that the new or continued inauthentic use of features does not distort or distract from the identified significance of older features or the wider traditional assemblage.

• Traditional materials will be used wherever and whenever practicable during construction works within the settlement, whether the aim is to consolidate and/or to rebuild existing traditionally constructed buildings or in the construction of new buildings for domestic or commercial purposes.

• Where rebuilding is required to preserve a building or structure of significance, all attempts should be made to clearly distinguish those reconstructed elements which are based on accurate archaeological and architectural documentation and those which are merely founded on conjecture.

• Maximum understanding of the architectural features and social values will be achieved prior to any intervention – whether the aim is to consolidate, rebuild or redevelop – and that this

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intervention will always be reserved to the minimum required to achieve those aims. Where analysis dictates that preservation in situ of a traditionally constructed building is unwarranted; then it will be preserved by record. This documentation will be approached as though one was recording an archaeological monument.

• All measures will be taken to remove debris, hazardous construction and organic and inorganic waste from site. Adequate measures will be taken to prevent any future disposal of such waste on site and to manage and safely dispose of all household and commercial waste in future.

All reusable building material and architectural components will be salvaged, catalogued and stored for reuse.

• Any development in the area shall be according to the approved Master Plan.

7.4.2 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR REDEVELOPMENT

The following general Design Guidelines will be adopted for all redevelopment within the Ήārahs: • All efforts will be undertaken to ensure that existing vistas are retained and not blocked with any new construction.

• Any new development should respect and respond to the topographic conditions. Inappropriate cut and fill of the site shall not be allowed.

• All defensive features and traditional open spaces next to defensive features shall be retained.

• All existing dead end alleys and internal courtyards shall be retained and no encroachments will be allowed.

• The traditional sinuous building line shall be maintained wherever possible.

• No development shall be higher than the property it is attached to or 8 metres whichever is lower.

• The height, scale and composition of any new construction should be in conformity with the compositional order and rhythm of the adjoining buildings, unless photographic and other forms of documentation suggest otherwise.

• The traditional palette of materials and construction systems will be restricted to those found within Sinaw, such as the following: a. Stone for foundations; b. Mud brick for walls;

c. Mud plaster (clay/sarooj) for external and internal rendering; d. Clay/stone flooring; e. Timber or date palm beams, reed/date-palm matting, consolidated mud for composite flooring and roofing; f. Terracotta or wooden water spouts; g. Local timber for door and windows; h. Traditional water proofing and protective materials.

• Modern materials such as steel/aluminium/glass, etc., may be judiciously and appropriately used along with traditional materials in the development of proposed facility buildings.

However, such design shall in no way distort the traditional setting, and the identity, integrity and authenticity of the area.

• For all buildings chosen for restoration, consolidation or rebuilding, care should be taken while positioning the doors and windows. In dwellings facing each other windows should be staggered so that no window opens facing another window. Similar principle may be adopted for the relative positioning of doors to ensure that no doors are directly facing each other and views in from one dwelling to another is restricted.

• Traditional arched recess or arched opening employing traditional decorative elements may be adopted in traditional dwellings. Timber doors and windows of appropriate traditional design and construction may be used.

• Any ventilation and/or air conditioning equipment should not in any way impinge upon the visual integrity of the dwellings. Air-conditioning and ventilation equipment should be suitably obscured.

7.4.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR COMMUNAL FACILITIES. THE GENERAL APPROACH TO ALL EXTANT COMMUNAL BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES OR FOR WHICH SOME PHYSICAL EVIDENCE (E.G., FOUNDATION, RUINS, ETC.) EXIST, WILL BE AS FOLLOWS:

• All extant significant components and elements which have suffered deterioration are to be restored and/or consolidated.

• All significant components and elements which have suffered significant damage or have disappeared but for which documentary evidence exists, are to be rebuilt.

• All other components are to be rebuilt using either traditional materials or making clear their

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conjectural nature through the use of adapted traditional/modern materials/constructional systems, as deemed appropriate.

• All communal structures for which some physical evidence exists, the remains will be retained and consolidated.

• All communal buildings and structures are to be reused for communal or touristic purposes with appropriate programmatic strategy for adaptive reuse.

• All communal facilities within the two Ήārat will be covered in Phase-1 of the HMP proposal and will have elaborate guidelines and constructional directives through the Tender Documents.

Case A: Guidelines for vacant sites The conservation measures to be adopted for such buildings shall be determined on the basis of the extent of dereliction. If the building is of low heritage value and of high dereliction, it may be demolished and the land subjected to redevelopment. Otherwise the building may be consolidated or rebuilt.

Case B: Buildings (vacant/derelict) identified to be rebuilt

7.4.4 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR DWELLINGS

1. Footprint: The footprint of the building shall follow the existing plot boundary and shall not exceed the area of the existing dwelling.

The following approach is to be adopted for the various categories of dwellings. Clear guidelines will be established for all dwelling types.

2. Façade: The façade of the dwelling shall follow the line of the adjacent structure on the main street frontage.

Traditional construction (vacant and/ or derelict) MHC should establish policy and strategy for acquisition or ownership of all relevant properties under this category for consolidation and adaptive reuse. Phasing will be taken into account to establish whether the structures are to be demolished, receive façade treatment or have internal restoration and rebuilding.

Traditional construction (owner-occupied) An incentive-based approach has to be adopted to deal with and encourage maintenance and appropriate extension and rebuilding of the small number of traditional properties under continued ownership (owner-occupied/absentee landlord). However, extension or rebuilding should be of traditional construction and guided by the following set of criteria.

3. Internal Spatial Configuration: The internal spatial configuration should be sympathetically retained wherever possible. For buildings subjected to adaptive re-use an indication of the original spatial configuration should be maintained with appropriate architectural treatment.

4. Material of Construction: Modern materials such as steel/aluminium/glass etc. may be judiciously and appropriately used along with traditional materials. However, such design shall in no way disturb the traditional setting and the identity, the integrity and the authenticity of the area.

5. Height: The height of the new building shall not be greater than the height of the original structure and if appropriate consistent with the height of the neighbouring dwellings.

6. Architectural Elements: All individual architectural elements, such as carved doors, surface decoration, decorative motifs – internal and external – need to be carefully noted and restored/retained.

Case C: Buildings (vacant/derelict) identified to be consolidated Traditional construction (rented) An incentive-based approach has to be adopted to deal with and encourage maintenance and appropriate extension and rebuilding of traditional properties under ownership. This approach will have to take into account and offset the discouraging effect of the present poor level of rent.

1. Footprint: The footprint of the building shall follow the existing plot boundary and shall not exceed the area of the existing building.

2. Structural Members: Structural elements employed for the consolidation of the building should be judiciously used so as not to impinge upon the visual integrity and authenticity of the building and the area.

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Case D: Modification/Extension of traditional mud structure Proposals for the modification or improvement of traditional buildings through extension or enlargement shall be permitted if the plans do not detract from the character of the harฤ t and strictly adhere to the following design criteria: 1. General: The proposed extension should not lead to net loss of agricultural land nor should it lead to the demolition and/or damage of any adjoining traditional structure.

2. Location: The proposed extension shall be located at the rear or side of the dwelling.

3. Height: The proposed extension should not be higher than any of the neighbouring buildings or 8 metres whichever is lower.

4. Floor Space: For single storey extensions, the additional floor space to be created shall not be more than 50% of the existing ground floor area. However, for two-storey extensions, the floor area shall represent not more than 50% of the net area of the upper and lower floors.

5. Faรงade Treatment: The position and form of external features and openings within the proposed extension including the faรงade, walls, doorways, windows, floors and roofs shall be of a similar design and finish to the existing structure to limit visual intrusion. Any ventilation and/or air conditioning equipment should not in any way impinge upon the visual integrity of the dwellings.

6. Building Permits: In considering building permits for extension to existing dwellings the policies under Case B shall apply.

Case E: Redevelopment Building activity will only be permitted within defined areas and under strict development guidance. defined areas shall be identified through study of available/cleared property (existing) and the ones thought to ve beyond repair and of low heritage value. Any new building shall be cosntructed as per the following rules: 1. Footprint: The footprint of the dwelling shall follow the existing plot boundary.

2. Height: The new building shall not be higher than the property it is attached to or 8 m. whichever is lower.

3. Material of Construction: Modern materials such as steel/aluminium/glass etc. maybe judiciously and appropriately used along with traditional materials in the development of proposed facility buildings. However, such design shall in no way disturb the traditional setting and the identity, integrity and authenticity of the area.

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7.5 Additional Studies and Analyses The following additional studies will be necessary to complete our understanding of the Ήārahs of āl Barāshid and al-Сawāfah. This is crucial to a holistic approach to addressing development and conservation within the settlement suggested earlier. For this, it is also important to undertake relevant studies on the entire oasis of Sinaw.

Study S1 S2 S3

S4

Outline A detailed study of the Buffer Zone identified for al-ΚAqr to retain its traditional context and integrity.

A study of the existing infrastructural provisions (water, electricity, waste, waste water, sewage, etc.) and their capacity.

A detailed study of traditional materials and their sourcing, as well as an analysis of constructional systems.

An update study of the WHS Falaj al-Maytha and associated traditional water supply system. This has to be dovetailed into an analysis of agricultural land within the harāt and its revitalisation and optimal utilisation.

Detailed socio-cultural, anthropological and archaeological studies to arrive at a more in-

S5

depth understanding of life within the settlement and how changes in the economy and world view have affected age old practices.

A continual study of and the creation of a database on the tourism factor and its impact on

S6 S7 S8

traditional life. Using such studies to update the development and conservation policies and the Master Plan.

The creation and continual updating of a central database logging all relevant academic and professional studies of the settlement (al-ΚAqr) and the oasis (Bāhla).

Revision of Regional Development Plan to integrate heritage management as a crucial component of development in the light of this present research.

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• accommodation of circulation systems such as stairs, lifts and walkways in auxiliary constructions if it is impossible to fit them into the existing building because of more stringent regulations;

Design Precedents

• transition between buildings from different epochs through introduction of glazed elements or circulation gaps in order to address structural separation, overcoming of topographic changes and legibility of time difference;

• detachment of new insertions from the existing fabric through gaps, voids, recesses; • covering of archaeological or historical finds with glazed elements so that they are displayed and protected at the same time;

• transition between buildings from different epochs through change of material / change of surface treatment / change in level / change in alignment / shadow line / projections, overhangs, setbacks

8.1 Introduction The following pages contain examples of precedents of contemporary urban and architectural interventions within historic contexts worldwide, used here to illustrate various possible strategies and approaches for the Master Plan. The precedent research and analysis was conducted by the 2nd Year students of the MArch Architecture Course at Nottingham Trent University, under the supervision of Prof Soumyen Bandyopadhyay, Dr Giamila Quattrone and Dr Martin S. Goffriller, as part of the “Heritage and Conservation” elective module (3rd October 2013-6th February 2014).

The students were asked to identify three interventions each, which address at least two or more of the key strategies employed in designing within historic contexts, and develop/represent critical understanding of these through annotated drawings and textual summaries, complemented by images/photographs. These precedents are grouped into two primary scales and settings. The value of both groups of precedents is to be understood in a suggestive sense and in no way stringent.

The first group comprises mostly Western examples adopting a building-specific approach to the rehabilitation of disused and dilapidated assets. Architectural strategies implemented in this first group pf precedents range from adaptive reuse, repair and renewal to extension, superimposition and juxtaposition, from encapsulation of existing building envelopes and incorporation and/or enclosure of architectural remains to building within existing building envelopes. The precedents implement the following underlying design tactics: • recomposition of lost outlines through modern materials, so that the new helps make the outline legible without imitating or mimicking what has been lost;

• repair of defective parts through additive elements, which are overlaid with modern equivalents instead of being replaced; • contrast between old and new in terms of colour, finishing, outline, materiality; • subtle differentiation between old and new through use of same material but of different origin, type, treatment.

The second group exemplifies a settlement-specific approach to the rehabilitation of abandoned Islamic traditional towns in stone and earthen construction and run-down wādi surroundings, from a wide variety of locations comprising the Gulf, the Maghreb and the Middle East. These precedents put into evidence the broad spectrum of opportunities afforded by an open and responsible integrated approach to heritage management and sustainable local development. This is centred on capacity building skills development, with an emphasis on the revitalization of traditional building techniques through modern know-how, oasis natural environment protection, awareness raising, public/private partnerships, creation of job opportunities and enhancement of local economies, valorisation of material and immaterial heritage, institution building and policy making.

All interventions here presented have been carried out with a view to fostering a bottom-up to heritage management, which aims to reduce government involvement and maximise community participation and long term economic sustainability. While tourism is acknowledged as a key factor at sites such as Sidi Bou Said and Shibam, the ultimate aim is always the participatory management of built and cultural heritage to include the stakeholder community’s aspirations and desires for the future.

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HERITAGE MASTER PLAN AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

9 Masterplan of Hārat al-Сawāfah & Hārat Āl Barāshid

9.1 Introduction This chapter summarises the rationale and principal approaches suggested for the adoption of the Heritage Management Plan of the settlements of Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah in Sinaw. Due to their close proximity both sites will be treated jointly, though great care has been taken in order not to create any functional overlap between them, suggesting instead a complementary relationship between them.

The concluding section of the chapter includes a concise and comprehensive Master Plan which illustrates the full scope of interventions to be carried out on the settlements. The proposal through a number of plan drawings and visualisations are appended to this chapter. The concept here presented takes a holistic approach to development and conservation in Sinaw keeping in mind an even broader context of the need to consider such issues for the entire oasis and the broader region.

The eventual expectation for the future of the ancient settlements of central Oman is their reuse and reintegration into the country’s urban landscape as active participants in its economy. In the long term tourism, energy production, agriculture, as well as a host of associated creative industries, can ensure not just the survival of these ancient towns and villages, but also their sustained growth over future ages into a post-oil economy. Their varied nature in terms of morphology, location and size demands a high degree of adaptability in the measures proposed for their revitalisation, the foundation of which must lie in a clear understanding of their past usage and their individualised future potential.

As already proposed in previous Master Plans for other settlements, ArCHIAM here too proposes the future sustainable economic and social development of Sinaw oasis and its Ήārahs to settle on three key pillars of activity:

HERITAGE TOURISM

This sector shows enormous growth potential, evidenced by the sharp rise in tourism interest, both international and domestic. While Oman’s built heritage and natural assets are significant, the tourism infrastructural provision is at an early stage of evolution. Settlement quarters of significance, such as those of Sinaw, provide both heritage assets to a reasonably high level, as well as an armature for developing tourism infrastructure. The economic viability of locating major infrastructural nodes or provisions at strategic locations – and possibly somewhat removed from the key heritage locations – might ensure distributed access to such facilities, safeguarding heritage settlements of higher significance from over exploitation and irreversible damage. There is also the need for, and opportunity to, conserve craft traditions and create appropriate, innovative products for the contemporary market and use. Short-stay accommodation, craftsmanship and the gastronomic sector, as well as guided experiential and interpretive tours and associated businesses will ensure a seasonal influx of capital. A partial, though not exclusive, focus on tourism is therefore to be encouraged.

Sinaw, already an important node of touristic activity between Ash Sharqiyah desert and other regions of the Interior, lends itself ideally for such a role as a point of transit.

AGRICULTURE

This sector has been consistently emphasised by the general strategies for national development underpinned at different times by various national and international directives. Oasis settlements are holistic environments for inhabitation, in which agriculture, animal husbandry and related activities have played a critical role in organising livelihood and existence in an environment of restricted land and water resources. A greater reliance on local produce through the exploration of alternative methods of agriculture could contribute to a greater degree of self-sufficiency, lower food costs and the continuation of ancient traditions in conjunction with modern techniques. Much work has been undertaken in other countries on alternative, small-scale methods of agricultural production, which could easily be emulated and adapted to the Omani context if a modicum of institutional guidance and interest were present.

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ENERGY AND CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES

The vernacular settlements offer excellent solar energy harnessing potential. Indeed, Northern Oman has one of the highest potential solar power generation capabilities on the planet, with around 2800 kWh/m² per year. In particular the potential of Concentrated Photovoltaics (CPV) is positively enormous as the conditions provide a potentially stable and less abrasive environment than that of UAE or large tracts of Saudi Arabia, for example, where recently large scale solar projects have gone online. Greater reliance on this infinite energy source, and associated research and technological developmental opportunities will encourage the creation of a new technological knowledge base and reduce unnecessarily heavy reliance on fossil fuel, freeing up significant quantities of reserves for export.

All three approaches can, if implemented responsibly, afford a substantial source of revenue for the local communities and also act as a business primer for many associated industries. In particular, tourism is expected to contribute greatly to Sinaw’s future due to the site’s picturesque location and ease of access, but its success will be measured by the oasis’ ability to successfully combine modern technologies with traditional values of natural balance and measured exploitation.

An example for a successful heritage management implementation in a traditional oasis context is that of Siwa Oasis in Egypt, where an ancient settlement has been revived to showcase traditional lifestyles, as well as embracing modern sustainable technologies of water management and energy production. Challenging environments such as deserts and the tropics offer unique design and technological possibilities which can be addressed, or indeed embraced, as is being currently experienced at Auroville in India, where locally sourced materials are being reused in novel ways.

9.2 Management Plan and Goals

The following aims are therefore proposed as defining the urban future of Oman’s Interior: 1) REVITALIZATION OF OMAN’S ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE BY:

• Providing the necessary infrastructural improvements to allow for the development of ancient sites: water, electricity, sanitation, communications, health and safety, etc.; • Doing so in a sustainable and cost effective manner through public/private partnerships and developing a business-friendly legal framework: private contractors competing for certain projects, opening the real estate and property market to foreign investors, etc.; • Inclusion of the local communities and stakeholders at all levels of development, giving them a say in the development of their own home; • Instilling a sense of pride of ownership and belonging among the locals, encouraging entrepreneurship and self-reliance to develop and maintain their cultural heritage.

2) JOB CREATION IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR BY:

• Providing economic incentives in tourism, agricultural and energy production, and related industries, will add value to the region; • Creating the necessary economic climate and legal framework for the revitalisation to effectively pay for itself; • Diversifying local economies importing modern technologies and job opportunities as has been achieved, for example, at Ksar Aït Ben Haddou in Ouarzazate, Morocco, where the local community has been closely involved in the revitalisation of their ancient town.

3) DEVELOPMENT OF OMAN’S INTERIOR REGIONS BY:

• Significantly reducing long term costs in government subsidies for energy and food; Any projects undertaken on the architectural and cultural heritage of the Sultanate of Oman will have to be approached with a view towards strict fiscal responsibility, aiming for a high degree of economic sustainability by relying extensively on public/private partnership. In this sense the aim is not the wholesale reconstruction of entire settlements in a pseudo-high fidelity manner simply to showcase their supposed original appearance. Such a practice is necessarily economically prohibitive in the long term and does not serve the desired outcome of reinstating authenticity or revitalizing uninhabited settlements. It will also be noted that ‘revitalization’ is by no means limited to the immediate urban confines of a given settlement; much rather it is proposed here that successful re-habitation is only possible by addressing an oasis as a whole, including infrastructure, agricultural lands, palm groves, falaj networks, etc.

• Providing communities with the possibility of contributing towards sustainable energy production and responsible consumption, which will not only add value to the communities but will eventually contribute towards optimisation of the domestic use of natural resources (oil and gas), with the potential to significantly increasing export volumes.

4) PROTECTION, PRESERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF OMAN BY:

• Promoting a modern identity with strong traditional roots; • Cultivating music, arts and traditional crafts, which will provide touristic incentives, as well as aiding in the preservation of traditional ways of life;

MASTER PLAN OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID AND ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

• Cooperatiing in research and study with national and international institutions to further global understanding and interest in Oman’s great heritage.

The infrastructural improvements required for the development of Oman’s traditional settlements must go beyond the immediate urban confines of the settlement and encompass the oases as a whole. Key infrastructural points which require addressing are the following:

ENERGY

Like many countries in the region, Oman is highly dependent on its hydrocarbons sector. In 2012, Oman’s hydrocarbons sector accounted for 86% of government revenues, according to the country’s Ministry of Finance. Revenues from oil and natural gas accounted for approximately 50% of Oman’s gross domestic product in 2013, according to the Central Bank of Oman. Oman’s fiscal break-even price for oil in 2014 was approximately $105 per barrel, according to the Ministry of Oil and Gas, meaning that Oman’s government needs the export price of oil to remain at or above that level to secure sufficient revenues. In 2013, the price for Omani crude averaged $105.50, 3.7% lower than the previous year.

According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, of around 945.000 bpd of crude produced by Oman in 2013 (up by 2% from the previous year) about 20% were consumed domestically.

Projections suggest that domestic oil consumption will continue rising over the following years significantly limiting the country’s export volume. Reduction of domestic consumption of fossil fuels must therefore be of paramount importance to ensure the current levels revenue, increased resilience against market fluctuations as well as to lay the foundations of a solid post-oil economy.

Further points of relevance are: • Decentralizing energy production and integrating it into urban and architectural designs providing a higher degree of self-sufficiency and lower government subsidies; • Reducing energy dependence: solar water heating, biomass usage, limited photovoltaic subsidies, etc.; • Increasing reliance on renewable energies to free up large amounts of oil for export, contributing substantially to revenues; • Expanding the solar and wind energy sector to open up new areas of technological expertise as well as employment, and, in conjunction with water production, to dramatically reduce the cost of desalination.

WATER

With an average consumption of 180 l/p/d Oman lies about 40 litres above the world average, consuming significantly more water than the average Japanese or Scandinavian person. The scarcest resource in Oman is also the most energy intensive to produce and, in comparison with energy, the water problem will pose some substantial technological challenges to overcome. It is expected that the total domestic water production will rise from 88 million cubic metres in 2007 to a projected 236 million by 2014, an average annual increase of 15% per year (Al-Barwani, 2012). Domestic consumption is estimated to account for just 5% of all water demand in Oman. Industrial demand for water is less than 5%. The greatest consumer of water in Oman is therefore agriculture. It consumes over 90% of renewable freshwater resources and contributes about 2% to GDP at current prices.

Production is projected to rise to 197 million cubic metres during the first half of 2013 and demand for water is expected to double over the next 7 years, and without significant improvements in energy efficiency in desalination this will result in a significant increase in fossil fuel consumption otherwise available for export.

In the case of Sinaw local informants have repeatedly mentioned the bad condition of the falaj system and the sub-standard maintenance work carried out there by ministerial labourers. Were this to be amended a larger amount of water would be available for the irrigation of the palm groves and associated lands.

While a number of issues regarding production and efficiency are currently being addressed, the potential of cost reduction is still enormous. Potential improvements in water catchment and management are the following: • Restoration and modernisation of falaj networks will reduce water loss and allow for greater irrigated areas, amplifying habitable space and productive lands as well as attracting a greater number of visitors; • With modern techniques up to 100% of urban wastewater can be recycled and reused, again reducing dependence on fossil water sources.

9.3 Regional Approach to Sinaw It is proposed that the larger region encompassing the Sinaw oasis, but also Mudhaybi and other surrounding Ήārahs, are included into a programmatic Heritage Management Plan. It is of little use to put forward successions of development strategies on a settlement-by-settlement basis

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when there is not overarching political framework within which to place the individual properties.

The oasis in its entirety has functioned as a single socioeconomic unit, encapsulating within it both significant diversity as well as a unity of purpose. The diversity is manifested in the often distinctive tribal constitution of the settlement quarters, the resultant socio-political dynamics and the specific topographic influences that shape them. The unity is provided by the economic and water resources shared between the communities.

The following proposal therefore focuses on an integrated and complementary approach to managing heritage and development in Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah. It is proposed that the former is retained as closely as possible to its original state through preservation, consolidation and conservation measures, given the complex route structure and the interweaving of buildings and passages. Дārat as-Сawāfah, on the other hand, is the focus of innovative programmatic insertions and development measures designed to enhance quality of life within the local community and tourist experience.

In the first instance we recommend the integration of the many architectural heritage and archaeological sites in the Sinaw/Mudhaybi area into a Sinaw Heritage Region centred on the settlements of Дārat Āl Barāshid and Дārat as-Сawāfah - but also Дārat al-Rashidi and Дillat alQalΚah, all of which contain important heritage remains, as well as the Sinaw souq. Together, these sites would help develop a more comprehensive picture of the oasis and approaches to managing its heritage. The objective is to support the mainstays of Sinaw’s economy - agriculture (dates, fruits, vegetables) and market trade (an important trading centre between local and Bedouin population - the latter travelling from as far afield as Mahut and Duqm) with heritage tourism and associated development and community-support facilities. The recent extensive archaeological finds (funerary structures) of significance, along the Sinaw-Duqm route under construction, should similarly be considered forming part of the broader sphere of this heritage management.

The aim is to broaden the impact of the work carried out at the two settlement quarters by encompassing a larger portion of the local population and provide a broader base of support for regional development. This must, of course, also include the other settlements within the oasis proper, even if abandoned. Some of these are of great significance to the local vernacular culture and must therefore be preserved/restored as deemed adequate. Other exponent elements of the traditional lifestyle, such as the irrigation networks, sundials, public, transaction and craft production spaces, water collection points, and male and female bathing areas, grinding mills (raha), ceremonial roasting pits (tannur), and so on, are also to be included into this preservation scheme.

9.4 Oasis Protection Policies While the protection of the oasis lands does not fall within the immediate remit of this project it will be noted that here too it is emphasized that the preservation of the palm groves and agricultural land within the oasis is of absolute importance. At the current rate of urban expansion and greenzone destruction within the next 10-15 years there will not be a single palm tree standing. While water shortage has been noted as an important contributor to the green-zone degradation, there are a number of measures available with which the process of decay can be addressed. These are discussed in the ‘Water’ section.

The most effective and sustainable strategy for the preservation of heritage is that of taking an educational approach through which one may instil the value of the architecture and traditional environments and avoid the necessity of future government involvement. This is, however, a long term solution and will therefore result in significant decay and destruction before taking root. It is therefore suggested here that the most immediate result will be achieved by creating and, above all, enforcing a comprehensive heritage protection legislation in the form of building regulations and development guidelines which protect the oasis environment and its vernacular architecture.

Without the creation and strict enforcement of these regulations no tourism industry will develop, the link with the past will be lost, and a gradual cultural decline will necessarily ensue in the oasis settlements as quality of life plummets and living standards follow.

The effects of a failed heritage management practice, or lack of its implementation, have been observed in detail at locations such as Benidorm, Mexico City, Beijing, Ibiza, etc. In particular, the destruction of green areas contributes substantially to the decrease in value of an urban area.

Measures to be taken in the protection of the oasis environment are therefore necessary: • A moratorium on all construction within a set perimeter (buffer zone) containing land of agricultural value; • Provision of developed land for housing established outside the agricultural perimeter; • Restoration and gradual expansion of the falaj networks to re-irrigate previously abandoned areas; • Introduction of electronic water management technologies to reduce water loss and labour; • Introduction of advanced soil-preparation techniques to improve water retention and plant growth;

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• Provision of market access (by integrating grocery stores into the urban mesh) for local produce to incentivise production and sale.

TOURISM

A feature of growing interest to foreigners is the Sinaw Souq, which showcases the traditional lifestyles and products of the region, while at the same time being an essential economic facilitator to the tribes of the Interior. In particular Bedu traders and livestock breeders draw a substantial part of their income from the souq, making it a central aspect to their livelihood. While this interest in Oman’s heritage and the associated influx of capital are to be welcomed in general, it should be stated very clearly that the over-reliance on tourism inevitably leads to low economic diversification, and low resilience against market fluctuations.

Dozens of 4WD convoys make their way through Sinaw every day either coming from, or going to, the desert resorts and camps in the Ash Sharqiyahh Sands. While many of them stop in Sinaw to take on fuel, or to have a brief look at the souq, there are currently very few opportunities (either gastronomic or in terms of hostelry) for these visitors to spend their money in Sinaw.

While a degree of touristic involvement is to be encouraged at Sinaw, we feel that it cannot be in the interest of Sinaw’s residents to commodify their culture and their architecture. Instead tourism should be regarded as complementary to a functioning local economy based on trade and production.

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9.5 Conservation and Development of Ĥārat āl Barāshid

9.6 Conservation and Development of Hārat as-Sawāfah

Considering the complementary approach being proposed for the two main Ήārahs of the Sinaw oasis, it was decided that each settlement was to fulfil separate roles, rather than overlapping or duplicating functions in both.

As has already been discussed in Chapter 4, Дārat as-Сawāfah is morphologically and architecturally different from Дārat Āl Barāshid. The wider streets, generous public space provision and larger houses make it suitable for a more large-scale development than its neighbour. The complete redevelopment of Дārat Āl Barāshid is to be conducted along strict heritage management guidelines, retaining where possible the current urban fabric, and in some cases complementing it with additions or extensions which are commensurate to the current aspect of the Ήārah. The overall aim is to create a centre of contact at diverse levels between the local community and visitors from outside. For this the Ήārah is to be partially restored to its ancient character, rebuilding the tower houses and larger dwellings as part of the experiential aspect of touristic involvement. In addition to necessary preservation, conservation and consolidation measures to retain the existing fabric, the settlement is to have facilities dedicated to the production of and training in arts and crafts, short-stay accommodation, small businesses and residential accommodation for returning local families wishing to establish either their first or holiday homes. In short, Дārat as-Сawāfah is to regain everything it needs in order to become a functioning village with its own source of income.

The decision was therefore taken that Дārat as-Suwawfah was better suited for a more economic development aimed at attracting businesses and residents, while Дārat āl Barāshid be retained as close as possible to the state it was found.

Given the proximity and recent restoration of the Mosque of Дārat āl Barāshid, and interviews conducted with the local shaykh, which reflected the general interest in expanding space allocated to religious activities, it was decided to keep secular and touristic programmes away from this part of the settlement, and instead concentrate most religious and educational activities in this area.

Sinaw remains a centre of Islamic scholarship and education; Omani and foreign students continue to undertake residentially based training with reputed scholars (Κulama).

For the purposes of this Master Plan a number of alteration of the settlement are proposed: • The creation of more access opportunities to the settlement rather than just the main gate, making the Ήārah more easily transited and encouraging the usage of interior spaces. This would allow visitors gain insight into the intricate townscape of the Ήārah without in any way infringing on the religious and associated educational spaces being proposed.

• The restoration and preservation of the arcaded and covered passages is essential to retain the unique character of the Ήārah. This will be undertaken based on the documentation and analytical studies in this document.

• The exterior perimeter of the settlement and its aspects are to be retained in their current form, ensuring the preservation of the townscape and initiating the preservation of the towers and other defensive elements. It is also proposed that, in undertaking conservation, careful attention be given to the traditional ‘defensive prospects’, which provide excellent views across the landscape and to the adjoining settlement quarters.

• A larger open space is to be created fronting the restored mosque to allow better circulation and higher degree of privacy.

• A number of dwellings within Zone A could be used for accommodating religious education and training facilities.

The proposed community-related facilities - library and reading rooms, shops and storage areas, a medical facility, and so on, are designed to complement existing urban provisions.

By restoring core part of the settlement first, outside visitors and local tourists are likely to be attracted to the site - perhaps for a day trip, drawn in by the ongoing restoration activities. The ‘performance’ value of ongoing restoration, conservation and rebuilding, if managed carefully, could provide important advertising and marketing boost. This process should be carried out in tandem with the gradual provision of facilities and utilities within the settlement to enable smooth transition into a sophisticated heritage provision. Guest houses and gastronomical establishments should act as development catalysts for the local community, and motivate the establishment of shops and stores oriented towards both visitors and locals. Infrastructure - water, sewage, electricity and telecommunications - must be provided if any development is to occur at Дārat as-Сawāfah.

Once these components are in place, the private sector should be given the opportunity to engage and collaborate with the public sector in the gradual touristic development of the site.

Certain houses (outlined in the plan) should be restored and modernised, and be made available to young Omani families at competitive prices to bump up the population of the Ήārah, create a community and incentivise others to follow. Several strands of activity must therefore be carried forward simultaneously and in a complementary fashion in order to make Дārat as-Сawāfah a selfsustaining community.

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The overall works to be undertaken within the Ήārah are outlined in the following sections adhering to the zoning order of the settlement.

ZONE “A” This zone, located along the eastern edge of the settlement, immediately adjacent to the main road, is today partially inhabited and therefore must be addressed by great care in order to integrate the area’s present residents into the development scheme.

The proposed reuse of this area includes the development of a residential/short-stay quarter along the units designated as A2 and A3, with A4 becoming a restaurant, easily accessible from the road, and yet also providing direct access to the interior of the Ήārah.

The central tower of the Ήārah, designated as A10/A9, is to be restored and consolidated. Its landmark character makes it ideal as a potential viewing platform from the top of which the entire oasis can be seen.

ZONE “C” Zone “C” comprises one of the architecturally most interesting parts of the settlement, containing parts of an old gate and other elements which are worthy of preservation and restitution This zone is to be given a central role in the future life of the Ήārah by acting as the main point of access into it, and providing information centres and facilities to visitors. Unit C9, for example, could function as a visitor centre, retaining the arcaded form of the liwan type dwelling, looking out on the open space which can be easily transformed into an open square with shaded islands.

It is therefore proposed that the old gate, which appears to have been blocked in the early 20th century, be re-opened to ease access and increase convection through the newly created streets.

These may be covered by overhanging rooms, providing shaded passages and cooling air currents.

The large block composed of units C1, C2 and C3 is to be consolidated into a public usage building with community facilities, while the smaller unit currently comprised of C4 and C5 maybe turned into a restaurant or coffee house. C6, C7 and C9, though lying on the adjacent side of the newly created passage, could function well as crafts stores and a welcome centre. The upper floors are well suited to the establishment of an eatery such as a restaurant or coffee house, offering a good view of the surrounding territory.

ZONE “B” While the settlement is to remain pedestrianised throughout, it is considered prudent to provide the possibility for emergency vehicles to access the central square of Дārat as-Сawāfah.

Zone “B”, lying immediately to the south of zone “A”, provides the opportunity for a widened access towards the core of the Ήārah, by truncating the southern wall of dwelling A8. By also opening up the courtyard currently pertaining to unit B7 and making it accessible, a U-shaped oneway system can be created which should facilitate vehicle transit through the core of the settlement.

It is emphasized, however, that vehicular transport is to be reserved to emergency vehicles and specific needs exclusively. Visitors and residents will park their vehicles in specifically reserved areas outside of the Ήārah, therefore retaining the vernacular urban character of the village.

The block comprised by units B1-B4 will be consolidated into a single facility dedicated to community facilities and visitor attractions. These may include an exhibition space, educational facilities and a visitor information centre.

Flanking the newly built access route into the Ήārah will be a number of small shops dedicated to the production and sale of crafts and artisan produce, housed in what is now B8 and part of B7.

Equally B9 is to be transformed into a commercial arcade of shops, provided with a shading canopy and external facilities.

ZONE “D” The three buildings comprising zone “D” are among the most interesting in the Ήārah, in particular D1 is a grand dwelling with a large sunken garden belonging to it. We propose the establishment of a small library and documentation centre here, coupled with the re-planting of the sunken garden. The ruins of what is now D3 may be consolidated to serve as a storage facility for activities taking place in the large open space located at the foot of the Ήārah on its western side.

ZONE “E” This zone consists for the most part of the mosque, which must obviously be protected and perhaps reconsecrated in order to serve the community. The remainder of the zone is in a largely ruinous state which will have to be consolidated and perhaps restored to serve residential purposes, while the stretch of spaces along the alley with zone “H” is to be turned into small shops and businesses.

The covered passage which one enters from the west via the gate E9 is also to be restored and the upper floors to may be re-purposed for short-stay accommodation as the view of the surrounding

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oasis is a unique selling point of this location.

ZONE “F” This zone occupies a large section at the core of the Ήārah and should therefore be accorded important economic functions to act as a catalyst for further development within the Ήārah. It is therefore proposed to rely largely on shops, in particular for unit F1, which would lend itself ideally to a larger shop or store. Other parts of this zone are somewhat damaged and in need of reconstruction.

ZONE “G” Not unlike the previous zone, zone “G” also occupies a space adjacent to the main square at the core of Дārat as-Сawāfah. The condition of its constituent units, however, is significantly better.

Due it its size it may serve a dual function by housing one or more residential units and also a small shop on the ground floor.

ZONE “H” Stretching from the centre of the Ήārah to the western edge this zone contains a number of important units which would be easily adaptable to future economic uses. In particular, the units abutting the square offer a good opportunity for the creation of shops and small businesses that could cater to both the local community and outside visitors. The aim being to revive the square and transforming it into a focus of public life within the Ήārah.

The adjoining dwellings of the zone could quite easily be transformed into crafts centres for the production of goods to be sold at the shops. The involvement of visitors and school children could also serve educational purposes and aid in the preservation of the cultural heritage of the region and Oman as a whole, by imparting traditional knowledge to the younger generations. The large open space currently comprised by units H6 and H7 would be cleared to form a large courtyard with appropriate shading and water to create a thermically comfortable space.

ZONE “I” This zone is one of the largest in the settlement and accommodates some of the grandest buildings within it. Lying immediately north of the central square of the settlement, and forming

something of a core this zone should host a variety of functions which range from the commercial establishment of small shops and stores to the integration of the large tower house and its associated touristic functions. The covered passages that separate zone “I” from zone “A” are to be restored, and the upper floors redeveloped to accommodate short-stay hostelry opportunities and residential dwellings.

ZONE “J” This zone will be subject to substantial reconstruction and development. Comprising the northernmost part of the Ήārah it has been decided to demolish parts of what is now J4 in order to make way for a passage leading into the Ήārah from the north. This additional passage is expected to aid in the accessibility of the settlement while acting also as a development catalyst for the more outlying zones of the Ήārah. By providing better access the residential units in this zone will become more attractive.

ZONE “K” This is to be one of the main residential zones of the Ήārah, located closer to the already inhabited modern dwellings on the northern edge of the settlement. The large dwellings coded as K2 and K3 are ideally suited for restoration and development, requiring little change to the footprint of the structures. The ruins of K4 are to be partially demolished to make way for an access route via the northern gate, with the remainder of the structure easily converted into stores and shops for the neighbouring families. The expectation is that the owners of the shops, which maybe cater also for foreign visitors, can reside close-by, therefore providing an added motivating factor for the economic revival of the Ήārah.

ZONE “L” The northernmost zone of the Ήārah is also the one currently seeing the largest degree of habitation, with a number of dwellings having been rebuilt in concrete over the last 10 years or so.

Intervention in this area is therefore aimed at those already living there and hoping to complement their condition within the Ήārah. Their integration into the Management Plan is essential as it is people such as these who must be brought on board to guide the development process of the Ήārah as a whole.

A further opportunity will be provided on the northern edge of the settlement for current and

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future residents as well as tourists. This is to be kept in such a manner so as to disrupt the townscape as little as possible, relying on vegetation for shading and as a visual barrier. The old gate into the Ήārah is to be restored and access to the small mosque facilitated.

The space currently occupied by unit L7 is to be transformed into a small tourist information centre and shop with additional facilities, while L2 is to become a residential unit for Omanis.

ZONE “M” This is southernmost zone of the Ήārah and is therefore the one most closely located to Дārat Āl Barāshid, the new sablah as well as the main parking opportunity next to the main road. As such, this area is a primer candidate for large scale redevelopment and restoration effort, with a strong aim towards the local community.

The goal for this part of the Ήārah is to provide a series of services to the local community which will further encourage usage and settlement in the vernacular environments of the oasis. It is expected that, by addressing the traditional architecture in a modern and sustainable manner, the image of the traditional architecture will gradually change, being imbued with more positive connotations.

Currently the structures in Zone “M” are in extremely deteriorated condition and, therefore, available for a substantial reconstruction and redevelopment. The overall aim, however, is to retain, to a large extent, the original footprint of the buildings.

The plan suggests the consolidation of separate architectural units into more cohesive and unified blocks by extracting dividing walls and establishing passageways in between already existing units, to facilitate transit. The large open space between Zones “M”, “B” and “C” is to be treated as a large public square where people can meet and enjoy a meal or a drink, while visitors may regard this space as their main point of entry into the Ήārah. This space, therefore, is to be treated as the new face of the Ήārah.

To service the local community a health centre is proposed here, as well as a day school for children and an internet café for the working population who cannot afford domestic internet connections.

The space around the well (M2) is to be enclosed and shaded so as to provide a pleasant seating area planted with trees. Further greenery is to be planted along the rear wall of the sablah so as to obstruct this monstrosity from view.

THE CRAFTS AREA Located along the western flank of the settlement is a large open area framed on one side by the course of the falaj and on the other by the edge of the Ήārah. The intervening open space was traditionally associated with the manufacture and production of local goods, ranging from foodstuffs to basket weaving, woodwork and pottery. It is envisaged, therefore, that these ancient traditional aspects of the oasis life be revived and showcased in this area with the aim of preserving ancient skills and knowledge, but also selling the products as part of the touristic angle of this Master Plan, and imparting the associated know-how to the younger generations.

The old mosque located along the stretch of the falaj is also to be restored and brought back into use, and the vegetation and trees in the area are to be retained. Natural shading is to be encouraged as a cheap and sustainable method to regulate the microclimate of open spaces.

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Public vehicular access Emergency vehicular access Primary pedestrian / cycle routes Public squares / open spaces

Accessible zones; for people of limited mobility

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Pedestrianised Crossing Zone Bollards Bicycle Storage Unit Viewing Tower Through to Main Square New Unit Construction Strategic Planting Re-appropriation to shops Urban Agriculture Zone Fixed Seating Terraced levels Realignment of dividing wall Retention of ruin footprint in ground 7

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Eickelman, C. 1984. Women and Community in Oman. New York and London: New York University Press. ___. 1993. Fertility and Social Change in Oman: Women’s Perspectives. Middle East Journal 47(4): 652-666.

Eickelman, D.F. 1987. Ibadism and the Sectarian Perspective. In Pridham, B.R. (ed.), Oman: Economic, Social and Strategic Developments: 31-50. London: Croom Helm. ___. 1985. From Theocracy to Monarchy: Authority and Legitimacy in Inner Oman, 19351957. International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 17: 3-24. ___. 1983. Religious Knowledge in Inner Oman. Journal of Oman Studies 6(1): 163-172. d’Errico, E. 1983. Introduction to the Omani Military Architecture of the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Journal of Oman Studies 6(2): 291-306, plus plates.

Feilden, B. M., 2008. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford: Elsevier.

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Grandmaison, Le C., Spatial Organisation, Tribal Groupings and Kinship in IbrāΜ. Journal of Oman Studies 3(2): 95-106, plus plates.

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ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites), 1987. Charter for the Conservation of Historic Towns and Urban Areas (Washington Charter 1987). Washington, DC October 1987.

ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites), 1999. Charter on the Built Vernacular Heritage. Mexico, October 1999.

ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites), 2003. Principles for the Analysis, Conservation and Structural Restoration of Architectural Heritage. Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe.

International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites (The Venice Charter 1964). 2nd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, Venice 1964.

Jokilehto, J., 2006. Considerations on authenticity and integrity in world heritage context.

City & Time, 2 (1), 1-16.

Izkawi, Sirhán b. SaΚid b. Sirhán b. Muhammad al- (attributed; Ross, E.C. tr.). 1874. Annals of Oman, from the Early Times to the Year 1728 A.D. (Kashf al-Ghumma: al-JāmiΚ li akhbār alumma). Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 2(2): 111-196.

KanaΚan R. 2008. The carved-stucco miΉrābs of Oman: form, style and influences. In Salimi, A. al-, Gaube, H. & Korn L. (eds), Islamic Art in Oman: 230–259. Muscat: Ministry of Heritage and Culture & Ministry of Endowment and Religious Affairs.

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199

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a2

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE A8

Dwelling

Said b.Salim b.Sulaiman al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

Unit Typology and Ownership in Дārat Āl Barāshid

A9

Dwelling

Shamsah and Mouza the daughters of Hamad b.Hmoud al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

A10

Dwelling

inheritance of Hmaid b.Saif b.Hamad al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

B1

Dwelling

Kethiyah and Fatima, daughters of Hamad b.Saif al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

B2

Shop

Azizah b.Mohammed b.Hamad alBrashdi

Al Brashid

B3

Dwelling

Salim b.Sulaiman b.Salim al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

Al Brashid

B4

Dwelling

Nassir and Yahya the sons of Salim b.Hamad al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

TRIBE

ZONE B

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE inheritance of Zaher b.Khamis al-Brashdi

TRIBE b.Salim

A1

Dwelling

A2

Shop

Hamad b.Abdullah b.Khatroosh alBrashdi

Al Brashid

B5

Dwelling

Nassir and Yahya the sons of Salim b.Hamad al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

A3

Shop

inheritance of Sa’id b.Ali b.Sa’id alBrashdi

Al Brashid

B6

Dwelling

Salim b.Sa’id b.Salim al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

A4

Shop

‘Azizah b.Mohammed b.Hamad alBrashdi

Al Brashid

B7

Dwelling

Hmoud b.Sa’id b.Hamad al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

Al Brashid

B8

Dwelling

inheritance of Ali b.Hmmad b.Yonis al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

A5A-C

Dwelling

inheritance of Sa’id b.Matar al-Brashdi

b.Hamad

A6A

Dwelling

iSalmah b.Su’od b.Hmaid al-Hatmi

Hawathim

B9

Dwelling

inheritance of Ali b.Hmmad b.Yonis al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

A6B

Dwelling

Khalfan b.Ali b.Tuwair al-Hatmi

Hawathim

B10

Shop

Nassir, Yahya and Ya’qoub the sons of Salim b.Hamad al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

A6C

Dwelling

Nassir and Yahya the sons of Salim b.Hamad al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

B11

Dwelling

inheritance of Salim b.Sulaiman b.Salim al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

A7

Dwelling

Hamad b.Abdullah b.Khatroosh alBrashdi

Al Brashid

B12

Dwelling

Mubarak b.Sulaiman b.Salim al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

APPENDIX 2: UNIT TYOPOLOGY AND OWNERSHIP IN ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE B13

Shop

B14

TRIBE

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

TRIBE

Habib b.Nassir b.Hamdan al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

D3

Dwelling

Swaid b.Hmaid b.Ja’rouf al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

Dwelling

Saleem b.Hamaad Brashdi

Al Brashid

D4

Dwelling

Swaid b.Hmaid b.Ja’rouf al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

B15

Dwelling

Hamad b.Salim b.Ali al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

ZONE E

B16

Dwelling

inheritance of Sa’id b.Abdullah b.Salim al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

E1

Dwelling

inheritance of Hmoud b.Salim al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

E2

Dwelling

Hamad b.Salim b.Sa’id al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

b.Yonis

al-

ZONE C

b.’Aziz

Sablat Al Brashid

Al Brashid

E3

Dwelling

inheritance of Mohammed b.Khamis b.Sa’id b.Hamad al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

C2A

Dwelling

Hmaid b.Mohammed b.Salim alBrashdi

Al Brashid

E4

Dwelling

Khalfan and Ya’qoub the sons of Mohammed b.Sulaiman al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

C2B

Dwelling

Sa’id b.Ali b.Suhail al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

E5

Dwelling

Mubarak b.Mohammed b.Saif al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

C3

Dwelling

inheritance of Ali b.Hmoud b.’Aziz al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

E6

Dwelling

So’ud b.Ali b.Sa’id al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

C4

Dwelling

inheritance of Ali b.Hmoud b.’Aziz al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

E7

Dwelling

So’ud b.Ali b.Sa’id al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

C5

Dwelling

Mohammed b.Hamad b.Nassir alBrashdi

Al Brashid

E8

Dwelling

Mohammed b.Khamis al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

C6

Dwelling

Hamad b.Ali b.Sa’id al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

E9

Dwelling

Mohammed b.Khamis b.Hamad alBrashdi

Al Brashid

C7

Dwelling

Hmoud b.Abdullah b.Musabah alBrashdi

Al Brashid

E10

Dwelling

inheritance of Sa’id b.Ali b.Sa’id alBrashdi

Al Brashid

C1

Male Meeting Hall

ZONE D

b.Salim

ZONE F

D1

Dwelling

Salim and Mohammed the sons of Hamad b.Hmoud al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

F1

Shop

Mohammed b.Hamad b.Nassir alBrashdi

Al Brashid

D2

Dwelling

Hamad b.Abdullah b.Khatroosh alBrashdi

Al Brashid

F2

Shop

inheritance of Khalfan b.Hmaid b.Mohammed al-Shu’aili

Bani Shu’ail

200

201

SINAW - DOCUMENTATION AND HERITAGE MANAGEMENT PLAN

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

TRIBE

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

F3A

Dwelling

Ayshah b.Mohammed b.Hamad alFar’i

Furu’

F17

Dwelling

F3B

Dwelling

Hmaid b.Mohammed b.Hamad alShu’aili

Bani Shu’ail

F18

Tower

F4

Dwelling

inheritance of Khalfan and the sons of Salim b.Mohammed al-Shu’aili

Bani Shu’ail

ZONE G

F5

Dwelling

inheritance of Abdullah b.Salim b.Mohammed al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

G1

F6

Dwelling

Kathiyah b.Mohammed b.Sa’id alBrashdi

Al Brashid

G1A

F7

Dwelling

inheritance of Saif b.Mohammed b.Saif al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

G2

F8

Shop

inheritance of Abdullah b.Salim b.Mohammed al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

F9

Dwelling

Abdullah b.Salim b.Sa’id al-Brashdi

F10

Dwelling

inheritance of ‘Adoum b.Ms’oud al-Brashdi

b.Sa’id

F11

Dwelling

inheritance of ‘Adoum b.Ms’oud al-Brashdi

b.Sa’id

F12A

Dwelling

F12B

TRIBE

inheritance of ‘Adoum b.Ms’oud al-Brashdi

b.Sa’id

Al Brashid

burj al Brashid

Al Brashid

Hamad b.Hmaid b.Tuwair al-Hatmi

Hawathim

Dwelling

Saif b.Hamad b.Saif al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

G3

Dwelling

Saif b.Hamad b.Saif al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

Al Brashid

G4

Dwelling

Sa’idah b.Sulaiman b.Salim alHatmi

Hawathim

Al Brashid

G5

Dwelling

Sa’idah b.Sulaiman b.Salim alHatmi

Hawathim

Al Brashid

G6

Dwelling

Khalfan b.Salim Musalami

Musalamis

Khalfan b.Ali b.Tuwair al-Hatmi

Hawathim

G7

Dwelling

Salim b.Saleem al-Hidifi

Open Space

Hamad b.Hmaid b.Tuwair al-Hatmi

Hawathim

G8

Dwelling

Mohammed b. So’ud b.Hmaid alHatmi

Hawathim

F13

Dwelling

Sa’idah b.Sulaiman b.Salim alHatmi

Hawathim

G9

Dwelling

Zuwainah b.Mrir b.Saleem al-Hidifi

Huduf

F14

Dwelling

Saleem b.Hamaad Brashdi

b.Yonis

al-

Al Brashid

G10

Dwelling

Eissa b.Mohammed b.Hmaid al-Hatmi

b.So’ud

Huduf

F15

Dwelling

Saleem b.Hamaad Brashdi

b.Yonis

al-

Al Brashid

G11

Dwelling

Eissa b.Mohammed b.Hmaid al-Hatmi

b.So’ud

F16

Dwelling

inheritance of ‘Adoum b.Ms’oud al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

ZONE H

b.Sa’id

Dwelling Raha

b.Hamid

al-

Huduf

Hawathim

APPENDIX 2: UNIT TYOPOLOGY AND OWNERSHIP IN ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

TRIBE

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

TRIBE

H1

Dwelling

‘Azizah b.Sa’id b.Khalfan al-Hidifi

Huduf

I7

Dwelling

‘Amir b.Musa b.Mrir al-Musalami

H2

Dwelling

Musa b.Mohammed b. So’ud alHatmi

Hawathim

I8

Dwelling

Hmoud b.Sa’id Musalami

H3

Dwelling

Saleem b.Salim b.Saleem al-Hidifi

Huduf

ZONE J

H4

Dwelling

Salim b.Saleem al-Hidifi

Huduf

J1

Dwelling

inheritance of Hmoud b.Salim al-Brashdi

H5

Dwelling

’Amir b.Hamad b. ‘Amir al-Hidifi

Huduf

J2

Dwelling

Mohammed b.Hamad b.Nassir alBrashdi

Al Brashid

H6

Dwelling

Salim b.Hamid Musalami

Musalamis

J3

Well

Hawathim

J4

Dwelling

Khalfan b.Mohammed b.Sulaiman al-Brashdi and his brothers

Al Brashid

J5

Dwelling

Khalfan b.Mohammed b.Sulaiman al-Brashdi and his brothers

Al Brashid

J6

Dwelling

Khalfan b.Mohammed b.Sulaiman al-Brashdi and his brothers

Al Brashid

H7

Dwelling + Space

Open

b.Hmaid

al-

Salim b.Hmoud b.So’ud al-Hatmi

ZONE I

b.’Aziz

Al Brashid

Dwelling

Hmoud b.Sa’id Musalami

I2A-B

Dwelling

Mohammed b.Nassir b.Salim alHidifi

Huduf

J7A

Dwelling

Ya’qoub and Abdullah then sons of Salim b.Hamad al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

I3

Dwelling

Mohammed b.Nassir b.Salim alHidifi

Huduf

J7B

Dwelling

Ya’qoub and Abdullah then sons of Salim b.Hamad al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

I4A

Dwelling

Salim b.Hamid Musalami

Musalamis

J8

Dwelling

Sa’id and Ali then sons of Hamad b.Salim al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

I4B

Dwelling

Sa’id b.Salim b.Khalfan al-Hidifi

Huduf

J9

Dwelling

Salim b.Hamid Musalami

Musalamis

I4C

Animal Pen Dwelling

I6

Sablah

b.Hmaid

al-

al-

I1

I5

b.Musalam

b.Musalam

Musalamis

al-

Musalamis

b.Hmaid

al-

Salimaf and Ghayah the daughters of Musalam b.Hamad al-Musalami

Musalamis

ZONE K

Amir b.Musa b.Mrir al-Musalami

Musalamis

K1

Dwelling

Sa’id b.Salim b.Khalfan al-Hidifi

K2

Dwelling

Habib b.Nassir b.Hamdan al-Brashdi

Huduf Al Brashid

202

203

SINAW - DOCUMENTATION AND HERITAGE MANAGEMENT PLAN

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

TRIBE

K3A

Dwelling

inheritance of Abdullah b.Salim b.Mohammed al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

K3B

Dwelling

Sa’id b.Salim b.Saif al-Brashdi

Al Brashid

K4

Dwelling

inheritance of ’Amir b.Musalam al-Hidifi

b.Saleem

K5

Dwelling

inheritance of ’Amir b.Musalam al-Hidifi

b.Saleem

K6

Dwelling

Salim b.Hamid Musalami

K7

Dwelling

Salim b.Musalam Musalami

L1

Msoque

Jama Al Brashid

L2

Qur’an School

L3

Gate

b.Hmaid b.Hmaid

alal-

ZONE L

Al Brashid Quran school sabah al-Hilah or sabah Al Brashid

Huduf Huduf Musalamis Musalamis

APPENDIX 2: UNIT TYOPOLOGY AND OWNERSHIP IN ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

204

205

SINAW - DOCUMENTATION AND HERITAGE MANAGEMENT PLAN

a3

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

Unit Typology and Ownership in Дārat as-Сawāfah

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

TRIBE

A9

Dwelling

inheritance of Saif b.Mubarak Al-Sawafi

b.Nassir

A10

Dwelling

Abdullah b.Majid b.Saif Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

B1

Dwelling

inheritance of Humaid b.Mohammed Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

B2

Dwelling

inheritance of Humaid b.Mohammed Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

B3

Dwelling

inheritance of Humaid b.Mohammed Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

B4

Dwelling

inheritance of Humaid b.Nassir AlSawafi

Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

ZONE B

TRIBE

A1

Dwelling

Khalfan b.Saif b.Humaid Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

B5

Dwelling

inheritance of Humaid b.Nassir AlSawafi

Al-Sawafi

A2

Dwelling

inheritance of Nassir b.Nassir Al-Sawafi

b.Su’od

Al-Sawafi

B6

Dwelling

inheritance of Humaid b.Nassir AlSawafi

Al-Sawafi

A3

Dwelling

inheritance of Salim b.Ahmed Al-Sawafi

b.Sa’id

Al-Sawafi

B7

Dwelling

Mohammed & Hamad, sons of Saleem b.Mus’od Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

A4

Dwelling

inheritance of Saif b.Mubarak Al-Sawafi

b.Nassir

Al-Sawafi

B8

Dwelling

inheritance of Humaidah b.Humaid Al-Badi

Al-Badi

A5

Dwelling

inheritance of Saif b.Mubarak Al-Sawafi

b.Nassir

Al-Sawafi

B9

Dwelling

inheritance of Saif b.Sulaiman Al-Sawafi

A6

Dwelling

Ahmed b.Said b.Nassir Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

ZONE C

A7a

Dwelling

Ahmed b.Said b.Nassir Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

C1

Dwelling

Hilal & Sulaiman, sons of Salim b.Rashid Al-Sawafi

A7b

Dwelling

inheritance of Salih b.Rashid b.Rabi’ Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

C2

Dwelling + Gate

A8

Dwelling

inheritance of Saif b.Mubarak Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

C3

Dwelling

b.Nassir

Kusham Unknown

b.Rashid

Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

APPENDIX 3: UNIT TYPOLOGY AND OWNERSHIP IN ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

TRIBE

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

TRIBE

E4

Dwelling

Inheritance of Hamdoon b.Mohammed b.Marhoon Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

E5

Dwelling

Inheritance of Hamdoon b.Mohammed b.Marhoon Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

Unknown

E6

Dwelling

Inheritance of Humaid b.Mohammed b.Hamad Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

Dwelling

Unknown

E7

Shop

Inheritance of Hmoud b.Mussalam Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

C8

Dwelling

inheritance of Abdullah b.Rashid b.Sulaiman Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

E8

Dwelling

C9

Dwelling

inheritance of Abdullah b.Rashid b.Sulaiman Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

E9

Gate

C10

Dwelling

inheritance of Abdullah b.Rashid b.Sulaiman Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

ZONE F

C4

Dwelling

Waqf

C5

Dwelling

Abdullah b.Marhoon b.Hmoud AlSawafi

C6

Dwelling

C7

Al-Sawafi

ZONE D

b.Said

Inheritance of Humaid b.Hamad b.Humaid Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

Sabah Hujrat al-Swawfah

F1

Dwelling

Inheritance of Hmoud b.Marhoon b.Hmoud Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

F2

Dwelling

Inheritance of Humaid b.Hamad b.Humaid Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

Saif b.Rashid b.Sulaiman Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

D1

Dwelling

Inheritance of Salim b.Ahmed b.Said Al-Sawafi

D2

Mosque

Masjid Bait Al-Juffrah

F3

Shop

D3

Qur’an School

Madrasat Quran

F4

Dwelling

D4

Dwelling

‘Aqid Mussalam

F5

Shop

Waqf

F6

Shop

Unknown

F7

Shop

Abdullah b.Marhoon Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

Inheritance of Abdullah b.Majid AlSawafi

Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

ZONE E E1 E2 E3

Mosque

Masjid al-Mughrah

Male Communal Sablat Awlad Wahab Meeting Hall Dwelling

Inheritance of Hamdoon b.Mohammed b.Marhoon Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

ZONE G

Al-Sawafi

G1

Dwelling

Unknown

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ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE G2

Shop

G3

Dwelling

TRIBE

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

Ahmed b.Said b.Nassir Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

ZONE I

Inheritance of Salih b.Rashid b.Rabi’ Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

I1 +I2

ZONE H

I3

H1

Date Storage

H2

Humaid b.Hamad Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

Dwelling

Inheritance of Mohammed b.Bakheet b.Salim Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

H3

Dwelling

Humaid b.Mohammed b.Sulaiman Al-Badiri

Bawadir

H4

Dwelling

Humaid b.Mohammed b.Sulaiman Al-Badiri

Bawadir

H5

Dwelling

Humaid b.Mohammed b.Sulaiman Al-Badiri

Bawadir

H6

Dwelling

Khalfan b.Salim b.Hamad Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

H7

Dwelling

Humaid b.Mohammed b.Sulaiman Al-Badiri

Bawadir

H8

Dwelling

Inheritance of Salim b.Su’od AlBadiri

Bawadir

H9

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

H10

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

H11

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

H12

Dwelling

Humaid b.Hamad Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

H13

Mosque

Masjid Baroud

Unknown

Inheritance of Hamdoon b.Mohammed Al-Sawafi Sablat Al-Jawabir, a branch of Saif Male Communal b.Nassir b.Mubarak Al-Sawafi Meeting Hall family Dwelling + Shop

TRIBE

Al-Sawafi Al-Sawafi

I4

Dwelling

Humaid b.Mohammed Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

5

Dwelling

Humaid b.Mohammed Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

I6

Dwelling

Zayana b.Hmoud b.Sulaiman AlSawafi

Al-Sawafi

I7

Dwelling

Zayana b.Hmoud b.Sulaiman AlSawafi

Al-Sawafi

I8

Dwelling

‘Amir b.Alsab’ Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

I9

Shop

‘Amir b.Alsab’ Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

I10a

Dwelling

Inheritance of Humaid b.Hamad AlSawafi

Al-Sawafi

I10b

Dwelling

The sons of Alsab’ Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

I11

Dwelling

Inheritance of Salih b.Rashid b.Rabi’ Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

I12

Dwelling

Humaid b.Hamad Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

ZONE J J1

Male Communal Sablat Awlad Rasheed Meeting Hall

Al-Sawafi

APPENDIX 3: UNIT TYPOLOGY AND OWNERSHIP IN ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

TRIBE

ZONE/ TYPE OF OWNER CODE STRUCTURE

Inheritance of Salim b.Saleem AlSawafi

Al-Sawafi

L5

Dwelling

TRIBE

J2

Dwelling

J3

Well

Rashid b.Said b.Salim al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

L6

Gate

J4

Dwelling

Humaid b.Mohammed Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

L7

Dwelling

Inheritance of Hmoud b.Mussalam Al-Sawafi

b.Said

J5A

Dwelling

Humaid b.Mohammed Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

L8

Dwelling

Inheritance of Hmoud b.Mussalam Al-Sawafi

b.Said

J5B

Dwelling

Hamad b.Salim b.Hamad al-Badiri

Al-Sawafi

ZONE M M1

Dwelling

Inheritance of Saif b.Mohammed b.Khamis Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

ZONE K

Nassir b.Said b.Nassir Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

Main gate Al-Sawafi Al-Sawafi

K1

Dwelling

Sulaiman b.Mohammed b.Rashid Al-Sa’idi

Al-Sawafi

M2

Dwelling

Inheritance of Saif b.Mohammed b.Khamis Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

K2

Dwelling

‘Amir b.Alsab’ Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

M3

Dwelling

Inheritance of Saif b.Mohammed b.Khamis Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

K3

Dwelling

Nassir b.Salim b.Nassir Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

M4

Dwelling

Inheritance of Ya’qoob Al-Sawafi???

Al-Sawafi

K4

Dwelling

Unknown

Unknown

M5

Dwelling

Salim b.Jundub Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

K5

Dwelling

Unknown

Unknown

M6

Dwelling

Ahmed b.Said b.Mus’od Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

ZONE N

ZONE L L1

Dwelling

Saif b.Humaid b.’Umran Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

N1

Mosque

Masjid al-Souqmah

L2

Dwelling

Mohammed b.Abdullah b.Mohammed Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

N2

Garden

Al-Juffrah (inheritance of Humaid b.Hamad Al-Sawafi)

L3

Dwelling

Zahran b.Saif b.Humaid Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

N3

Communal Crafts Area Al-Karjah (Bawadir weaving)

L4

Dwelling

Maiyah b.Abdullah b.Rashid Al-Sawafi

Al-Sawafi

N4

Women’s Bathing Area Mujazat Ghayah

b.’Amir

Al-Sawafi

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a4 Selective Documentation of Дārat Āl Barāshid

A selective approach has been taken to illustrate some of the settlement’s distinguishing spaces, forms and characteristics. The buildings selected are a range from across the entire site, demonstrating the variety of the built environment throughout Дārat Āl Barāshid .

For a more detailed look at the settlements specific details and features refer to Chapter 5, Architectural Values and Threats to Site’s Significance.

A full photographic documentation of the site and all its corresponding units (organised via the zoning plan’s alphanumeric referencing system) can be found on the DVD included within this report.

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

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A1

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

193

194

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A7

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

195

196

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D1

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

197

198

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B6

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

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200

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E2

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

201

202

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E5

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

203

204

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E6

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

205

206

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C3

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

207

208

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B9

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

209

210

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F7

APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

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212

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Panoramic of Дārat al-Сawāfah’s North West corridor. Settlement meets the oasis

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Panoramic of Дārat āl Barāshid from the top of the Mosque’s Tower

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APPENDIX 4: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT ĀL BARĀSHID

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a5 Selective Documentation of Дārat as-Сawāfah

A selective approach has been taken to illustrate some of the settlement’s distinguishing spaces, forms and characteristics. The buildings selected are a range from across the entire site, demonstrating the variety of the built environment throughout Дārat as-Сawāfah.

For a more detailed look at the settlements specific details and features refer to Chapter 5, Architectural Values and Threats to Site’s Significance.

A full photographic documentation of the site and all its corresponding units (organised via the zoning plan’s alphanumeric referencing system) can be found on the DVD included within this report.

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

219

220

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A9

A10

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

221

222

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A2

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

223

224

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G3

G1 G2

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

225

226

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I3

I2 I1

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

227

228

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J4

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

229

230

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A7

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

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232

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A6

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

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234

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H6

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

235

236

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E9

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

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238

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M3

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

239

240

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APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

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Panoramic of Дārat al-Сawāfah’s North West corridor. Settlement meets the oasis

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

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Panoramic of Дārat al-Сawāfah’s east facing elevation

APPENDIX 5: SELECTIVE DOCUMENTATION OF ДĀRAT AS-СAWĀFAH

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247